Causes formation of a unified Russian state:

The need to unite the forces of Rus' for liberation from the Horde yoke was so obvious that by the beginning of the XIV century the question of the need for political unification was no longer raised.

The need to put an end to ruinous strife.

The cities reviving after the Mongol ruin needed protection from the arbitrariness of the feudal lords.

Gradual emergence and strengthening of economic ties between regions. Thus, the unification of Rus' took place mainly not as a result of the expansion of domestic economic ties, as in Europe, but for purely military and political reasons.

In Rus', the process of creating a unified state had a number of features:

1. The overcoming of feudal fragmentation was forced, under the influence of external factors (the need to fight the Mongol-Tatars, the Polish-Lithuanian onslaught, other dangerous neighbors), often had to rely on military force and military methods of government. Hence the despotic traits in the power of the first Moscow sovereigns.

2. The unification of the Russian lands took place without sufficient economic and social prerequisites - they only emerged as trends (the national market had not yet formed; the cities were weak;

there was complete domination and further progress of the feudal mode of production; the nationality has not yet consolidated into a nation, etc.). The lack of a unifying, fastening force, which the "third estate" played in the countries of the West, was taken over by the grand ducal power (and later - the Russian state).

3. The process of enslaving the peasants begins.

Stages :

I. The end of the XIII - the first half of the XIV centuries. Strengthening of the Moscow principality and the beginning of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.

II. The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. Successful development of the process of unification of Russian lands, the emergence of elements of a single state.

III. Feudal war in the second quarter of the 15th century.

IV. Second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries The formation of a single state, the beginning of the process of centralization.

It was no accident that the unification process began in North-Eastern Rus'. Here, even before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, the position of the princely power was the strongest, it was possible to break the resistance of the boyar opposition. It was here that a wave of uprisings against the Mongol-Tatars arose early (for example, in 1262 - in Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Ustyug).

The unification process in Rus' went in parallel with the liberation from the Tatar yoke. Moscow's historical role was to lead both processes - unification and liberation.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow:

The Tatar-Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke led to the fact that the center of Russian economic and political life moved to the northeast of the former Kyiv state. Here, in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, large political centers arose, among which Moscow took the leading place, leading the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands.

The Moscow principality, compared with other Russian lands, occupied a more advantageous geographical position. It was located at the intersection of river and land routes, which could be used both for trade and for military purposes. In the most dangerous directions from which aggression could arise, Moscow was covered by other Russian lands, which also attracted residents here, allowing the Moscow princes to gather and accumulate forces.

The active policy of the Moscow princes also played a significant role in the fate of the Moscow principality. Being junior princes, the owners of Moscow could not hope to occupy the grand duke's table by seniority. Their position depended on their own actions, on the position and strength of their principality. They become the most "exemplary" princes, and turn their principality into the most powerful.

The Russian centralized state took shape in XIV-XVI centuries

1. Economic background: to the beginning of the XIV century. in Rus', after the Tatar-Mongol invasion, economic life gradually revived and developed, which was the economic basis for the struggle for unification and independence. Cities were also restored, residents returned to their native places, cultivated the land, were engaged in crafts, and trade relations were established. Novgorod contributed a lot to this.

2. Social background: by the end of the XIV century. the economic situation in Rus' has already completely stabilized. Against this background, later feudal features are developing, and the dependence of the peasants on large landowners is growing more and more. At the same time, the resistance of the peasants also increases, which reveals the need for a strong centralized government.

3. Political background, which in turn are subdivided into internal and external ones:

domestic: in the XIV-XVI centuries. significantly increases and expands the power of the Moscow principality. His princes are building a state apparatus to strengthen their power;

foreign policy: the main foreign policy task of Rus' was the need to overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which hampered the development of the Russian state. The restoration of the independence of Rus' required a general unification against a single enemy: the Mongols - from the south, Lithuania and the Swedes - from the west.

One of the political prerequisites for the formation of a unified Russian state was Union of the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Western Church, signed by the Byzantine-Constantinople Patriarch. Russia became the only Orthodox state uniting all the principalities of Rus' at the same time.

The unification of Rus' took place around Moscow.

The reasons for the rise of Moscow are:

good geographical and economic position;

Moscow was independent in foreign policy, it did not gravitate towards either Lithuania or the Horde, therefore it became the center of the national liberation struggle;

support for Moscow from the largest Russian cities (Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.);

Moscow is the center of Orthodoxy in Rus';

the absence of internal enmity among the princes of the Moscow house.

Merging Features:

the unification of the Russian lands took place not in the conditions of late feudalism, as in Europe, but in the conditions of its heyday;

the basis for unification in Rus' was the union of Moscow princes, and in Europe - the urban bourgeoisie;

Rus' united initially for political reasons, and then for economic ones, while the European states - first of all for economic ones.

The unification of Russian lands took place under the leadership of the prince of Moscow. He was the first to become the king of all Rus'. IN 1478 after the unification of Novgorod and Moscow, Rus' finally freed itself from the yoke. In 1485, Tver, Ryazan, etc., joined the Muscovite state.

Now the specific princes were controlled by proteges from Moscow. The Moscow prince becomes the supreme judge, he considers especially important cases.

The Moscow principality creates a new class for the first time nobles(service people), they were soldiers of the Grand Duke, who were awarded land on the terms of service.

MOSCOW PRINCIPALITY (XIII-XV centuries) AND THE FORMATION OF THE GREAT RUSSIAN STATE

In the second half of the XIV century. in northeastern Rus', the tendency to unite the lands intensified. The Moscow principality became the center of the association.

As early as the 12th century, an ideology of grand-princely power began to take shape in Rus', which could overcome the disintegration and fragmentation of Rus'. The prince must have Duma members near him and rely on their Council. He needs a large and strong army. Only this can ensure the autocracy of the prince and protect the country from external and internal enemies.

From the 13th century Moscow princes and the Church begin to carry out a wide colonization of the territories beyond the Volga, new monasteries, fortresses and cities appear, the local population is subjugated and assimilated.

Moscow princes Yuri and Ivan Daniilovich waged a fierce struggle with competitors - the princes of Tver, who claimed a leading role among the Russian principalities. In 1325, the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita received the title of Grand Duke of all Rus' and the khan's label for a great reign. The metropolitan moves from Vladimir to Moscow and Moscow becomes not only an important political, but also an ecclesiastical center.

In general, the entire Russian land during this period was divided into two large regions, each of which included many specific principalities: its southwestern part was under the rule of Lithuania and Poland, and the northeastern part still paid tribute to the Golden Horde.

When the principality of Moscow emerged as part of the great Vladimir principality (XII century), it, like other principalities, was considered the patrimony of the princes who ruled it. Gradually, this order is changing: the Moscow principality began to be considered not the possession of one senior prince, but a family, dynastic possession, in which each prince had his share. Thus, the Moscow principality acquired a special status among other Russian lands of the northeast.

Under Ivan Kalita, the Vladimir region becomes the common property of the dynasty, the same status then passes to Moscow (which in the 14th century was a specific principality).

There were no political and legal prerequisites in the 14th century that could ensure the political unity of the Russian lands (inter-princely treaties on an alliance often remained only good wishes). Only the actual real strength and flexible policy of any of the political centers could solve the problem of unity. Moscow became such a center.

The ways of annexing Russian lands to Moscow were varied. The appanage princes were subordinate to the Grand Duke by agreement, remaining masters in their appanages and, as vassals, pledging to serve Moscow.

There were numerous cases of the purchase of appanages by the Grand Duke, while the appanage prince became the user of his former estate and performed various official functions in favor of Moscow.

There was also a procedure reminiscent of the Western European medieval “homage”: the owner of the patrimony, the specific prince, refused it in favor of the Grand Duke and immediately received it back in the form of an award.

By the end of the XV century. Moscow manages to cope with its strongest competitors.

The territorial expansion of the Muscovite state was accompanied by the realization of the fact that on the territory of Rus' a new nationality, united in spirit and blood, was emerging - the Great Russian nationality. This realization facilitated the task of collecting lands and the transformation of the Moscow principality into a national Great Russian state.

Speaking of centralization, two processes should be kept in mind: the unification of Russian lands around a new center - Moscow and the creation of a centralized state apparatus, a new power structure in the Muscovite state.

The Grand Dukes were at the head of a whole hierarchy, consisting of artisanal princes and boyars. Relations with them were determined by a complex system of contracts and letters of commendation, which established various degrees of feudal dependence for different subjects.

With the entry of the specific principalities into the Muscovite state, the specific princes were forced to either enter the service of the Moscow Grand Duke, or leave for Lithuania. The old principle of free boyar service has now lost its meaning - in Rus' there was now only one Grand Duke, there was now no one to go to the service.

The meaning of the very concept of "boyar" has changed. Instead of a serviceman, a recent combatant, they now understand him as a member of the boyar council (duma), who has the right to occupy the highest positions in the state apparatus and the army. The boyars became a rank, a title, the bearers of which made up the new ruling aristocratic stratum of the Muscovite state.

Localism. According to the new hierarchical ladder, the Moscow boyars were no longer placed “by agreement”, but in accordance with their official dignity.

The position in the Moscow service of the former possessory (great, appanage, etc.) princes was determined by the meaning of the “tables” on which they sat, i.e. the status of their principality, capital city, and so on.

The boyars and service people were placed on the service ladder depending on the position occupied by the courts in which they served.

The old specific order with its institutions and relations continued to exist under the auspices of the new state order established by Moscow.

Under the auspices of Moscow, an aristocratic class of rulers was formed, each of which linked their rights with the ancient tradition, when Russia was ruled by a whole dynasty of Rurikovich, each Moscow boyar estimated his noble origin as the most weighty argument in local disputes about positions, ranks and privileges.

