The history of our planet still holds many mysteries. Scientists from various fields of natural science have contributed to the study of the development of life on Earth.
It is believed that the age of our planet is about 4.54 billion years. This entire time period is usually divided into two main stages: Phanerozoic and Precambrian. These stages are called eons or eonoteme. Eons, in turn, are divided into several periods, each of which is distinguished by a set of changes that have taken place in the geological, biological, atmospheric state of the planet.
- Precambrian, or Cryptozoic- this is an eon (time interval of the development of the Earth), covering about 3.8 billion years. That is, the Precambrian is the development of the planet from the moment of formation, the formation of the earth's crust, the proto-ocean and the emergence of life on Earth. By the end of the Precambrian, highly organized organisms with a developed skeleton were already widespread on the planet.
The eon includes two more eonotemes - katarche and archaea. The latter, in turn, includes 4 eras.
1. Katarchaeus- this is the time of the formation of the Earth, but there was still neither the core nor the earth's crust. The planet was still a cold cosmic body. Scientists suggest that during this period there was already water on Earth. The Catarchean lasted about 600 million years.
2. Archaea covers a period of 1.5 billion years. During this period, there was no oxygen on Earth yet, deposits of sulfur, iron, graphite, and nickel were being formed. The hydrosphere and the atmosphere were a single vapor-gas shell that enveloped the globe in a dense cloud. The sun's rays practically did not penetrate through this veil, so darkness reigned on the planet. 2.1 2.1. Eoarchean- this is the first geological era, which lasted about 400 million years. The most important event of the Eoarchean is the formation of the hydrosphere. But there was still little water, the reservoirs existed separately from each other and did not yet merge into the world ocean. At the same time, the earth's crust becomes solid, although asteroids are still bombarding the Earth. At the end of the Eoarchean, the first supercontinent in the history of the planet, Vaalbara, is formed.
2.2 Paleoarchaean- the next era, which also lasted approximately 400 million years. During this period, the core of the Earth is formed, the magnetic field strength increases. A day on the planet lasted only 15 hours. But the oxygen content in the atmosphere increases due to the activity of bacteria that have appeared. The remains of these first forms of the Paleoarchean era of life have been found in Western Australia.
2.3 Mesoarchean also lasted about 400 million years. In the Mesoarchean era, our planet was covered by a shallow ocean. Land areas were small volcanic islands. But already during this period, the formation of the lithosphere begins and the mechanism of plate tectonics starts. At the end of the Mesoarchean, the first ice age occurs, during which snow and ice form for the first time on Earth. Biological species are still represented by bacteria and microbial life forms.
2.4 Neoarchean- the final era of the Archean eon, the duration of which is about 300 million years. Colonies of bacteria at this time form the first stromatolites (limestone deposits) on Earth. The most important event of the Neoarchean is the formation of oxygen photosynthesis.
II. Proterozoic- one of the longest time periods in the history of the Earth, which is usually divided into three eras. During the Proterozoic, the ozone layer first appears, the world ocean reaches almost its present volume. And after the longest Huron glaciation, the first multicellular life forms appeared on Earth - mushrooms and sponges. The Proterozoic is usually divided into three eras, each of which contained several periods.
3.1 Paleo-Proterozoic- the first era of the Proterozoic, which began 2.5 billion years ago. At this time, the lithosphere is fully formed. But the former forms of life, due to the increase in oxygen content, practically died out. This period is called the oxygen catastrophe. By the end of the era, the first eukaryotes appear on Earth.
3.2 Mesoproterozoic lasted approximately 600 million years. The most important events of this era: the formation of continental masses, the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia and the evolution of sexual reproduction.
3.3 Neo-proterozoic. During this era, Rodinia breaks up into about 8 parts, the super-ocean of Mirovia ceases to exist, and at the end of the era, the Earth is covered with ice almost to the equator. In the Neoproterozoic era, living organisms for the first time begin to acquire a hard shell, which will later serve as the basis of the skeleton.
III. Paleozoic- the first era of the Phanerozoic eon, which began approximately 541 million years ago and lasted about 289 million years. This is the era of the emergence of ancient life. The supercontinent Gondwana unites the southern continents, a little later the rest of the land joins it and Pangea appears. Climatic zones begin to form, and flora and fauna are represented mainly by marine species. Only towards the end of the Paleozoic does the development of land begin, and the first vertebrates appear.
The Paleozoic era is conditionally divided into 6 periods.
1. Cambrian period lasted 56 million years. During this period, the main rocks are formed, the mineral skeleton appears in living organisms. And the most important event of the Cambrian is the appearance of the first arthropods.
2. Ordovician period- the second period of the Paleozoic, which lasted 42 million years. This is the era of the formation of sedimentary rocks, phosphorites and oil shale. The organic world of the Ordovician is represented by marine invertebrates and blue-green algae.
3. Silurian period covers the next 24 million years. At this time, almost 60% of living organisms that existed before die out. But the first cartilaginous and bone fish in the history of the planet appear. On land, the Silurian is marked by the appearance of vascular plants. Supercontinents converge and form Laurasia. By the end of the period, ice melting was noted, the sea level rose, and the climate became milder.
4 Devonian is characterized by the rapid development of various forms of life and the development of new ecological niches. Devon covers a time interval of 60 million years. The first terrestrial vertebrates, spiders, and insects appear. Land animals develop lungs. Although fish still dominate. The kingdom of flora of this period is represented by ferns, horsetails, club mosses and gosperms.