In addition to the nobility of origin, belonging to the boyar estate required the possession of the rank of a boyar, it could only be granted to a specific person by the Grand Duke of Moscow himself.

The boyars were the top layer of the emerging ruling elite of the Muscovite state.

Feeding. Local government was based on a system of feeding: the manager "fed" at the expense of the governed, the position of the manager was considered primarily as his source of income. Feeding included fodder and duties, fodder was brought in by local by the population within the established time limits, duties were paid for the commission by officials of certain legally significant actions. Feeds (entry, Christmas, festive, etc.) were determined by charter letters issued by the prince to the territorial district, and by letters of commendation issued by the feeders themselves. Feeds were deployed according to taxable units (“ploughs”), each of which included a certain number of tax yards, the size of arable land, etc. Part of the feed went to the treasury, to the prince or boyars introduced (officials of the central administration). Feeding was a form of remuneration for service, due to the existence of a system of subsistence farming (as well as local distributions), it was a way of providing, maintaining a service person by the state. The service itself was not directly related to feeding. Over time, this method of material support for service people begins to give way to other forms of organizing local government. First of all, Code of Laws and statutory letters of the XV century. the rights of feeders began to be more strictly regulated: the governor or volost received a mandate or income list, which determined the amount of feed and duties. Feeders were forbidden to collect fodder from the population themselves, this was entrusted to elected officials - sotskys and elders. In the XVI century. feeding periods become more definite and shorter, they are reduced to one or two years. Gradually, the feeders themselves begin to acquire the features of local

rulers, their state functions are outlined more and more clearly. More and more strict control was established over their activities. Local governors (governors and volostels), considering court cases and making decisions on them, were obliged to transfer the most important of them to higher authorities for a new consideration (“according to the report”). Cases were transferred to the central state institutions - orders or the Boyar Duma. From the end of the XV century. most of the land disputes are also transferred locally to the center. Representatives of local societies began to oversee the judicial activities of the feeders. Sotsky, elders and elected payers carried out already in the 15th century. the layout of state taxes and duties, as well as feed for feeders. From the second half of the XV century. electives from the population begin to introduce governors and volostels into the court (the Sudebnik of 1497 speaks about this) as assessors, witnesses of the correctness of the consideration of the case. When considering a case in the highest instance (order, Duma), these elected judicial representatives were obliged to testify to the correctness of the actions of the governor or volost in legal proceedings. In the XVI century. these representatives are transformed into a permanent judicial collegium. According to the Sudebnik of 1550, Zemstvo elders with jurors (tsolovalniks) were to be present in the court of the governor and volost, who oversaw the correct conduct of the court, compliance with the law and legal customs (especially local ones). Thus, the judicial rights of local representatives (“the best people”) are significantly expanded

Chosen council. In his activities, Ivan IV relied on the Boyar Duma in 1549, which included the establishment of the "Chosen Duma" ("Chosen Rada") from authorized persons. The preparation of materials for the Duma was carried out by a staff of professional officials associated with orders.

In the XVI century. the Duma began to include okolnichi and duma nobles, as well as duma clerks who conducted office work. The Boyar Duma decided the most important state affairs and had legislative powers. The Duma approved the final editions of the Code of Laws of 1497 and 1550. According to the formula “the tsar pointed out and the boyars were sentenced,” the Boyar Duma approved decrees of 1597 on bonded servitude and fugitive peasants. Together with the tsar, the Duma approved various legislative acts:

statutes, lessons, decrees. The Duma led the system of orders, exercised control over local government, and resolved land disputes. In addition to participating in the work of the State Council (Boyar Duma), Duma people controlled the central departments (orders), commanded regiments and armies, and led the regions as governors and governors. The Duma itself conducted embassy, ​​discharge and local affairs, for which the Duma Chancellery was created. The Duma's legal proceedings also passed through this structure. Legislative initiative came most often from the sovereign or from below from orders that faced specific problems.

Lip organs. Even before the beginning of the XVI century. There was an institution of "wild vira", according to which the feeder could receive criminal payments from entire communities (mutual responsibility). At the same time, there were no special institutions on the ground that would wage an organized struggle against the "dashing people." Special investigators and punitive expeditions sent from Moscow from time to time could not solve the problems. Therefore, it was decided to transfer police functions to combat robbers to local communities. Urban and rural societies in the late 40s. 16th century Lip letters began to be issued, granting the right to persecute and punish "dashing people." The fight against the robbers was organized and carried out by elected jurors (from the feeders' court), sots and elders, who were led by city clerks. In a number of places, this task was carried out by boards specially elected from local residents. The district within which all these elected officials acted was called the lip, its borders at first coincided with the borders of the volost. The lip organs were headed by elected heads from the children of the boyars (nobles) of the given volost. Representatives of the lipoan organizations held their congresses, at which the most important matters were decided. At these congresses, all uyezd labial elders (heads) were elected, who headed the labial organizations of all volosts and camps that were part of the uyezd. There was a gradual centralization of provincial administration on state, church and owner's lands. The labial elders in their activities relied on numerous staffs of labial kissers (elected in volost, stanovoye, rural, township districts), sotsky, fifty, tenth - police ranks of small districts. In the competence of the labial organs in the middle of the XVI century. (Sudebnik 1550) included robbery and tatba, and in the 17th century. - already murders, arson, insulting parents, etc. The process was either of a search character, when the case was initiated without a statement from the victim (when a thief was caught red-handed, a general search, a slander, etc.), or an adversarial character (a private lawsuit, testimonies , "field", recognition of responsibility.

Land authorities. Another local reform of the middle of the 16th century took the path of further restriction and elimination of feeding altogether. - zemstvo. Its goal was to replace governors and volostels with elected public authorities. One of the reasons for the elimination of feeding was their harmful effect on the organization of the military and defense service of the country. In 1550, the tsar ordered the feeders to resolve all disputes with representatives of the local population in a world order. Since 1551, in a number of regions, the local population was offered to pay quitrent to the treasury instead of fodder, and to resolve litigation on their own, through the mediation of elders and kissers. In 1552, an official decision was made to eliminate feeding. Zemstvo was to become an all-Russian institution. Local societies, on their own initiative, one after another, began to establish zemstvos, refusing feeders. In 1555, the government passed a law proclaiming the zemstvo as a general and obligatory form of local self-government. The voluntary refusal of the local worlds from the feeders was accompanied by the payment of a ransom - an amount previously paid in the form of feed and duties, and now in the form of quitrent, which went directly to the treasury. The competence of the zemstvo authorities included the trial of court (civil) cases and those criminal cases that were considered in the adversarial process (beatings, robbery, etc.). Sometimes more serious cases (arson, murder, robbery, etc.) were considered by zemstvo elders and kissers together with the labial elders. Their clients were Black Hundred peasants and townspeople. The zemstvo elected officials collected the rent, as well as other salary taxes. Zemstvo institutions of the XVI century. were not local governments, they were units of local government. The activities of these bodies were guaranteed and bound by mutual responsibility. In areas where the peasant population was not free, instead of zemstvo huts, management was carried out by city clerks and labial elders, who performed administrative, police and financial functions. Some of the financial functions were taken over by other local governments - customs and tavern elected heads and tselovalniks, who were in charge of collecting indirect taxes.

Military. In the 17th century local government was reorganized: zemstvo, labial huts and city clerks began to obey the governors appointed from the center, who assumed administrative, police and military functions. The governors relied on a specially created apparatus (prikazba) of clerks, bailiffs and clerks. Applicants for the position of governor turned to the tsar with a petition in which they asked to be appointed to the position of “feed”. The voivode was appointed by the Discharge Order, approved by the tsar and the Boyar Duma. The service life of the governor was calculated in one to three years, for the service he received a fiefdom and a local cash salary. The voivode headed the prikazhny, or moving out, hut, in which matters were decided on the management of the city or county entrusted to him. Office work in the hut was conducted by a clerk, its staff consisted of bailiffs, allotment workers, etc. The control over the activities of the voivode was carried out by the order, which was in charge of this territory. The order prepared an order to the governor, which determined the terms of reference of the latter. The governors exercised control over the work of elected officials (starosts, kissers, heads), who collected direct and indirect taxes from the population, police supervision of the population, supervision of the court of labial and zemstvo elders, recruited service people (nobles and boyar children). The military reform was associated with the idea of ​​compulsory noble service. The servants were paid in the form of local allotments. The nobility was

backbone of the armed forces. They included "combat serfs", who were brought to the service by the same nobles, militias from peasants and townspeople, Cossacks, archers and other professional military employees for hire. From the beginning of the 17th century regular units of the "new system" appear: reiters, gunners, dragoons. Foreigners join the Russian army

Financial. An important place was occupied by financial reform: already in the 30s. 16th century the entire monetary system was concentrated in the hands of the state. The state tax policy followed the path of unification of the financial system (the introduction of a “per-per-per-centage” system of taxation, i.e. the establishment of uniform criteria for taxing land, the number of livestock, etc.). At the end of the XVI century. an inventory of land was made and the number of salary units (“sokh”) was determined. Direct (“farmed farming”, “pyatina” from movable property, pit, food money) and indirect (customs, salt, tavern) taxes and fees were introduced. A single trade duty was established - 5% of the price of the goods.

The need for systematization and codification of numerous legal acts that had accumulated by the end of the 15th century resulted in the work of compiling the first all-Russian legal codes - the Sudebnik of 1497 (grand princely) and the Sudebnik of 1550 (royal). In our opinion, it is more expedient to consider both of these sources in comparison, since one of them only develops the principles and ideas of the other, supplements and corrects it, but at the same time makes it its basis. Already in the structure of the first Code of Laws, a certain systematization of the material is noted, however, the norms of substantive (civil and criminal) law have not yet been distinguished from the mass of articles related to procedural law, and there were a majority of them in the Code of Laws. The content of the Sudebnik of 1497 is divided into four parts: the first was made up of articles that regulated the activities of the central court (Art. 1-36). The same section also includes the norms of criminal law (Art. 9-14). The second part consisted of articles related to the organization and activities of local, regional courts (Articles 37-45), the third - articles on civil law and procedure (Articles 46-66) and the last (Articles 67-68) - additional articles, by judicial process. The most important sources of the Sudebnik of 1497 were charters, letters of commendation and judicial letters, and it was on their basis that a generalization of legal practice was made. Such charters continued to be issued by the supreme authority even after the publication of the Sudebnik and more than 50 years later, the newly accumulated legal material formed the basis of the new “royal” Sudebnik of 1550, which developed the provisions contained in the Sudebnik of 1497. The appearance of the second Sudebnik is associated with the activities of the Zemsky Sobor of 1549 -1550s (however, a number of scientists doubted that the Zemsky Sobor really took place at that time). In any case, the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral took part in its discussion. The Sudebnik of 1497 and numerous letters formed the basis of the new Sudebnik; Ultimately, the latter contained more than a third of the new articles that were not included in the first Sudebnik. Some researchers (Vladimirsky-Budanov) believed that the Sudebnik of 1550 also included articles from a certain lost Sudebnik book. Vasily Ivanovich, father of the Terrible. The structure of the second Sudebnik almost completely repeats the structure of the first. In contrast, the Sudebnik of 1550 divides its material into articles or chapters (about 100) and does not use headings (which in the first Sudebnik often did not correspond to the content). The Second Code of Laws subjects the material to a more rigorous systematization: articles on civil law are concentrated in one section (Art. 76-97), the codifier specifically provides for the procedure for replenishing the Sudebnik

new legislative materials (Article 98), etc. There are more than 30 new articles in the Sudebnik of 1550 compared to the first Sudebnik, a third of the entire Sudebnik. The most important innovations included: a ban on the issuance of tarkhan letters and an indication of the withdrawal of letters already issued (Article 43); the proclamation of the principle of the law does not have retroactive effect, expressed in the prescription from now on to judge all cases according to the new Code of Laws (Article 97); the procedure for supplementing the Sudebnik with new materials (Article 98).

New provisions, clearly related to the state policy of Ivan IV, were also: the establishment of severe criminal penalties for judges for abuse of power and unjust sentences (the first Sudebnik spoke about this indistinctly); detailed regulation of the activities of elected elders and kissers in the court of governors, "courtmen" in the process (Art. 62, 68-70). The Sudebnik of 1550 specifies the types of punishments (the Sudebnik of 1497 was characterized by uncertainty in this respect) introducing, among other things, a new one - prison punishment. The new Sudebnik also introduces new elements of crime (for example, forgery of judicial acts, fraud, etc.) and new civil law institutions (the issue of the right to redeem patrimony has been elaborated in detail, the procedure for

conversion to servitude - art. 85, 76). At the same time, like the Sudebnik that preceded it, the Sudebnik of 1550 did not fully reflect the level reached by Russian law in the 16th century. Noting the trends towards state centralization and focusing on the development of the judicial process, Sudebnik paid little attention to the development of civil law, which was largely based on customary law and legal practice.

Sources. In the first all-Russian (“grand-princely”) Sudebnik of 1497, the norms of Russian Truth, customary law, judicial practice and Lithuanian legislation were applied. The main goals of the Sudebnik were: to extend the jurisdiction of the Grand Duke to the entire territory of a centralized state, to eliminate the legal sovereignties of individual lands, appanages and regions. By the time the Code of Laws was adopted, not all relations were regulated centrally. Establishing its own courts, the Moscow authorities for some time had to make compromises: along with the central judicial institutions and traveling courts, mixed (mixed) courts were created, consisting of representatives of the center and localities. If Russkaya Pravda was a set of customary norms and judicial precedents and a kind of manual for the search for moral and legal truth (“truth”), then the Code of Laws became, first of all, an “instruction” for organizing a trial (“court”).

In the Sudebnik of 1550 (“royal”), the range of issues regulated by the central government expanded, a clearly expressed social orientation of punishment was carried out, and the features of the search process were intensified. The regulation covered the spheres of criminal law and property relations. The estate principle of punishments was fixed and at the same time the circle of subjects of the crime was expanded - it included serfs: the legislator established the subjective signs of a crime in the law much more clearly and developed forms of guilt. Under the crime, the judges understood not only the infliction of material or moral damage, "insult". The protection of the existing social and legal order came to the fore. A crime is, first of all, a violation of established norms, regulations, as well as the will of the sovereign, which is inextricably linked with

the interests of the state.

Crime system. Thus, we can state the appearance in the law of the concept of a state crime, which was unknown to Russkaya Pravda. A group of malfeasance and crimes against the order of administration and court adjoins this type: a bribe (“promise”), making a deliberately unfair decision, embezzlement. The development of the monetary system gave rise to such a crime as counterfeiting (minting, forgery, falsification of money). These compositions, new for the legislator, were associated with the growth of the bureaucratic apparatus. In the group of crimes against a person, qualified types of murder (“state murderer”, robbery murderer), insults by action and word were distinguished. In the group of property crimes, much attention was paid to tatba, in which qualified types were also distinguished: church, “head” (kidnapping) tatba, robbery and robbery (open theft of property) that are not legally separated from each other.

Punishments. The system of punishments according to the lawsuit became more complicated, new goals of punishment were formed - intimidation and isolation of the criminal. The purpose of the authorities was to demonstrate their omnipotence over the accused, his soul and body. The highest measure of punishment is the death penalty, which could be abolished with a sovereign pardon. The execution procedure turned into a kind of performance, new types of executions and punishments appeared. Punishments became characterized by the uncertainty of their formulation, as well as cruelty (which served the purpose of intimidation). Corporal punishment was used as the main or additional form. The most common type was the "commercial execution", i.e. whipping in the marketplace. In the period of the judges, self-damaging punishments (cutting off the ears, tongue, branding) were just beginning to be introduced. In addition to intimidation, these types of punishments performed an important symbolic function - to single out the criminal from the general mass, to "designate" him. Fines and monetary penalties were often used as additional punishments. As an independent type, property sanction was applied in cases of insult and dishonor (Article 26 of the Code of Laws of 1550), as an additional one - in cases of malfeasance, violation of the rights of the owner, land disputes, etc. The amount of the fine varied depending on the severity of the act and the status of the victim.

Trial. There were two forms of litigation. The adversarial process was used in civil and less serious criminal cases. Witness testimony, an oath, ordeals (in the form of a duel) were widely used here. A wide range of procedural documents was present in the adversarial trial: the subpoena was carried out by means of a “petition”, “attachment” or “urgent” letter. At the court session, the parties filed "petition petitions", declaring their presence. According to the resolved case, the court issued a “letter of law”, and thus terminated the claim. The second procedural form - the search process - was used in the most serious criminal cases (state crimes, murders, robbery, etc.), and their circle gradually expanded. The essence of the search ("inquisitorial") process was as follows: the case was initiated at the initiative of a state body or official, during the proceedings such evidence as being caught red-handed or one's own confession, for which torture was used, played a special role. As another new procedural measure, a "massive search" was used - a massive interrogation of the local population in order to identify eyewitnesses of the crime and carry out the procedure of "faking". In the search process, the case began with the issuance of a “letter of summons” or “letter of passage”, which contained an order to the authorities to detain and bring the accused to court. Judgment here was curtailed, interrogations, confrontations, and torture became the main forms of search. According to the verdict of the court, the “covered”, but not pleading guilty, criminal could be imprisoned for an indefinite period. The resolved case could not be retried in the same court. The case was transferred to the highest instance “on a report” or “on a complaint”, only an appeal review procedure was allowed (that is, the case was considered anew).

The judiciary and the organization of the court. In the centralized state system, the judiciary was not separated from the administrative apparatus. The state judicial bodies were the tsar, the Boyar Duma, worthy boyars, officials in charge of branch administrations, and orders. In the localities, judicial power belonged to governors and volostels, later - to the labial and zemstvo bodies, as well as governors.

The judicial system consisted of several instances: 1) the court of governors (volosts, governor), 2) the court of orders, 3) the court of the Boyar Duma or the Grand Duke. In parallel, church and patrimonial courts operated, and the practice of “mixed” courts was preserved. Until the 16th century judicial power was exercised by the princely court, whose jurisdiction at first instance extended to the territory of the princely domain and persons who had tarkhan letters (i.e., those who had the privilege of courting the prince). The circle of such persons gradually narrowed, from the middle of the 17th century. even criminal punishment is introduced for direct appeal to the king with a request for a trial. The tsar considered cases only in cases of abuse of judges, refusal to consider the case in an order or on appeal (gossiping). The tsar could entrust the consideration of cases to worthy boyars and other officials of the palace administration. From the 15th century The Boyar Duma became an independent judicial body, combining these functions with managerial ones. As a court of first instance, the Duma considered the cases of its members, clerks, local judges, and resolved disputes about localism. "According to the report" there were cases coming from the vicegerent and command courts. In this case, the Duma acted as a court of second instance. The Duma itself could go to the sovereign with a "report", asking for clarification and a final resolution of the matter. The sentences considered by the Duma, coming from the orders, were summarized in a memorandum, which became a legislative act and was called the “new decree article”. With the increasing role of written legal proceedings, the role of clerks who headed the orders increased (since the 16th century, duma clerks were introduced into the Duma, who headed the Discharge, Posolsky, Local orders and the Order of the Kazan Palace). Since the 17th century As part of the Boyar Duma, a special judicial department (the Punishment Chamber) is formed. As a judicial instance, orders stood out already at the end of the 15th century, and from the middle of the 16th century. they became the main form of the central court. Judges were assigned to certain orders. Court cases were to be decided unanimously, and in the absence of such, they were reported to the sovereign. Punishment was envisaged both for judges who refused to accept a complaint, and for complainants who filed an illegal complaint or in violation of the established procedure.