5. Carboniferous period often referred to as carbon. At this time, Laurasia collides with Gondwana and the new supercontinent Pangea appears. A new ocean is also formed - Tethys. This is the time when the first amphibians and reptiles appeared.
6. Permian period- the last period of the Paleozoic, which ended 252 million years ago. It is believed that at this time a large asteroid fell to Earth, which led to significant climate change and the extinction of almost 90% of all living organisms. Most of the land is covered with sand, the most extensive deserts appear that have only existed in the entire history of the Earth's development.
IV. Mesozoic- the second era of the Phanerozoic eon, which lasted almost 186 million years. At this time, the continents acquire almost modern outlines. A warm climate contributes to the rapid development of life on Earth. Giant ferns disappear, and angiosperms appear to replace them. The Mesozoic is the era of dinosaurs and the appearance of the first mammals.
The Mesozoic era is divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
1. Triassic period lasted a little over 50 million years. At this time, Pangea begins to split, and the inland seas gradually become smaller and dry up. The climate is mild, the zones are not pronounced. Nearly half of land plants are disappearing as deserts spread. And in the realm of fauna, the first warm-blooded and terrestrial reptiles appear, which became the ancestors of dinosaurs and birds.
2 Jurassic covers a gap of 56 million years. A humid and warm climate reigned on Earth. The land is covered with thickets of ferns, pines, palms, cypresses. Dinosaurs reign on the planet, and numerous mammals have so far been distinguished by their small stature and thick hair.
3 Cretaceous- the longest period of the Mesozoic, lasting almost 79 million years. The split of the continents is practically coming to an end, the Atlantic Ocean is significantly increasing in volume, and ice sheets are forming at the poles. An increase in the water mass of the oceans leads to the formation of a greenhouse effect. At the end of the Cretaceous, a catastrophe occurs, the causes of which are still not clear. As a result, all dinosaurs and most species of reptiles and gymnosperms became extinct.
V. Cenozoic- this is the era of animals and Homo sapiens, which began 66 million years ago. The continents at this time acquired their modern shape, Antarctica occupied the south pole of the Earth, and the oceans continued to grow. Plants and animals that survived the catastrophe of the Cretaceous period found themselves in a completely new world. Unique communities of lifeforms began to form on each continent.
The Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.
1. Paleogene period ended approximately 23 million years ago. At that time, a tropical climate reigned on Earth, Europe was hiding under evergreen tropical forests, and deciduous trees grew only in the north of the continents. It was during the Paleogene period that the rapid development of mammals takes place.
2. Neogene period covers the next 20 million years of the planet's development. Whales and bats appear. And, although saber-toothed tigers and mastodons still roam the earth, the fauna is increasingly acquiring modern features.
3. Quaternary period began more than 2.5 million years ago and continues to this day. Two major events characterize this time period: the Ice Age and the advent of man. The Ice Age completely completed the formation of the climate, flora and fauna of the continents. And the appearance of man marked the beginning of civilization.
Man has long sought to know the world that surrounds him, and above all the Earth - our home. How did the Earth originate? This question has troubled mankind for thousands of years.
Numerous legends and myths of various peoples about the origin of our planet have come down to us. They are united by the assertion that the Earth was created by the intelligent activity of mythical heroes or gods.
The first hypotheses, i.e., scientific assumptions, about the origin of the Earth began to appear only in the 18th century, when science had accumulated a sufficient amount of information about our planet and the solar system. Let's take a look at some of these hypotheses.
The French scientist Georges Buffon (1707-1788) suggested that the globe was the result of a catastrophe. At a very distant time, some celestial body (Buffon believed that it was a comet) collided with the Sun. During the collision, a lot of "splash" arose. The largest of them, gradually cooling down, gave rise to planets.
The German scientist Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) explained the possibility of the formation of celestial bodies in a different way. He suggested that the solar system originated from a giant cold dust cloud. The particles of this cloud were in constant chaotic motion, mutually attracted each other, collided, stuck together, forming clusters that began to grow and eventually gave rise to the Sun and planets.
Pierre Laplace (1749-1827), French astronomer and mathematician, proposed his hypothesis explaining the formation and development of the solar system. In his opinion, the Sun and the planets arose from a rotating hot gas cloud. Gradually cooling down, it contracted, forming numerous rings, which, condensing, created planets, and the central clot turned into the Sun.
The emergence of the solar system according to Kant's hypothesis
The origin of the solar system according to Laplace's hypothesis
At the beginning of our century, the English scientist James Jeans (1877-1946) put forward a hypothesis that explained the formation of a planetary system in this way: once another star flew near the Sun, which, by its gravity, tore out part of the substance from it. Having condensed, it gave rise to the planets.
The emergence of planets according to Schmidt's hypothesis
Modern ideas about the origin of the solar system
Our compatriot, the famous scientist Otto Yulievich Schmidt (1891-1956) in 1944 proposed his hypothesis of the formation of planets. He believed that billions of years ago the Sun was surrounded by a giant cloud, which consisted of particles of cold dust and frozen gas. They all revolve around the sun. Being in constant motion, colliding, mutually attracting each other, they seemed to stick together, forming clots. Gradually, the gas-dust cloud flattened, and the clots began to move in circular orbits. Over time, the planets of our solar system were formed from these clots.
It is easy to see that the hypotheses of Kant, Laplace, Schmidt are close in many respects. Many of the thoughts of these scientists formed the basis of the modern idea of the origin of the Earth and the entire solar system.