Proof. The legislative registration of the search form of the process, for the first time we find in the text of the Sudebnik of 1497. The same cases could be considered both by the “court” and the “search”. The choice of the form of the process depended on the personality of the accused. Therefore, both in the adversarial and in the search process, the same types of evidence were used: the accused’s own confession, testimonies, searches or inquiry through roundabout people, red-handed, judicial duel, oath and written acts. But the “search”, as the main procedural action aimed at clarifying the circumstances of the case, used torture. The "court" resorted to an oath for the same purposes.

This type of forensic evidence, such as the defendant's own confession, is given very little attention in legislative acts. In the Sudebnik of 1550, only one article mentions him. 25, and even then in passing. It can be seen from the text of the letters of right that the confession given in court, in the presence of judges, had the full force of forensic evidence. Only in this case did the confession become the basis for a judgment. Sometimes the confession was made in the presence of clerics who took the accused and witnesses to the oath, as it was often done before the kissing of the cross. Another means of obtaining a confession was a simple interrogation - "questioning", which always preceded torture. Note that torture was used even when the accused had already confessed to the crime.

Sources distinguish between a full confession, when the defendant admitted all the charges brought against him, and incomplete confession, when he admitted only a part of them. In the same article 25 of the Sudebnik we read: “And which searcher will seek battle and robbery, and the defendant will say that he beat, and not robbed: and accuse the defendant of the battle ... and the court and the truth are in robbery, but do not blame everything.”

If recognition could not be achieved, then in the competitive form of the process, as a rule, they resorted to the court of God - a duel or an oath.

Testimony was one of the most reliable means of establishing the truth. However, the former strength of this type of evidence in the period under review has somewhat lost its significance. Now the law was allowed to bring some witnesses against others. The person against whom the testimony was made could call the witness to the field or demand an oath.

As can be seen from the sources, the testimony of some witnesses had undeniable probative value. These are the testimonies of the boyars, clerks and clerks, the testimonies of witnesses of the "general exile", i.e. the testimony of one or more persons referred to by both parties, as well as the testimony of "search people" obtained during the general search. Moreover, the legislator gave a clear preference to the “common link”. Only eyewitnesses were recognized as witnesses, and not those who know the case “by ear”. This rule is found in both Code of Laws and the Cathedral Code. A free position was not a mandatory condition for witness testimony. Slaves could be used as witnesses. However, freed serfs could not testify against their former masters. Witnesses could even be relatives of the parties. It was only forbidden to involve the wives of opposite sides to testify.

Persons who had previously been convicted of perjury were not allowed to testify. A wife could not testify against her husband, and children against their parents. Persons who were in friendly or, conversely, in hostile relations with the party could not give evidence. Consequently, the withdrawal of witnesses was also allowed, for example, "out of unfriendliness." Disqualification of witnesses was allowed only if the judges were completely sure of its fairness. The Code contains a whole list of persons who could not be removed.

In the absence of witnesses, contradictory testimonies, and also when it was impossible to conduct a search (for example, if the defendant was a foreigner), an oath could be used as judicial evidence. However, in the legislative acts of the Moscow period, the desire to limit its application is quite clearly traced. Thus, no one was allowed to take the oath more than three times in his life. Persons convicted of perjury could not swear an oath. When appointing an oath, the age of the swearer was also taken into account. True, there are discrepancies in the sources on this matter. So, according to one letter, persons under the age of 12 could not swear. When caught red-handed, the guilt was considered proven and no other evidence was required. Actively used in criminal proceedings was a "gross search" - the interrogation of all or most of the inhabitants of a certain area about a crime or criminals. Moreover, the data of the general search could replace both red-handed and confession as evidence. In the adversarial process on property and serf affairs, written evidence was of particular importance.

25 Estate system in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries: feudal aristocracy, service estates, legal categories of the peasantry. The ruling class was clearly divided into the feudal aristocracy - the boyars and the service class - the nobles. In the middle of the XVI century. the first attempt to legally equate the patrimony with the estate takes place: a single order of state (military) service is established. From a certain size of land (regardless of their type - estates or estates), their owners were obliged to put up the same number of equipped and armed people. At the same time, the rights of estate owners are expanding: permission is given to exchange an estate for a fiefdom, to transfer an estate as a dowry, to inherit estates, from the 17th century. estates can be transformed into estates by royal decree. The consolidation of the feudal class was accompanied by the consolidation of its privileges: the monopoly right to own land, exemption from duties, advantages in the litigation and the right to hold bureaucratic positions.

Grand Duke - the largest feudal lord, who owned the palace and black-moss lands. The peasants of the palace lands carried dues or corvee. The peasants of the black-mossed lands bore a tax, duties. Boyars - large landowners, votchinniki. They became the main category of the ruling class of feudal lords. They had great rights to the land and the peasants who lived on it: they transferred the land by inheritance, alienated it, changed it. In their hands was the collection of taxes. They had the right to change the overlord-lord. They were members of the feudal council under the prince, occupied the most important positions in the system of government, and had privileges in court. Service people - owned land on a local right, i.e. for service and for the duration of service. They could not alienate lands, pass them on by inheritance, they were not included in the Boyar Duma, they did not receive the highest ranks. Peasants were subdivided into: chernososhnye (sovereign), palace (prince and his family) and privately owned. Chernososhnye paid taxes, carried natural duties. Together with the land they were transferred, complained to the feudal lords. Private owners had a land allotment from their feudal lords, for which land owners received rent or dues. The first legal act in the enslavement of the peasants was Art. 57 of the Sudebnik of 1497, which established the rule of St. George's Day (A definite and very limited transition period, payment of the "elderly"). This provision was developed in the Sudebnik of 1550. Since 1581, "reserved summers" were introduced, during which even the established transition of peasants was prohibited. Compiled in the 50s - 90s. 16th century scribe books became a documentary basis in the process of attaching peasants from the end of the 16th century. Decrees on "lesson years" began to be issued, setting the time limits for the investigation and return of fugitive peasants (5-15 years). The final act of the process of enslavement was the Council Code of 1649, which abolished the "lesson years" and established the perpetuity of the investigation. The law defined punishments for harborers of fugitive peasants and extended the rule of attachment to all categories of peasants. Attachment developed in two ways: non-economic and economic (bondage). In the XNUMXth century There were two main categories of peasants: old-timers and newcomers. The former ran their household and carried out their duties in full, forming the basis of the feudal economy. The feudal lord sought to secure them for himself, to prevent the transition to another owner. The latter, as new arrivals, could not fully bear the burden of duties and enjoyed certain benefits, received loans and credits. Their dependence on the owner was debt, bondage. According to the form of dependence, a peasant could be a ladle (work for half the harvest) or a silversmith (work for interest). Non-economic dependence was manifested most in its purest form in the institution of servility. The latter has changed significantly since the time of Russkaya Pravda: the sources of servitude are limited (serfdom in the city keykeeping is canceled, it is forbidden to enslave "boyar children"), cases of letting serfs into the wild become more frequent. The law delimited entry into servitude (self-sale, housekeeping) from entry into bondage. The development of bonded servitude (unlike full bonded serfs could not be passed on by will, his children did not become serfs) led to the equalization of the status of serfs with serfs.

26 Estate-representative monarchy in Russia. The creation of a centralized Russian state contributed to strengthening the position of the ruling class of feudal lords. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the feudal lords gradually united into a single estate, the general enslavement of the peasants was completed. In the middle of the XVI century. ongoing socio-economic and political processes led to a change in the form of government of the Russian state in estate-representative monarchy, which was expressed, first of all, in the convocation of class-representative bodies - zemstvo cathedrals. The estate-representative monarchy existed in Russia until the second half of the 17th century, when it was replaced by a new form of government - absolute monarchy. Since 1547. (Ivan IV) the head of state began to be called king. The title change pursued the following political goals: strengthening the power of the monarch and eliminating the basis for claims to the throne by the former appanage princes, since the title of king was inherited. At the end of the XVI century. there was a procedure for the election (approval) of the king at the Zemsky Sobor. The king, as the head of state, had great powers in the administrative, legislative and judicial spheres. In his activities, he relied on the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobors. In the middle of the XVI century. Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible judicial, zemstvo and military reforms, aimed at weakening the power of the Boyar Duma and strengthening the state. In 1549 was established Chosen Council, members of which were trustees appointed by the king. The centralization of the state contributed to oprichnina. Its social support was the petty service nobility, who tried to seize the lands of the princely-boyar aristocracy and strengthen their political influence. ^ Boyar Duma formally retained its former position. It was a permanent body endowed with legislative powers and deciding, together with the king, all the most important issues. The Boyar Duma included boyars, former appanage princes, okolnichy, duma nobles, duma clerks and representatives of the urban population. Although the social composition of the Duma changed in the direction of increasing the representation of the nobility, it continued to be an organ of the boyar aristocracy. A special place in the system of public administration was occupied by land cathedrals. They convened from the middle of the 16th to the middle of the 17th century. Their convocation was announced by a special royal charter. Zemsky Sobors included Boyar Duma. consecrated cathedral(the highest collegiate body of the Orthodox Church) and elected representatives from the nobility and the urban population. The contradictions that existed between them contributed to the strengthening of the power of the king. Zemsky Sobors resolved the main issues of state life: the election or approval of the tsar, the adoption of legislative acts, the introduction of new taxes, the declaration of war, issues of foreign and domestic policy, etc. Issues were discussed by class, but decisions were to be made by the entire composition of the Council.