Today, scientists suggest that the Sun and the planets arose simultaneously from interstellar matter - particles of dust and gas. This cold substance gradually condensed, compressed, and then broke up into several unequal clots. One of them, the largest, gave rise to the Sun. Its substance, continuing to shrink, warmed up. A rotating gas-dust cloud formed around it, which had the shape of a disk. From dense clots of this cloud, planets arose, including our Earth.
As you can see, the ideas of scientists about the origin of the Earth, other planets and the entire solar system have changed and developed. And even now there is a lot of obscure, controversial. Scientists have a lot of questions to solve before we know for sure how the Earth came into being.
Scientists who explained the origin of the Earth
Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon is a great French naturalist. In his main work, Natural History, he expressed thoughts about the development of the globe and its surface, about the unity of all living things. In 1776 he was elected an honorary foreign member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
Immanuel Kant - the great German philosopher, professor at the University of Königsberg. In 1747-1755. developed a hypothesis about the origin of the solar system, which he outlined in the book General Natural History and Theory of the Sky.
Pierre Simon Laplace was born into a poor farmer's family. Talent and perseverance allowed him to independently study mathematics, mechanics and astronomy. He achieved the greatest success in astronomy. He studied in detail the movement of celestial bodies (Moon, Jupiter, Saturn) and gave him a scientific explanation. His hypothesis about the origin of the planets existed in science for almost a century.
Academician Otto Yulievich Schmidt was born in Mogilev. Graduated from Kyiv University. For many years he worked at Moscow University. O. Yu. Schmidt was a prominent mathematician, geographer, and astronomer. He participated in the organization of the drifting scientific station "North Pole-1". An island in the Arctic Ocean, a plain in Antarctica, a cape in Chukotka are named after him.
Test your knowledge
- What is the essence of J. Buffon's hypothesis about the origin of the Earth?
- How did I. Kant explain the formation of celestial bodies?
- How did P. Laplace explain the origin of the solar system?
- What is the hypothesis of D. Jeans about the origin of the planets?
- How does O. Yu. Schmidt's hypothesis explain the process of planetary formation?
- What are the modern ideas about the origin of the Sun and planets?
Think!
- How did ancient people explain the origin of our planet?
- What are the similarities and differences between the hypotheses of J. Buffon and D. Jeans? Do they explain how the sun came into existence? Do you think these hypotheses are plausible?
- Compare the hypotheses of I. Kant, P. Laplace and O. Yu. Schmidt. What are their similarities and differences?
- Why do you think only in the XVIII century. the first scientific assumptions about the origin of the Earth appeared?
The first scientific assumptions about the origin of the Earth appeared only in the XVIII century. The hypotheses of I. Kant, P. Laplace, O. Yu. Schmidt and many other scientists formed the basis of modern ideas about the origin of the Earth and the entire solar system. Modern scientists assume that the Sun and the planets arose simultaneously from interstellar matter - dust and gas. This substance contracted, then broke up into several clots, one of which gave rise to the Sun. A rotating gas-dust cloud arose around it, from the clots of which planets were formed, including our Earth.
1. Introduction …………………………………………………2 p.
2. Hypotheses of the formation of the Earth…………………………3 – 6 pp.
3. The internal structure of the Earth …………………………7 – 9 pages
4. Conclusion……………………………………………… 10 p.
5. References …………………………………..11 p.
Introduction.
At all times, people have wanted to know where and how the world we live in originated. There are many legends and myths that came from ancient times. But with the advent of science in its modern sense, mythological and religious ideas are being replaced by scientific ideas about the origin of the world.
At present, a situation has arisen in science that the development of a cosmogonic theory and the restoration of the early history of the solar system can be carried out mainly inductively, based on a comparison and generalization of recently obtained empirical data on the material of meteorites, planets and the Moon. Since a lot has become known about the structure of atoms and the behavior of their compounds under various thermodynamic conditions, and absolutely reliable and accurate data have been obtained about the composition of cosmic bodies, the solution to the problem of the origin of our planet is placed on a solid chemical basis, which the previous cosmogonic constructions were deprived of. It should be expected in the near future that the solution of the problems of the cosmogony of the solar system in general and the problem of the origin of our Earth in particular will achieve great success at the atomic-molecular level, just as at the same level the genetic problems of modern biology are being brilliantly solved before our very eyes.
In the current state of science, a physicochemical approach to solving the problems of the cosmogony of the solar system is absolutely inevitable. Therefore, the long-known mechanical features of the solar system, to which the classical cosmogonic hypotheses paid the main attention, must be interpreted in close connection with the physicochemical processes in the early history of the solar system. Recent achievements in the field of chemical study of individual bodies of this system allow us to take a completely new approach to the restoration of the history of the Earth's substance and, on this basis, restore the framework of the conditions in which our planet was born - the formation of its chemical composition and the formation of the shell structure.
Thus, the purpose of this work is to tell about the most famous hypotheses of the formation of the Earth, as well as about its internal structure.
Hypotheses of the formation of the Earth.
At all times, people have wanted to know where and how the world we live in originated. There are many legends and myths that came from ancient times. But with the advent of science in its modern sense, mythological and religious ideas are being replaced by scientific ideas about the origin of the world. The first scientific hypotheses regarding the origin of the Earth and the solar system, based on astronomical observations, were put forward only in the 18th century.
All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups:
1. Nebular (Latin "nebula" - fog, gas) - the basis is the principle of the formation of planets from gas, from dust nebulae;
2. Catastrophic - based on the principle of the formation of planets due to various catastrophic phenomena (collision of celestial bodies, close passage of stars from each other, etc.).
Nebular hypotheses of Kant and Laplace. The first scientific hypothesis about the origin of the solar system was that of Immanuel Kant (1755). Kant believed that the solar system arose from some primary matter, previously freely dispersed in space. Particles of this matter moved in different directions and, colliding with each other, lost speed. The heaviest and densest of them, under the influence of gravity, connected with each other, forming a central bunch - the Sun, which, in turn, attracted more distant, smaller and lighter particles. Thus, a certain number of rotating bodies arose, the trajectories of which mutually intersected. Some of these bodies, initially moving in opposite directions, were eventually drawn into a single stream and formed rings of gaseous matter located approximately in the same plane and rotating around the Sun in the same direction without interfering with each other. In separate rings, denser nuclei were formed, to which lighter particles were gradually attracted, forming spherical accumulations of matter; this is how the planets were formed, which continued to circle around the Sun in the same plane as the original rings of gaseous matter.
Independently of Kant, another scientist - the French mathematician and astronomer P. Laplace - came to the same conclusions, but developed the hypothesis more deeply (1797). Laplace believed that the Sun originally existed in the form of a huge incandescent gaseous nebula (nebula) with an insignificant density, but colossal dimensions. This nebula, according to Laplace, originally rotated slowly in space. Under the influence of gravitational forces, the nebula gradually contracted, and the speed of its rotation increased. The resulting increasing centrifugal force gave the nebula a flattened and then a lenticular shape. In the equatorial plane of the nebula, the ratio between attraction and centrifugal force changed in favor of the latter, so that eventually the mass of matter accumulated in the equatorial zone of the nebula separated from the rest of the body and formed a ring. From the nebula that continued to rotate, new rings were successively separated, which, condensing at certain points, gradually turned into planets and other bodies of the solar system. In total, ten rings separated from the original nebula, disintegrating into nine planets and a belt of asteroids - small celestial bodies. Satellites of individual planets were formed from the substance of secondary rings, torn off from the hot gaseous mass of the planets.
Due to the continued compaction of matter, the temperature of the newly formed bodies was exceptionally high. At that time, our Earth, according to P. Laplace, was a hot gaseous ball that glowed like a star. Gradually, however, this ball cooled down, its matter passed into a liquid state, and then, as it cooled further, a solid crust began to form on its surface. This crust was enveloped in heavy atmospheric vapors, from which water condensed as it cooled. Both theories are essentially similar to each other and are often considered as one, mutually complementing each other, therefore in the literature they are often referred to under the general name of the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. Since science did not have more acceptable explanations at that time, this theory had many followers in the 19th century.
Jeans catastrophic theory. After the Kant-Laplace hypothesis in cosmogony, several more hypotheses for the formation of the solar system were created. So-called catastrophic hypotheses appear, which are based on an element of random coincidence. As an example of the catastrophic direction hypothesis, consider the concept of the English astronomer Jeans (1919). His hypothesis is based on the possibility of another star passing near the Sun. Under the influence of its attraction, a jet of gas escaped from the Sun, which, with further evolution, turned into the planets of the solar system. Jeans believed that the passage of a star past the Sun made it possible to explain the discrepancy in the distribution of mass and angular momentum in the solar system. But in 1943 The Russian astronomer N. I. Pariysky calculated that only in the case of a strictly defined star speed could a gas clot become a satellite of the Sun. In this case, its orbit should be 7 times smaller than the orbit of the planet closest to the Sun - Mercury.
Thus, the Jeans hypothesis could not give a correct explanation for the disproportionate distribution of angular momentum in the solar system. The biggest drawback of this hypothesis is the fact of randomness, which contradicts the materialistic worldview and the available facts that speak of the location of planets in other stellar worlds. In addition, calculations have shown that the approach of stars in world space is practically impossible, and even if this happened, a passing star could not give the planets motion in circular orbits.
The Big Bang Theory. The theory, which is followed by most modern scientists, states that the Universe was formed as a result of the so-called Big Bang. An incredibly hot fireball, the temperature of which reached billions of degrees, at some point exploded and scattered flows of energy and particles of matter in all directions, giving them tremendous acceleration. Since the fireball shattered into pieces as a result of the Big Bang had an enormous temperature, the tiny particles of matter had too much energy at first and could not combine with each other to form atoms. However, after about a million years, the temperature of the Universe dropped to 4000 "C, and various atoms began to form from elementary particles. First, the lightest chemical elements - helium and hydrogen, formed, their accumulation formed. Gradually, the Universe cooled more and more and heavier elements were formed. During for many billions of years there has been an increase in masses in accumulations of helium and hydrogen.The growth of mass goes on until a certain limit is reached, after which the force of mutual attraction of particles inside the gas and dust cloud is very strong and then the cloud begins to compress (collapse).During the collapse, high pressure develops inside the cloud, conditions favorable for the reaction of thermonuclear fusion - the fusion of light hydrogen nuclei with the formation of heavy elements. A star is born in place of the collapsing cloud. As a result of the birth of a star, more than 99% of the mass of the initial cloud is in the body of the star, and the rest form scattered clouds of solid particles from which planets are subsequently formed star system.