History of Russia from ancient times to the present day Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Chapter 5. FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN CENTRALIZED STATE

§ 1. Ivan III - Sovereign of All Rus'

In 1462, the long-suffering Vasily II ended his life, and his eldest son Ivan III Vasilyevich ascended the Moscow throne. By this time, he was 22 years old, and he was already a well-established person and ruler.

His accession to the throne of Moscow took place according to the will of Vasily II. This did not require the approval of the Horde.

This time there was no Horde label, which already testified to the great degree of independence of Rus' from the Horde. But there was also the payment of tribute. This circumstance was a strong thread connecting Rus' with the Horde.

Most of the Russian lands have already become part of the Muscovite state. But Novgorod, Tver, the Principality of Ryazan, and Pskov remained independent. There were also destinies owned by members of the princely family.

For the rest of his life, Ivan Vasilyevich remembered the terrible revelry of feudal freemen, the triumph of specific orders over the state unity of Rus'. He grew up as a cautious, prudent person. Ivan III was used to acting for sure, without haste, without the risks, dangers and dramas that he experienced in childhood. But at the same time, he showed great perseverance, iron restraint, unshakable will and cruelty. Such was the man who became the head of the Moscow principality.

After the death of his father, Ivan III continued his work. First, he tried to protect Rus' from the constant onslaught of the Tatars. Now, in addition to the Golden Horde or the Great Horde, as the former power of Batu was called, several more Tatar khanates appeared that separated from Saray - Kazan, Crimean, Siberian. One of the fragments of the Horde, the Kasimov Khanate, settled on the very territory of Rus'. These khanates, as a rule, competed with each other. But tribute was now demanded not only by the Great Horde, but also by Kazan and the Crimea.

Already in the first years of his reign, Ivan III showed that Moscow would continue to fight for its freedom and independence from the Tatar khanates. Still not daring to fight the Great Horde, Ivan III delivered a series of blows to the Kazan Khanate. In 1469, an army led by his brother Yuri laid siege to Kazan and forced the ruler there to release the Russian captives. Moscow also thwarted Kazan's attempts to retain a number of Russian lands to the east of Moscow.

Secondly, as with his father, Ivan III had to establish peace in his family. Any aggravation of relations with the brothers threatened a new war. Therefore, Ivan III left their destinies behind them. But as soon as his brother Yuri, who followed him, died childless, his inheritance - the Dmitrov principality - was immediately included in the state lands.

Thirdly, Ivan III energetically continued the policy of subordinating independent Russian lands to Moscow. The methods were very different. So, Ivan III bought the Yaroslavl principality from the princely family and included it in the emerging Russian state. Patronage was established over the Ryazan principality. It was more difficult with Novgorod and Tver.

“Mr. Veliky Novgorod” felt that the preponderance of forces was increasingly leaning towards Moscow. And therefore, sending embassies to Moscow with a request to preserve their liberties "in the old days", the top of Novgorod at the same time began negotiations with Lithuania, asking for help against Moscow. Lithuania agreed. Thus, as it were, the times of the confrontation between Olgerd and Vitovt and Moscow were returning. At the same time, Lithuania tried to enlist the support of the Great Horde and the Crimean Khanate. Novgorod, thus, was included in the big Eastern European politics. The goal was one - to stop the strengthening of the Moscow principality.

Feeling his strength, Ivan III sent a letter to Novgorod, where he called the Novgorod Republic his "ancestral homeland."

This caused an explosion of indignation in the city. And not only the boyars - supporters of the Lithuanian party, but also ordinary townspeople - merchants, artisans. Stormy meetings began to take place in the city - Vecha. Novgorodians said that they did not want to be serfs of the Moscow prince. The freedom-loving, medieval democratic order of this northwestern Russian city, close to Europe, faced irresistible processes of unification of all Russian lands, the creation of a powerful centralized state.

Ivan III resolved the conflict by force of arms. Before that, he, as an experienced politician, gave the upcoming campaign an all-Russian character, gathered representatives of princely families, boyars, nobles, merchants in order to enlist the support of the whole land. In addition, the punitive expedition was also of a religious nature. Ivan III announced that this would be a campaign against those who leaned towards "Latinism", towards "heretics", because the union of Novgorod with Lithuania was an agreement with a Catholic country. In addition, Orthodoxy, the "true faith" was in danger due to the fact that in 1453 Constantinople was conquered by the Turks. Over Orthodoxy hangs not only the "scourge" of Latinism, but also the threat of Islam.

Ivan III and his assistants recalled the attempt of papal Rome to subdue the weakening Greek Orthodoxy by creating in 1439 a union between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. In the face of the Turkish offensive against Byzantium, the Patriarch of Constantinople agreed to such an alliance. This decision was made in Italy at the famous church council, which took place in the cities of Ferrara and Florence.

Metropolitan Isidore of Moscow also attended this council and agreed to support the union. However, when he returned to Moscow, he was accused of betraying the Orthodox faith, arrested and removed from the metropolitan throne by Vasily II.

For Russia, the fight against Catholicism and Uniatism meant protection from the ideological aggression of Western countries. But at the same time it led to the isolation of the country from European civilization.

Under the sign of the salvation of the "true faith" Ivan III led his regiments to Novgorod. He mobilized against Novgorod all the forces of the then Rus'. Regiments from Tver, Pskov, Vyatka went north. The avant-garde moved ahead, followed by the entire Russian army with the Grand Duke himself. Another blow was dealt to the territories of the Novgorod principality along the Northern Dvina.

On July 14, 1471, on the banks of the Shelon River, the historical battle of the Novgorod rati against the vanguard of the Russian forces took place. A small, but well-organized and equipped Russian army, without waiting for the approach of the lead forces, defeated the Novgorod army, which was numerically superior to it. Freedoms and liberties did the Novgorodians a disservice in military affairs. Their army turned out to be disunited, it had poor discipline, separate detachments marched under the command of their boyars. The regiment of the archbishop generally refused to fight against the grand duke's army.

The result of this defeat was the constraint of Novgorod freedoms. Novgorod recognized himself as the "fatherland" of Ivan III. The power of the Moscow governor and other officials increased in the city, relations with Lithuania were declared illegal, they were called treason. Novgorod posadniks were executed, among them - Boretsky, an active supporter of rapprochement with Lithuania; a number of boyars and other noble persons were sent to prison in Kolomna. Novgorod paid Moscow a huge indemnity.

After the defeat at Shelon, the anti-Moscow party in Novgorod did not lay down its arms. It was headed by the widow of the executed posadnik Martha Boretskaya. More and more persistent efforts were made to go under the rule of Lithuania. Opponents of Moscow were driven by hatred for Ivan III, personal selfish interests. Objectively, the victory of this party would mean the preservation of urban freedoms, getting rid of the heavy hand of Moscow and moving along the path of other Eastern European states that are in the orbit of European civilizational development.

Soon Boretskaya's party took over, supporters of the "Moscow party" were executed, and Moscow merchants were expelled from Novgorod. In response, Ivan III in 1477 again sent an all-Russian army to the rebellious city, which besieged Novgorod and forced the city leaders to negotiate. Again, as before, neither Lithuania nor the Horde came to the aid of Novgorod.

According to the new treaty, Novgorod from now on became one of the parts of the Russian state. The lands of the enemies of Moscow and part of the church lands were confiscated in favor of the Grand Duke.

In January 1478, Ivan III solemnly entered "his homeland" - Novgorod. Grand princely governors took power in the city. The most stubborn opponents of Moscow were arrested and sent to prison, including the indomitable Marfa Boretskaya.

Ivan III spent a month in the once independent Novgorod Republic, establishing the Moscow order. When he returned to Moscow, a veche bell was carried behind him on a sleigh - a symbol of the former freedom and independence of Novgorod.

§ 2. Liberation from the Horde yoke

In 1478, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. Rus' tried several times to free itself from this humiliating order. And now Ivan III, after the victory over Novgorod, again took a decisive step. This was also required by the international situation.

After the fall of Constantinople, Rus' remained the largest Orthodox state in what was then Europe, and now all Orthodox people looked to Moscow as their hope and support. In addition, by this time, Ivan III, after the death of his first wife, the Tver princess, took as his wife the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Zoya Paleolog. The marriage was arranged by representatives of the Roman Church, hoping that together with Zoya, the Uniate Church would establish itself in Moscow.

When Zoya solemnly entered Moscow, the Catholic prelate carried a Catholic cross in front of her carriage. But it was not there. The prelate was asked to remove the cross. Zoya converted to Orthodoxy and took the name Sophia. The calculations of the Roman throne to increase influence in the Russian lands did not materialize. But the prestige of the Moscow Grand Duke's court, thanks to this marriage, grew not only among the Russian lands, but also in Europe. They began to look at Moscow as a serious force in the fight against the Turkish danger.

Under these conditions, Ivan III broke off relations with the Horde. This meant war. The Horde decided to roughly punish Rus' and return it to a forced yoke.

The lord of the Great Horde, Khan Akhmat, led more than a hundred thousand soldiers to Rus'. He agreed, as Mamai once did, on allied actions with Lithuania. But Ivan III also took retaliatory diplomatic steps. He used the enmity between the Crimean Khanate and Akhmat and entered into allied relations with the Crimea not only against the Horde, but also against Lithuania.