Modern theories. In recent years, a number of new hypotheses have been put forward by American and Soviet scientists. If earlier it was believed that a continuous process of heat transfer took place in the evolution of the Earth, then in new theories the development of the Earth is considered as the result of many heterogeneous, sometimes opposite processes. Simultaneously with the decrease in temperature and the loss of energy, other factors could also act, causing the release of large amounts of energy and thus compensating for the loss of heat. One of these modern assumptions is the "dust cloud theory" by the American astronomer F. L. Wiple (1948). However, in essence, this is nothing more than a modified version of the nebular theory of Kant-Laplace. Also popular are the hypotheses of Russian scientists O.Yu. Schmidt and V.G. Fesenkov. Both scientists, when developing their hypotheses, proceeded from the ideas about the unity of matter in the Universe, about the continuous movement and evolution of matter, which are its main properties, about the diversity of the world, due to various forms of the existence of matter.
Curiously, at a new level, armed with better technology and deeper knowledge of the chemical composition of the solar system, astronomers have returned to the idea that the Sun and planets arose from a vast, non-cold nebula, consisting of gas and dust. Powerful telescopes have detected numerous gas and dust "clouds" in interstellar space, some of which are actually condensing into new stars. In this regard, the original Kant-Laplace theory was revised using the latest data; it can still serve well in explaining the process by which the solar system came into being.
Each of these cosmogonic theories has contributed to the clarification of a complex set of problems associated with the origin of the Earth. All of them consider the emergence of the Earth and the solar system as a natural result of the development of stars and the universe as a whole. The Earth appeared simultaneously with other planets, which, like it, revolve around the Sun and are the most important elements of the solar system.
The internal structure of the Earth.
The materials that make up the solid shell of the Earth are opaque and dense. Direct studies of them are possible only to depths that make up an insignificant part of the Earth's radius. The deepest wells drilled and currently available projects are limited to depths of 10-15 km, which corresponds to a little over 0.1% of the radius. It is possible that it will not be possible to penetrate to a depth of more than several tens of kilometers. Therefore, information about the deep bowels of the Earth is obtained using only indirect methods. These include seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, thermal, nuclear and other methods. The most reliable of them is seismic. It is based on the observation of seismic waves that occur in the solid Earth during earthquakes. Just as X-rays make it possible to study the state of human internal organs, seismic waves, passing through the bowels of the earth, make it possible to get an idea of the internal structure of the Earth and the change in the physical properties of the substance of the earth's bowels with depth.
As a result of seismic studies, it was determined that the inner region of the Earth is heterogeneous in its composition and physical properties, and forms a layered structure.
Of the entire mass of the Earth, the crust is less than 1%, the mantle is about 65%, and the core is 34%. Near the surface of the Earth, the increase in temperature with depth is approximately 20° for every kilometer. The density of the rocks of the earth's crust is about 3000 kg/m 3 . At a depth of about 100 km, the temperature is about 1800 K.
The shape of the Earth (geoid) is close to an oblate ellipsoid - a spherical shape with thickenings at the equator - and differs from it by up to 100 meters. The average diameter of the planet is approximately 12,742 km. The Earth, like other terrestrial planets, has a layered internal structure. It consists of solid silicate shells (crust, extremely viscous mantle), and a metallic core.
The earth is made up of several layers:
1. Earth's crust;
2. Mantle;
1. The top layer of the Earth is called the earth's crust and is divided into several layers. The uppermost layers of the earth's crust consist predominantly of layers of sedimentary rocks formed by the deposition of various fine particles, mainly in the seas and oceans. The remains of animals and plants that inhabited the globe in the past are buried in these layers. The total thickness of sedimentary rocks does not exceed 15–20 km.
The difference in the speed of propagation of seismic waves on the continents and at the bottom of the ocean made it possible to conclude that there are two main types of the earth's crust on Earth: continental and oceanic. The thickness of the continental type crust is on average 30–40 km, and under many mountains it reaches 80 km in places. The continental part of the earth's crust breaks up into a number of layers, the number and thickness of which vary from region to region. Usually, two main layers are distinguished below sedimentary rocks: the upper one is “granite”, close in physical properties and composition to granite, and the lower one, consisting of heavier rocks, is “basalt”. The thickness of each of these layers is on average 15–20 km. However, in many places it is not possible to establish a sharp boundary between the granite and basalt layers. The oceanic crust is much thinner (5 - 8 km). In composition and properties, it is close to the substance of the lower part of the basalt layer of the continents. But this type of crust is characteristic only of deep sections of the ocean floor, at least 4 km. At the bottom of the oceans there are areas where the crust has a structure of a continental or intermediate type. The surface of Mohorovicic (named after the Yugoslav scientist who discovered it), at the boundary of which the speed of seismic waves changes sharply, separates the earth's crust from the mantle.
2. Mantle extends to a depth of 2900 km. It is divided into 3 layers: upper, intermediate and lower. In the upper layer, the seismic wave velocities immediately beyond the Mohorovichich boundary increase, then at a depth of 100–120 km under the continents and 50–60 km under the oceans, this increase is replaced by a slight decrease in velocities, and then at a depth of 250 km under the continents and 400 km under the oceans, the decrease is again replaced by an increase . Thus, in this layer there is a region of low velocities - the asthenosphere, characterized by a relatively low viscosity of the substance. Some scientists believe that in the asthenosphere the matter is in a "porridge-like" state, i.e. consists of a mixture of solid and partially molten rocks. The asthenosphere contains the foci of volcanoes. They are probably formed where, for some reason, the pressure decreases and, consequently, the melting point of the asthenosphere matter. A decrease in the melting temperature leads to the melting of the substance and the formation of magma, which can then pour out to the surface of the earth through cracks and channels in the earth's crust.
The intermediate layer is characterized by a strong increase in the velocities of seismic waves and an increase in the electrical conductivity of the Earth's substance. Most scientists believe that the composition of the substance changes in the intermediate layer or the minerals that make it up pass into a different state, with a denser "packing" of atoms. The lower layer of the shell is homogeneous compared to the upper layer. The substance in these two layers is in a solid, apparently crystalline state.
3. Under the mantle is earth's core with a radius of 3471 km. It is subdivided into a liquid outer core (a layer between 2900 and 5100 km) and a solid nucleolus. During the transition from the mantle to the core, the physical properties of matter change dramatically, apparently as a result of high pressure.
The temperature inside the Earth rises with depth to 2000 - 3000 ° C, while it increases most rapidly in the earth's crust, then it slows down, and at great depths the temperature remains probably constant. The density of the Earth increases from 2.6 g/cm³ at the surface to 6.8 g/cm³ at the boundary of the Earth's core, and in the central regions is about 16 g/cm³. pressure increases with depth and reaches 1.3 million atm at the boundary between the mantle and the core, and 3.5 million atm at the center of the core.
Conclusion.
Despite the numerous efforts of researchers from different countries and the vast empirical material, we are only at the first stage of understanding the history and origin of the solar system in general and our Earth in particular. However, it is now becoming more and more obvious that the origin of the Earth was the result of complex phenomena in the original substance that encompassed nuclear, and subsequently chemical processes. In connection with the direct study of the material of the planets and meteorites, the foundations for constructing a natural theory of the origin of the Earth are being strengthened more and more in our country. At present, it seems to us that the following provisions are the foundation of the theory of the origin of the Earth.
1. The origin of the solar system is connected with the origin of chemical elements: the substance of the Earth, together with the substance of the Sun and other planets, was in the conditions of nuclear fusion in the distant past.
2. The last step in nuclear fusion was the formation of heavy chemical elements, including uranium and transuranium elements. This is evidenced by traces of extinct radioactive isotopes found in the ancient material of the Moon and meteorites.
3. Naturally, the Earth and the planets arose from the same substance as the Sun. The source material for the construction of planets was originally represented by separated ionized atoms. It was basically stellar gas, from which, when cooled, molecules, liquid drops, solid bodies - particles arose.
4. The Earth arose mainly due to the refractory fraction of solar matter, which affected the composition of the core and silicate mantle.
5. The main prerequisites for the appearance of life on Earth were created at the end of the cooling of the primary gaseous nebula. At the last stage of cooling, as a result of the catalytic reactions of the elements, numerous organic compounds were formed, which made it possible for the appearance of a genetic code and self-developing molecular systems. The emergence of the Earth and life was a single interconnected process-result of the chemical evolution of the matter of the solar system.
Bibliography.
1. N.V. Koronovsky, A.F. Yakushova, Fundamentals of Geology,
BBK 26.3 K 68 UDC 55
2. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
3. Voitkevich G.V. Fundamentals of the theory of the origin of the Earth. M., Nedra, 1979, 135p.
4. Bondarev V.P. Geology, BBC 26.3 B 81 UDC 55
5. Ringwood A.E. Composition and origin of the Earth. M., "Nauka", 1981, 112s
The question of how the Earth arose has occupied the minds of people for more than one millennium. The answer to it has always depended on the level of knowledge of people. Initially, there were naive legends about the creation of the world by some divine power. Then the Earth in the works of scientists acquired the shape of a ball, which was the center of the universe. Then, in the 16th century, the doctrine of N. appeared, which placed the Earth in a series of planets revolving around the Sun. This was the first step in a truly scientific solution to the question of the origin of the Earth. Currently, there are several hypotheses, each of which in its own way describes the periods of the formation of the Universe and the position of the Earth in.
Kant-Laplace hypothesis
This was the first serious attempt to create a picture of the origin of the solar system from a scientific point of view. It is associated with the names of the French mathematician Pierre Laplace and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, who worked at the end of the 18th century. They believed that the progenitor of the solar system is a hot gas-dust nebula, slowly rotating around a dense core in the center. Under the influence of forces of mutual attraction, the nebula began to flatten and turn into a huge disk. Its density was not uniform, so the disc was stratified into separate gas rings. Subsequently, each ring began to thicken and turn into a single gas clot rotating around its axis. Subsequently, the clots cooled down and turned into planets, and the rings around them into satellites.
The main part of the nebula remained in the center, still has not cooled down and has become the Sun. Already in the 19th century, the insufficiency of this hypothesis was discovered, since it could not always explain new data in science, but its value is still great.
The Soviet geophysicist O.Yu. Schmidt had a slightly different idea of the development of the solar system, working in the first half of the 20th century. According to his hypothesis, the Sun, traveling through the Galaxy, passed through a gas and dust cloud and dragged part of it along with it. Subsequently, the solid particles of the cloud were subjected to sticking together and turned into planets, initially cold. The heating of these planets occurred later as a result of compression, as well as the influx of solar energy. The heating of the Earth was accompanied by massive outpourings of lavas to the surface as a result of activity. Thanks to this outpouring, the first covers of the Earth were formed.