Attempts by the forward detachments of the Horde to break deep into Rus' were unsuccessful: on the banks of the Oka they were met by Moscow regiments and repelled the offensive. Then, with all his might, Akhmat slowly moved to the mouth of the Ugra River, where it flows into the Oka. It was near the Lithuanian-Russian border. But Ivan III also approached here somewhat earlier with the main forces. And now, as once during the Battle of Kulikovo, the Lithuanians were careful not to oppose the Russian army. Akhmat was left alone.

Finally, on October 8, 1480, the Tatars made attempts to cross the Ugra and attack the Russian camp. But everywhere the Russian regiments rebuffed them: intensive firing was carried out from cannons, squeakers, and bows. This was the first use of firearms by Russians in the field. The Horde army suffered heavy losses and retreated. At this time, Ivan III hastily left for Moscow in connection with the rebellion of his brothers, who reproached him for autocratic actions. Some of the Moscow politicians persuaded Ivan III to make peace with Akhmat.

Ivan hesitated: the risk was great. But then ordinary Muscovites came forward, urging the prince to return to the army. High church leaders also showed intransigence in the fight against the Horde. Ivan III sent his family to the north, where he also moved the treasury. He himself quickly settled relations with the brothers, promising to increase their destinies, and soon their troops appeared on the Ugra. The Grand Duke also arrived there. The choice was made: the fight is not for life, but for death.

The cold started. And the two armies stood opposite each other on opposite banks of the river. December came, the Ugra was covered with ice. Akhmat tried to start negotiations with Ivan III on the return of Rus' to its former dependence. But Ivan III, without refusing to negotiate, played for time, strengthened the army, and waited for big cold weather. And then Akhmat could not stand it and gave the order to retreat. Soon the departure of the Tatars turned into a flight. They devastated the Lithuanian lands that fell in their way in revenge on their failed ally. They also tried to rob Russian volosts. But the Russian army, pursuing the Horde, stopped all attempts of such robberies. Only the remnants of the once mighty army returned back to the Horde, and soon Akhmat was killed in the Horde by one of his rivals. The ally of Ivan III, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, struck at the Lithuanian possessions.

The so-called "standing on the Ugra" was of great importance in the history of Russia. After this confrontation, Rus' finally freed itself from the last traces of the Horde oppression. The Grand Duchy of Moscow became a completely independent, sovereign state.

§ 3. Centralization of state power.

Formation of the state according to the Eurasian model

The victory over the Horde was accompanied by new successes of Ivan III in uniting the Russian lands and centralizing state power. Tver's turn has come.

The ring of Moscow lands around Tver was shrinking. Prince Mikhail Borisovich of Tver, brother of the already deceased first wife of Ivan III, tried to avoid the fate of Novgorod. From friendly relations with Moscow, he moved to an alliance with Lithuania, although this was contrary to the agreement between Tver and Moscow. However, in Moscow they scouted his plans and demanded to stop the treacherous negotiations with the enemy of Moscow. But the prince of Tver continued contacts with Lithuania. And then Ivan III in 1485 moved the Moscow army to Tver. The forces were unequal. Tver could not offer resistance to the winner of Novgorod and the Great Horde. The Moscow army laid siege to Tver, but the prince of Tver managed to escape to Lithuania. A few days later, Ivan III solemnly entered the conquered Tver. The Tver principality was included in the Russian state.

Somewhat later, Ivan III undertook a campaign against Vyatka, and the entire Vyatka region was annexed to Muscovite Rus'.

The appanage princes - his brothers - brought constant trouble to the great Moscow prince.

After the rebellion of the brothers, Ivan III temporarily retreated. But after the victory over the Horde, Novgorod, Tver, he gradually liquidated their destinies. Some of them passed to the Grand Duke after the death of the brothers or by will. And Ivan III arrested the brother of Andrei the Great and imprisoned him, where he died; he forcibly tonsured his sons as monks, and attached his brother's inheritance to his possessions.

Thus, over the 30 years of the reign of Ivan III, the political map of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' changed dramatically: instead of various principalities leading a sharp internecine struggle, numerous specific possessions, a large single independent state appeared, which they began to call Russia, headed by a strong monarch, who began to call himself the "Sovereign of All Rus'."

The emblem of the new state was a double-headed eagle borrowed from the Holy Roman (German) Empire. This coat of arms has become symbolic for Russia. It was already becoming a Eurasian power. One of her faces was, as it were, turned to Europe, the other looked to Asia.

At the Moscow court, a magnificent ceremonial is being established, largely borrowed from Byzantium. In Moscow, they started talking about the fact that the new state is the heir to the ancient Russian state, which united all the Eastern Slavic lands. And this meant that Moscow now claimed to lay claim to all the lands that were part of the ancient Slavic state in the future.

Since the 80s 15th century Russian detachments are increasingly appearing in the Smolensk, Chernigov, and Polotsk principalities that belonged to Lithuania. The princes of many border lands with Lithuania are transferred to the service of Moscow. At the end of the XV century. Vyazma was ceded to Moscow under an agreement with Lithuania. And during the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503. Moscow troops got Chernigov, Bryansk, Mtsensk, Rylsk, Gomel and other Russian cities for Russia. In 1514 Moscow captured Smolensk.

If we take into account that in 1510 Pskov was annexed to the Moscow state, and in 1521 - the Ryazan principality, then we can say that the entire North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' was under the rule of Moscow. The unification of the Russian lands was completed, the territory of a single one was formed. Russian state, and now a huge new Eastern European Russian state began the struggle for the reunification of all Eastern Slavic lands.

The formation of a single territory of the new state was only part of the process of creating a new power. Another part of it is the formation of an appropriate system of governing the country, the creation of new authorities. They had to correspond to the new image, the increased scale of the country.

As before, the head of the Russian state was the Grand Duke. But this was no longer the first among equal princes of North-Eastern Rus', but a monarch, the head of a single state, the head of a powerful state apparatus, whose power extended to all Russian lands. The rights of specific princes were limited: they were forbidden to mint their own coins, their judicial rights and other benefits were reduced.

Next to the "sovereign of all Rus'" stood a new central governing body - the Boyar Duma. It included representatives of the elite of the newly formed state - the princes, who turned from independent rulers into serving assistants to the Grand Duke, but retained their patrimonial possessions in the former principalities, well-born boyars - large landowners, governors. All of them officially received from the sovereign the title of boyar for life, which did not apply to their children. It was the Council under the Grand Duke. He was in charge of considering the most important issues of the country's domestic and foreign policy. Similar royal councils, consisting of representatives of the nobility, existed in France, England, Sweden, and other countries. At the same time, members of the Boyar Duma carried out permanent or temporary assignments of the Grand Duke - they commanded troops, were governors in cities, and managed certain branches of the state economy. The grand duke's office was born in the form of special institutions, which were called the Treasury and the Palace. These were the bodies that controlled the receipt of cash and in-kind taxes, the circulation of land, and the performance of military service by landowners-nobles.

The first orders also appear - institutions that were in charge of various areas of government. They were led by boyars and clerks; it was to them that the Grand Duke "ordered" to conduct certain affairs.

An important place in the system of the new state administration was occupied by the Local Church Council - a broad meeting of the most prominent representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church. The council not only discussed church issues, elected and appointed Moscow metropolitans and bishops in Russian cities, but also acted as an advisory body to the sovereign on important general issues of the life of the country.

A new system of local government was also introduced. As before, on behalf of the Grand Duke, various regions of the country - counties were ruled by "feeders", that is, representatives of the nobility, for whom the payment for their service was "feeding" - fees in their favor from the population. Now they were placed under the strict control of the central authorities. Smaller territorial units - volosts were ruled by volosts, which were also subordinate to the center. The central government reduced the benefits and privileges of large landowners, churches, limited their right to judge and dress up the population living in their estates.

The Russian army was also becoming new. The princely and boyar squads were a thing of the past. Their place was taken by the grand-ducal army, which consisted mainly of noble landowners. They had to come to the service of the Grand Duke "horse, crowded and armed", that is, to be a well-armed horse warrior himself, and even bring armed peasants or serfs for infantry regiments with them. The source of the maintenance of such warriors and their servants were landed estates granted to them by the government. The more land allotted to the landlords, the more numerous was the army. It is clear that large tracts of land inhabited by peasants both in the center of Russia and in the newly annexed lands (for example, in the Novgorod land) were transferred into the hands of a rapidly growing nobility - faithful servants of the “sovereign of all Rus'”.

Sudebnik 1497 The creation of a centralized government of the country was completed by the adoption in 1497 of a new Sudebnik. It became the first code of laws of united Russia, which not only established a new system of governing the country, designated the role of the monarch, the Boyar Duma, local government, determined the procedure for legal proceedings, but also introduced norms regarding the life and property of all residents of the country, severely punished for crimes against the person and property. Already in the first article it was emphasized that the court should be objective and fair. Judges - boyars and clerks - were forbidden to take "promises" (bribes) and be guided by a sense of friendship or revenge when making court decisions. For the commission of grave crimes against a person and property - “tatba” (theft), robbery, “murder” (premeditated murder), the Code of Law established the death penalty. The same punishment was due for theft in the church, arson and other "dashing deeds." The governors-feeders and volosts, who had the right to judge people locally, were charged with the duty to conduct a trial only in the presence of local "best people". Thus, their possible arbitrariness was limited.

Protecting all the inhabitants of the country without exception, the new law simultaneously introduced certain restrictions for the bulk of the country's population - the peasants. This was expressed in the restriction of their right to transfer from one landowner to another or to leave for free lands. From now on, the peasants had the right to leave only once a year - for two weeks: a week before St. George's Day (November 24) and a week after, that is, after all the field work that they performed on the landowner was completed. At the same time, they had to pay the landowner "old" - money for the yard, buildings, etc., which were erected with the help of the owner. And the longer they lived on these lands, the “older” was higher. This further impeded the exit of the peasants.

With this restriction, the government sought to provide the working hands of the landowners - the basis of the new army. The fact is that the peasants sought to leave the landlords' lands, where they were mercilessly exploited by the nobles - the owners of small estates - temporary possessions for service. The landowners sought to take more from the peasants while the land was at their disposal. Peasants rushed to the privileged lands of large estates, monasteries, and the government now sought to prevent them from doing so.

If in Western Europe by this period the process of liberation of the peasantry and urban residents from the omnipotence of the feudal lords and the state began, then in Russia it developed in the opposite direction. The restriction of the rights and freedoms of people became more severe.

§ 4. The entry of Rus' into the international arena

At the end of the XV century. European sovereigns saw with amazement that in the course of some three decades a new powerful state appeared in the east of Europe - a united Russia. And immediately this state began to take an active part in European politics: Rus' begins to regain its place among other European countries, which once belonged to the Old Russian state.

Relations were established with a number of states of the Apennine Peninsula - papal Rome, the Venetian Republic, the Duchy of Milan. Here, in the Italian lands, the Russian ambassadors showed great interest in local specialists and artisans. Dozens of architects, builders, doctors, cannon makers, casters, and jewelers were invited to Moscow.

Moscow began to exchange embassies with the German Empire. The German emperor, like the Pope, counted on Russia to become their obedient tool in the fight against the Turkish danger. But Ivan III, and later his son Vasily III, skillfully avoided the conflict with Turkey, the time had not yet come for this, since Moscow had completely different tasks - confrontation with Lithuania, the Livonian Order, and further gathering of Russian lands.

Resumed relations with Hungary, the Moldavian principality. Strong allied ties were strengthened between Russia and the Crimean Khanate. It was Khan Mengli Giray who supported Ivan III in the fight against Akhmat. Rus', with its stubborn resistance to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, broke the Great Horde, and now (in 1502) Mengli Giray finished it off completely. After that, the Horde ceased to exist as an independent state. In the future, the Crimean Khanate, which fell into vassal dependence on Turkey, after the death of Mengli Giray, changed its policy and turned into a 16th century. and further into the worst enemy of Russia.

But the Kazan Khanate, which had previously separated from the Horde, also remained. Moscow persistently tried to neutralize the hostility of the Kazan Khanate and increase its influence there. Several campaigns were undertaken against Kazan. Finally, the Russian army under the command of the brilliant commander Prince Daniil Kholmsky, who smashed the Novgorodians on Shelon, and then distinguished himself in battles on the Ugra River against Akhmat, laid siege to Kazan.

The city was taken in 1487. Ivan III placed a supporter of Moscow on the Kazan throne.

Raids on Rus' from the Kazan Khanate temporarily stopped. But Kazan continued to be an independent and strong state, which was of great strategic importance on the Volga. Over time, a strong pro-Moscow party was formed in the city. But there was also an influential group of supporters of an alliance with Crimea and Turkey. The whole struggle here was yet to come.

The relations of the Moscow principality with neighbors on the near western and northwestern borders became different. Here, after the annexation of Novgorod, as well as a number of Russian lands on the border with Lithuania, Sweden, the Livonian Order and, of course, Lithuania, behind which stood allied Poland, became the main rivals of united Rus'.

Ivan III took over the defense of the Russian lands against the Swedes in the northwest, which Novgorod had previously done. At the end of the XIV century. Russian troops tried several times to return the lands conquered by Sweden from Novgorod. The regiments of Ivan III passed with fire and sword through the regions of southern and central Finland, taken by Sweden from Novgorod. The city of Vyborg was besieged. At the same time, the Russian army used huge new guns. But none of the parties had the strength to decisively change the situation in their favor.

More significant were the successes of Ivan III in the fight against Lithuania and the Livonian Order. In two wars with Lithuania in 1492-1494 and in 1500-1503. Russian troops won a number of victories over the Lithuanians and managed to return some Russian lands to Moscow. Now, in the fight against Moscow, Lithuania is increasingly resorting to the help of the Livonian Order, which, after the defeat at Grunwald, lost its attacking power in relation to Lithuania, but completely retained its strength to help it in the fight against Rus'.

In order to get a profitable foothold in the fight against the Order, Ivan III quickly built the Russian fortress Ivangorod opposite the Livonian fortress of Narva, naming it in his honor. He soon formed an alliance with Denmark against his opponents. Now Russia is firmly entrenched in the Baltics, returning here the long-standing military-strategic, economic, trade interests of the Old Russian state.

§ 5. Formation of a multinational state

The unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, the creation of a single Russian state contributed to the rallying of the Russian people, the formation of the Great Russian people. The center of this nationality was the population living in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, where Moscow rose to power and glory. Now, less and less often, the inhabitants of the former principalities remembered that they were Novgorodians, Ryazanians, Tverichians, and more and more often they felt like Great Russians. This growing sense of belonging to one emerging nationality was due to several important reasons.

First, the emerging commonality of the territory. Now Moscow was the capital of all Rus', and every person felt that he belonged to this big state. Secondly, the community of a single Great Russian language quickly developed on the common territory. From now on, of course, the Russian colloquial language is gradually beginning to take shape, a single one for a Muscovite, for a Ryazan, for a resident of the distant Novgorod outskirts. This was facilitated by all the strengthening trade ties between various Russian lands. The all-Russian struggle against the Horde was of great importance in the formation of a single Russian people.

But not only the Great Russians lived on the vast territory of the established Russian state. Like the Old Russian state, Russia developed as a multinational state, and this is also one of its characteristic features.

Some of the Finno-Ugric tribes that lived in the Oka-Volga interfluve (Merya, Meshchera) were still part of the Old Russian state. Now they have become part of the unified Russian state. Another part of the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordva, Mari) who lived here for a long time retained independence, although the Vladimir-Suzdal, and then Moscow princes stubbornly sought to subjugate them. With the advent of the Golden Horde, these peoples became tributaries of Saray. But with the weakening of the Horde, they again became dependent on Moscow. With difficulty and bitterness, the freedom-loving forest dwellers were subjugated to the Moscow order, until, finally, surrounded on all sides by Russian lands, they became part of the population of a single country. Nevertheless, these peoples have retained their customs, culture, and traditions for centuries. The central government by all means supported the established good-neighborly relations between the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region and the Russian inhabitants. Church leaders actively introduced Orthodoxy among them. Years and decades later, some nations were baptized. But not everything was so rosy in relations between Moscow and the Volga peoples. The state forced them to pay taxes in furs, forest products, Moscow feudal lords and monasteries seized their lands. This caused protests, uprisings. Ordinary people - Russian peasants, artisans - lived side by side with them, they had common joys and troubles.

In the north-west, together with the Novgorod lands, the tribes of Korels, Izhors, long friendly to Rus', as well as the recalcitrant and freedom-loving Chud, who repeatedly raised uprisings both against Russian rule and against the onslaught of the German crusaders, entered into a single state.

Even in the XIV century. the gradual advance of the Russians into the lands of Great Perm began, where the Zyryan and Perm tribes lived. There, in the time of Dmitry Donskoy, Bishop Stefan, who later received the name of Permsky, conducted missionary (preaching) activities. He taught local residents to read and write, carried out other educational activities. The conversion of the Zyryans and Perm to Christianity took place on a purely voluntary basis. Stefan entered the history of these peoples as their friend and teacher.

During the period of the first wars with the Kazan Khanate, Moscow governors appeared in the lands located along the Kama River, finally subjugated the freedom-loving Vyatka region to Moscow, and with it the local tribes of the Votyaks who lived here.

By the end of the XV century. the Permian land was finally conquered. Here began the forced baptism of the local population. At first, Moscow left power in the hands of the local princes, and from the beginning of the 16th century. appointed their deputies here. At the same time, the lands of the Vogul tribe, who lived along the Irtysh, and the Yugra, who lived on the Lower Ob, were also conquered. Their princes were captured, and the tribes became tributaries of Moscow. Thus, the advance of the Russians to the east began - to the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia.

§ 6. Economy and people

The creation of a single centralized state in Rus', in turn, influenced the general situation in the country, the development of the economy, and the social status of people. Peace, stability, the confidence of the population in the future have led to the fact that all those positive phenomena in the country's economy that appeared during the period of the revival of Rus' after the defeat of Atov and the beginning of the unification of Russian lands have now increased many times over.

Peasantry. First of all, it is necessary to say about the most important industry of the then Russia - about agriculture and rural residents.

It was in the XV - the first half of the XVI century. Russian agriculture stepped forward. Three-fields everywhere replaced the old methods of tillage - "clearing", "burning", which were used at the beginning of the development of vast territories. With the help of these methods, the peasants won arable land from the forest. Now, however, a regular economy has been formed here with regular crop rotations, with the spread of such a valuable and nutritious grain crop as buckwheat. The removal of manure to the fields became a common household technique that dramatically increased the productivity of scarce land. At this time, new arable tools were further improved in Rus', primarily the famous coxa-roe deer, which combined the advantages of the old powerful plow (of little use in wooded areas) and a light but weak plow. The new tool was light and had a powerful cutting metal plowshare.