They stood out from the lavas. They formed the primary, which did not yet contain oxygen. More than half of the volume of the primary atmosphere was water vapor, and its temperature exceeded 100°C. With further gradual cooling of the atmosphere occurred, which led to rainfall and the formation of a primary ocean. This happened about 4.5-5 billion years ago. Later, the formation of land began, which is thickened, relatively light parts that rise above ocean level.
J. Buffon's hypothesis
Not everyone agreed with the evolutionary scenario of the origin of planets around the Sun. Back in the 18th century, the French naturalist Georges Buffon made an assumption supported and developed by the American physicists Chamberlain and Multon. The essence of these assumptions is as follows: once another star swept in the vicinity of the Sun. Its attraction caused a huge one on the Sun, stretching out in space for hundreds of millions of kilometers. Having broken away, this wave began to twist around the Sun and break up into clots, each of which formed its own planet.
Hypothesis of F. Hoyle (XX century)
The English astrophysicist Fred Hoyle proposed his own hypothesis. According to her, the Sun had a twin star that exploded. Most of the fragments were carried away into outer space, the smaller part remained in the orbit of the Sun and formed planets.
All hypotheses interpret the origin of the solar system and family ties between the Earth and the Sun in different ways, but they are unanimous in that all the planets originated from a single clot of matter, and then the fate of each of them was decided in its own way. The Earth had to go through a journey of 5 billion years, to experience a number of fantastic transformations, before we saw it in its modern form. However, it should be noted that there is still no hypothesis that does not have serious flaws and answers all questions about the origin of the Earth and other planets of the solar system. But it can be considered established that the Sun and the planets were formed simultaneously (or almost simultaneously) from a single material environment, from a single gas-dust cloud.
1. Introduction …………………………………………………2 p.
2. Hypotheses of the formation of the Earth………………………...3 - 6 pp.
3. The internal structure of the Earth…………………………7 - 9 pp.
4. Conclusion……………………………………………… 10 p.
5. References …………………………………..11 p.
Introduction.
At all times, people have wanted to know where and how the world we live in originated. There are many legends and myths that came from ancient times. But with the advent of science in its modern sense, mythological and religious ideas are being replaced by scientific ideas about the origin of the world.
At present, a situation has arisen in science that the development of a cosmogonic theory and the restoration of the early history of the solar system can be carried out mainly inductively, based on a comparison and generalization of recently obtained empirical data on the material of meteorites, planets and the Moon. Since a lot has become known about the structure of atoms and the behavior of their compounds under various thermodynamic conditions, and absolutely reliable and accurate data have been obtained about the composition of cosmic bodies, the solution to the problem of the origin of our planet is placed on a solid chemical basis, which the previous cosmogonic constructions were deprived of. It should be expected in the near future that the solution of the problems of the cosmogony of the solar system in general and the problem of the origin of our Earth in particular will achieve great success at the atomic-molecular level, just as at the same level the genetic problems of modern biology are being brilliantly solved before our very eyes.
In the current state of science, a physicochemical approach to solving the problems of the cosmogony of the solar system is absolutely inevitable. Therefore, the long-known mechanical features of the solar system, to which the classical cosmogonic hypotheses paid the main attention, must be interpreted in close connection with the physicochemical processes in the early history of the solar system. Recent achievements in the field of chemical study of individual bodies of this system allow us to take a completely new approach to the restoration of the history of the Earth's substance and, on this basis, restore the framework of the conditions in which our planet was born - the formation of its chemical composition and the formation of the shell structure.
Thus, the purpose of this work is to tell about the most famous hypotheses of the formation of the Earth, as well as about its internal structure.
Hypotheses of the formation of the Earth.
At all times, people have wanted to know where and how the world we live in originated. There are many legends and myths that came from ancient times. But with the advent of science in its modern sense, mythological and religious ideas are being replaced by scientific ideas about the origin of the world. The first scientific hypotheses regarding the origin of the Earth and the solar system, based on astronomical observations, were put forward only in the 18th century.
All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups:
1. Nebular (Latin "nebula" - fog, gas) - the basis is the principle of the formation of planets from gas, from dust nebulae;
2. Catastrophic - based on the principle of the formation of planets due to various catastrophic phenomena (collision of celestial bodies, close passage of stars from each other, etc.).
Nebular hypotheses of Kant and Laplace. The first scientific hypothesis about the origin of the solar system was that of Immanuel Kant (1755). Kant believed that the solar system arose from some primary matter, previously freely dispersed in space. Particles of this matter moved in different directions and, colliding with each other, lost speed. The heaviest and densest of them, under the influence of gravity, connected with each other, forming a central bunch - the Sun, which, in turn, attracted more distant, smaller and lighter particles. Thus, a certain number of rotating bodies arose, the trajectories of which mutually intersected. Some of these bodies, initially moving in opposite directions, were eventually drawn into a single stream and formed rings of gaseous matter located approximately in the same plane and rotating around the Sun in the same direction without interfering with each other. In separate rings, denser nuclei were formed, to which lighter particles were gradually attracted, forming spherical accumulations of matter; this is how the planets were formed, which continued to circle around the Sun in the same plane as the original rings of gaseous matter.