Animal husbandry became more stable due to the development of magnificent water meadows of the Oka-Volga interfluve, which provided an excellent fodder base, and the breeding of new breeds of livestock. The horse population increased sharply, mainly due to the massive purchases of horses from various steppe communities with which there were peaceful relations. And the horse in the household is everything. At that time, in Rus', there was an average of one horse per adult worker in the yard. But there were, as a rule, several such workers in peasant households.

The basis for the rise of agriculture at that time was the village and repairs. They appeared as types of settlements as early as the 14th century. and for one and a half to two centuries they became truly powerful levers for raising the entire economy of Rus'.

The name "village" comes from the verb "to fight". The peasants who came to new places “teared apart” the virgin lands, plowed it, and developed new lands. Small villages from 3-4 to 7-8 households covered the entire North-Eastern Rus'. The advantage of these settlements over the old large villages was that here each yard had much more land, which means that the economy was more profitable and profitable for the peasant.

Pochinki continued their victorious march across Rus' - very small settlements of 1-3 courtyards, it was the peasants organizing the repairs who were the true pioneers in previously deserted places. For them, it was important that the mending, as a rule, was exempt from taxes for long periods. And this is a great help in the development of the economy. In essence, the Russian people, under new favorable conditions, began the colonization, that is, the development, of their country.

The rural population continued to actively develop natural resources. A great help in farms, especially in areas with poor soils, were crafts - apiary beekeeping, hunting, tar smoking, woodworking. In some areas, peasants made log houses for export and sale. The smelting of iron from swamp ore began to develop more and more widely in rural areas.

What was the position of the Russian peasants in the 15th - the first half of the 16th century? The answer is given by the very name of the rural settlement - "peasants", which were commonly referred to as rural residents in the 15th century.

The main figure in the countryside has become a personally free worker with a sufficient allotment, with certain rights to this allotment.

In particular, such a worker, regardless of whether the land belonged to the state or to a private owner, could transfer his allotment by inheritance. He was a member of the rural community, participated in its life, the management of the world, in the redistribution of common lands. Such a person paid all due taxes, duties, served all duties (underwater, etc.) both for the state and for the feudal owner of the land. He, as a free man, participated in court proceedings. Finally, despite the introduction of St. George's Day, he had the right to leave his owner or state land for another place of residence and management. Such a rural worker had the right to choose. It was this mass of the rural population that began to be respectfully called peasants (from the word "Christians"). It was the free peasantry that became the basis for the process of internal colonization of the country, the rise of agriculture, and the strengthening of military power.

Cities, crafts, trade. Under the conditions of a single centralized state, Russian cities, crafts, and trade took a step forward.

Far from the yoke of the Horde, Novgorod and Pskov grew and developed. Now, cities in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga quickly rushed after them, especially along the rivers Moscow, Klyazma, Oka - along the main river roads of these places.

Old craft professions, lost during the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the first decades of the yoke, were quickly restored in the cities, and new ones arose. Particular attention should be paid to the production of weapons, including firearms. Woodworking and building art have been greatly developed. Artels of woodworkers, masons and stone cutters worked in all Russian cities. Peasants built and finished houses on their own. The custom included "help", that is, participation in the construction of one or another house of all able-bodied members of the community. Then they also celebrated housewarming together. And then came the turn of a new collective building.

The proportion of the urban population also grew. It was 5% of the total population. For Russia it was a lot. For Western Europe, it is exceptionally small. There, this figure was 10-15%. In some parts of Europe (Northern Italy, Flanders), this percentage reached 40.

By the middle of the XVI century. There were 130 urban-type settlements in Russia. However, there were no more than a dozen full-fledged cities with a population of over 10 thousand people, with reliable fortifications, stone buildings. In addition to Moscow (where up to 200 thousand people lived), Novgorod, Pskov, these were Tver, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Kolomna, Ryazan, Smolensk. The vast majority of the urban population lived in them.

The rest of the cities were still largely agrarian settlements, with a weak development of handicrafts and trade. Gradually, the former specific centers of Rostov, Suzdal, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod and others began to decline.

Cities were located tens, sometimes hundreds of kilometers apart (in the West - 25–30 km), and even more remote from distant rural settlements. The roads were unpaved and turned into a mess in spring and autumn. This led to the fact that the products of artisans were hardly delivered to villages and villages. Therefore, the bulk of the population - the peasantry - often continued to make do with their own production of the necessary products. True, local markets were already emerging, but they did not cover areas of newly developed lands. The development of cities, weakened for decades by the Horde defeats and internecine wars, did not keep pace with the rapidly developing peasant economy. This slowed down and hampered the entire process of the country's economic development.

Trade has picked up considerably. This was expressed in the fact that trade relations, despite the remoteness of cities from each other and difficulties with roads, nevertheless, with each decade, “pulled” Rus' more tightly together. The "guests" who were engaged in foreign trade made their way not only to the markets of the Crimea, Lithuania, Scandinavia, the Caucasus, but reached the distant countries of Western Europe. It was they who brought “overseas” goods to Moscow and other large cities - wines, fabrics, dishes, and to the West they brought traditional Russian export goods - furs, linen fabrics, wax. First-class Russian weapons and armor were forbidden to be exported abroad.

Merchants, artisans, gardeners began to unite in cities in territorial organizations - hundreds, fifty. Large rich merchants created their professional organizations. This is how the corporations of "guests" appeared - merchants engaged in foreign trade, as well as cloth merchants.

Territorial and professional organizations of merchants and artisans became the basis for the emergence in Russia, as in the West, of urban self-government. In their activity in the management of cities, the grand ducal governors now relied on the organizations of merchants and artisans. They helped in collecting taxes, serving duties, were responsible for maintaining some city buildings (for example, city granaries where grain was stored), landscaping streets, roads, and for the participation of city militia in military campaigns.

But the main force in the city remained the feudal lords - princes, boyars. Their rich city estates, full of servants, were the main buildings of the cities, and their influence remained overwhelming in the new state. They became servants of the sovereign, but retained economic and political power in Russian cities.

§ 7. State and Church

The Russian Orthodox Church with all its might defended and supported the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the strengthening of the grand ducal power and the creation of a centralized state. The grateful grand dukes supported the church in every possible way, provided it with new land holdings, made rich contributions to monasteries and churches with money, expensive things, provided church land owners with tax benefits, allowed them to judge and judge the people living on their lands. Such an order in the West was called immunity, and it was established in Russia as well.

Especially the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church grew after the fall of Constantinople and the transformation of the Russian Church from the middle of the 15th century. into an autocephalous, i.e., independent, organization, independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Now it was the largest, richest, well-organized Orthodox Church in Eurasia.

The church rendered great assistance to the grand-ducal throne in the fight against the Catholic aggression of the West and the liberation of Rus' from the power of the Horde. Metropolitan Gerontius actively urged Ivan III, who hesitated in 1480, to resolutely fight the invasion of Akhmat.

However, as the central power strengthened, the position of the church became weaker. The Grand Dukes Ivan III and Vasily III could not agree with the existence of a state within a state. And the church, with its enormous religious influence, land wealth, and numerous benefits, sometimes began to compete with the grand ducal power. The reduction of tax and judicial privileges of the church began. The Grand Dukes began to limit the church in the further expansion of land holdings.

But the church in the XV - the first half of the XVI century. still remained a powerful religious and moral force, one of the richest landowners in Rus'. Monasteries and other church organizations were the focus of great cultural values. Chronicles were created here, pictorial masterpieces were born, schools were operating. And the grand duke's power could not but take into account all these moments.

Finally, the church collapsed on those that arose in the 15th - early 16th centuries. heresies that undermined not only the existing church orders, but also the foundations of the state itself. Heresies (from the Greek heresy - a special dogma) - this is a deviation from the official church teaching, church dogmas and worship of church shrines - icons, relics of saints, etc. Heresies opposed the church, and since it supported the state, it substantiated the divine origin of supreme power , the power of the great Moscow princes, then the struggle against church foundations was equal to the struggle against state interests.

A wave of heresy came to Rus' in the second half of the 14th - early 15th centuries, and it was not by chance that its first shoots sprouted in Novgorod and Pskov - large trading cities closely connected with Western countries. Heretics (they were called strigolniks because they included clergymen who were stripped, i.e. deprived of spiritual dignity) denounced churchmen, including the monastic brethren, for greed, bribery, the pursuit of "estate" and said that such people cannot teach people the faith. They denied such religious dogmas as the eternal existence of the soul, belief in the afterlife, and at the same time opposed church land ownership, the oppression of some people by others. The church authorities, relying on the support of the great princes, severely punished the heretics, "showed off" them. So, in Novgorod, the most active of the heretics were thrown bound, with a stone around their necks, from the bridge to the Volkhov.

However, harsh measures, reminiscent of the same reprisals of inquisitors in the West with "their" heretics, did not eradicate heresy. Several decades passed, and a new wave of heresy came from Novgorod. It was called the heresy of the Judaizers, because its first distributors were Jews who came from Kyiv.

Heretics denied the divine origin of Jesus Christ and talked about his human essence, rejected the veneration of icons, monasticism, and worship of saints. Their views found support not only among the common people, but also among some of the clergy, boyars, clerks, and even people close to Ivan III.

At first, Ivan III did not interfere in religious disputes and even sympathized with heretics, since they, denouncing the church, supported the grand ducal power and struck a blow at the special position of the church in the state. At first, Ivan III also loyally accepted the arguments of the so-called non-possessors - the Trans-Volga elders, that is, the monks who lived in sketes, in separate forest huts. Non-possessors preached a withdrawal from the world, a refusal to acquire wealth and land holdings by churchmen. And you need to live, they thought, on the alms of the parishioners and earned by personal labor. Only in this way can one purify one's soul and achieve salvation in the next world.