Independently of Kant, another scientist - the French mathematician and astronomer P. Laplace - came to the same conclusions, but developed the hypothesis more deeply (1797). Laplace believed that the Sun originally existed in the form of a huge incandescent gaseous nebula (nebula) with an insignificant density, but colossal dimensions. This nebula, according to Laplace, originally rotated slowly in space. Under the influence of gravitational forces, the nebula gradually contracted, and the speed of its rotation increased. The resulting increasing centrifugal force gave the nebula a flattened and then a lenticular shape. In the equatorial plane of the nebula, the ratio between attraction and centrifugal force changed in favor of the latter, so that eventually the mass of matter accumulated in the equatorial zone of the nebula separated from the rest of the body and formed a ring. From the nebula that continued to rotate, new rings were successively separated, which, condensing at certain points, gradually turned into planets and other bodies of the solar system. In total, ten rings separated from the original nebula, disintegrating into nine planets and a belt of asteroids - small celestial bodies. Satellites of individual planets were formed from the substance of secondary rings, torn off from the hot gaseous mass of the planets.
Due to the continued compaction of matter, the temperature of the newly formed bodies was exceptionally high. At that time, our Earth, according to P. Laplace, was a hot gaseous ball that glowed like a star. Gradually, however, this ball cooled down, its matter passed into a liquid state, and then, as it cooled further, a solid crust began to form on its surface. This crust was enveloped in heavy atmospheric vapors, from which water condensed as it cooled. Both theories are essentially similar to each other and are often considered as one, mutually complementing each other, therefore in the literature they are often referred to under the general name of the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. Since science did not have more acceptable explanations at that time, this theory had many followers in the 19th century.
Jeans catastrophic theory. After the Kant-Laplace hypothesis in cosmogony, several more hypotheses for the formation of the solar system were created. So-called catastrophic hypotheses appear, which are based on an element of random coincidence. As an example of the catastrophic direction hypothesis, consider the concept of the English astronomer Jeans (1919). His hypothesis is based on the possibility of another star passing near the Sun. Under the influence of its attraction, a jet of gas escaped from the Sun, which, with further evolution, turned into the planets of the solar system. Jeans believed that the passage of a star past the Sun made it possible to explain the discrepancy in the distribution of mass and angular momentum in the solar system. But in 1943 The Russian astronomer N. I. Pariysky calculated that only in the case of a strictly defined star speed could a gas clot become a satellite of the Sun. In this case, its orbit should be 7 times smaller than the orbit of the planet closest to the Sun - Mercury.
Thus, the Jeans hypothesis could not give a correct explanation for the disproportionate distribution of angular momentum in the solar system. The biggest drawback of this hypothesis is the fact of randomness, which contradicts the materialistic worldview and the available facts that speak of the location of planets in other stellar worlds. In addition, calculations have shown that the approach of stars in world space is practically impossible, and even if this happened, a passing star could not give the planets motion in circular orbits.
The Big Bang Theory. The theory, which is followed by most modern scientists, states that the Universe was formed as a result of the so-called Big Bang. An incredibly hot fireball, the temperature of which reached billions of degrees, at some point exploded and scattered flows of energy and particles of matter in all directions, giving them tremendous acceleration. Since the fireball shattered into pieces as a result of the Big Bang had an enormous temperature, the tiny particles of matter had too much energy at first and could not combine with each other to form atoms. However, after about a million years, the temperature of the Universe dropped to 4000 "C, and various atoms began to form from elementary particles. First, the lightest chemical elements - helium and hydrogen, formed, their accumulation formed. Gradually, the Universe cooled more and more and heavier elements were formed. During for many billions of years there has been an increase in masses in accumulations of helium and hydrogen.The growth of mass goes on until a certain limit is reached, after which the force of mutual attraction of particles inside the gas and dust cloud is very strong and then the cloud begins to compress (collapse).During the collapse, high pressure develops inside the cloud, conditions favorable for the reaction of thermonuclear fusion - the fusion of light hydrogen nuclei with the formation of heavy elements. A star is born in place of the collapsing cloud. As a result of the birth of a star, more than 99% of the mass of the initial cloud is in the body of the star, and the rest form scattered clouds of solid particles from which planets are subsequently formed star system.
Modern theories. In recent years, a number of new hypotheses have been put forward by American and Soviet scientists. If earlier it was believed that a continuous process of heat transfer took place in the evolution of the Earth, then in new theories the development of the Earth is considered as the result of many heterogeneous, sometimes opposite processes. Simultaneously with the decrease in temperature and the loss of energy, other factors could also act, causing the release of large amounts of energy and thus compensating for the loss of heat. One of these modern assumptions is the "dust cloud theory" by the American astronomer F. L. Wiple (1948). However, in essence, this is nothing more than a modified version of the nebular theory of Kant-Laplace. Also popular are the hypotheses of Russian scientists O.Yu. Schmidt and V.G. Fesenkov. Both scientists, when developing their hypotheses, proceeded from the ideas about the unity of matter in the Universe, about the continuous movement and evolution of matter, which are its main properties, about the diversity of the world, due to various forms of the existence of matter.
Curiously, at a new level, armed with better technology and deeper knowledge of the chemical composition of the solar system, astronomers have returned to the idea that the Sun and planets arose from a vast, non-cold nebula, consisting of gas and dust. Powerful telescopes have detected numerous gas and dust "clouds" in interstellar space, some of which are actually condensing into new stars. In this regard, the original Kant-Laplace theory was revised using the latest data; it can still serve well in explaining the process by which the solar system came into being.
Each of these cosmogonic theories has contributed to the clarification of a complex set of problems associated with the origin of the Earth. All of them consider the emergence of the Earth and the solar system as a natural result of the development of stars and the universe as a whole. The Earth appeared simultaneously with other planets, which, like it, revolve around the Sun and are the most important elements of the solar system.
