Sooner or later, each of us asks questions: am I living the right way? Am I building relationships with other people the right way? Is there a meaning to my existence?

Mankind has created religions and philosophical schools to find answers to these questions. Today, science is also involved in the search for these answers.

If you want to look for a "guide to action" in religion, you may like the ideas of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic religions, many schools of Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism. If you prefer philosophy, you can turn to existentialism, secular humanism, secular Buddhism, ethical culture...

We will talk about one of the possibilities in more detail. We are talking about stoicism, the ancient philosophical school, or, more precisely, about the application of these ideas in the 21st century. The book of Philosophy Professor Massimo Pigliucci "How to be a Stoic", published by Alpina Publisher, will help us to understand such a difficult topic.

Many mistakenly believe that stoicism is about suppressing and hiding emotions, as Mr. Spock from Star Trek does. In reality, stoicism is thinking about your emotions, about the reasons for their occurrence, as well as the ability to direct them to your own good.

The main principle of Stoicism is the ability to distinguish between what is under our control and what is not. You should concentrate your efforts on the first and not waste your time on the second.

The main feature of Stoicism is its practicality. The opinion that philosophy is purely theoretical reasoning that has nothing to do with the real world does not apply to him. In addition, Stoicism is characterized by openness to new knowledge and readiness for criticism.

Stoicism, due to its applied nature, is well suited to both believers and non-believers. So, for example, the author of the book “How to be a Stoic? ”, being a non-religious person, preferred stoicism to the same new atheism due to the arrogance of the latter.

Principle #1 Don't Worry About Things Out of Our Control

Stoicism recognizes that not everything depends on us. To paraphrase the book's author Massimo Pigliucci, a person needs to have peace of mind to accept what cannot be changed, courage to change what is possible, and wisdom to always distinguish one from the other.

Most people are bothered by the thought of things they cannot control. It's funny: these same people may well agree that there is no point in worrying about things outside of our control.

Let's say the issue of your promotion is being decided. You believe that you deserve this promotion because you have worked for the company for many years, always achieved high results and built good relationships with your colleagues. Let's also assume that the final decision on your promotion will be made tomorrow. The stoic approach will allow you to sleep peacefully through the night, and in the morning you will know the decision made, whatever it may be.

You are calm not at all because you are confident in your promotion. You are calm because you know that you have done everything that is within your control, and you basically have no opportunity to influence everything else. So why suffer from insomnia?

Because of this principle, Stoicism is often interpreted as a passive philosophy and a call to humility. This is fundamentally wrong. The principles of Stoic philosophy were adhered to by many leading statesmen, generals and emperors, that is, people who are clearly not inclined to fatalistic inactivity. What set them apart from many other people was that they were wise enough to distinguish between their own goals, which were under their control, and external results, which they could influence but not completely control.

Principle number 2. Do not be afraid of losing things and people

From the previous paragraph follows the principle of non-attachment to things and people, which is also preached by Buddhism and many other philosophies and religions. This idea is also often misunderstood.

Often, attachment to a new phone is put on a par with attachment to one's own child or mother. It may seem that the principle of non-attachment is suitable only for a complete sociopath.

But the Stoics did not urge people not to love relatives and friends and not to take care of them. They were just telling the raw, hard truth that is hard to accept: that we are all mortal, and none of our loved ones belong to us or stay with us forever. Understanding this truth helps to keep your sanity in the event of the death of a loved one and calmly endure parting with a close friend who is leaving for another city. Also, when we accept this thought, we realize that it is better to enjoy the love of our loved ones and fellowship with them whenever possible, and not take them for granted.

Principle #3: Go beyond the biological

Another stoic principle is this: given that we are different from other animal species in intelligence, this obliges us to behave ethically. In other words, we shouldn't behave like animals, as this destroys our human essence, the most valuable thing we have.

Stoic ideas about ethics can be called similar to intuitionists, who believe that ethical knowledge is inherent in us - that is, we are able to intuitively draw clear distinctions between right and wrong. This hypothesis is supported by the behavior of animals in the natural environment. Thus, for example, primates display the rudiments of ethical behavior when they come to the aid of unrelated individuals in distress. It is unlikely that such behavior, say, pygmy chimpanzees due to their familiarity with ethical ideas about right and wrong.

At the same time, the Stoics took something from the ideas of empiricists (who believe that any knowledge, including ethical, can be obtained through observations and experiments), and from the ideas of rationalists (who came to knowledge through reflection on the subject).

The Stoics adhered to the idea of ​​"age development" of ethical awareness. Its essence lies in the fact that at the beginning of our lives we are guided by instincts and it is they that make us take care of ourselves and loved ones. As we reach adulthood (about 6-8 years old), we learn to expand our ethical awareness. From this point on, our instincts are reinforced by a combination of introspection and experience, that is, rationalistic and empirical approaches. According to the Stoics, the more mature a person becomes, the more the balance should shift from innate instincts towards reasoning.

Developing this idea, the Stoics proposed the concept of Stoic cosmopolitanism, which is conveniently represented in the form of concentric circles. The basic idea is to treat the people in the outer circles the same as the people in the inner circles.

The process of improvement occurs when you do not limit yourself to the center of the circle, but are part of all the other concentric circles.

The ancient philosophical trend of stoicism is a kind of tribute to virtue, which teaches everyone and everyone morality, order and responsibility. These dogmas appeared during the late Hellenistic period and existed for several centuries. This trend got its name, foundations and essence in Greece, but very soon became popular in the Roman Empire. It is impossible to talk about what Stoicism is in short. Therefore, we, relying on the works of the ancient sages, will consider this concept more widely.

Origin and description

The 4th century is considered to be an approximate date for the founding of the school of Stoicism. He played the role of a teacher and told everyone about his discoveries and reflections in the field of philosophy. So he became the founder of a new school, which later literally acquired other dogmas and stereotypes. Generally speaking, stoicism in philosophy is masculinity, steadfastness, firmness and resistance to all life's trials. It can be said with full confidence that the image of a typical stoic, as he was portrayed in the view of the ancient sages, was firmly entrenched in the minds of European society. Such a term always characterizes a hardy, unsentimental person, one who feels a sense of duty to himself and others. It is also worth noting that stoicism is the rejection of any emotions, since it is they that prevent a person from thinking sensibly and making rational decisions.

periodization

Scholars differ on this issue. Some researchers distinguish in the history of the development of this school the so-called zero period. It is believed that in Stoa Poikil, the sages, who had precisely stoic views on life, gathered 300 years before the birth of the founder of this movement. Unfortunately, all their names have been lost.

First period - Ancient Stoya. It lasted from the 4th to the 2nd centuries BC. Its main character was, of course, the founder - Zeno of China. Along with him were Cleanthes and Chrysippus of Sol. The first stage of Stoicism is considered to be exclusively Greek, since the teachings have not yet gone beyond the borders of this country. After the death of their mentors, their students were engaged in their work. Among them are Diogenes of Babylon, Crates of Mallus, Antipater, and so on.

Middle Stoya, or Stoic Platonism. It existed from the 2nd to the 1st century BC. The main characters of the era are Posidonius and Panetius of Rhodes. It was these representatives of Stoicism who began to transport their knowledge to Rome, where later they also became popular. Their students continued to develop the school - Dardanus, Diodotus, Athenodorus and others.

Late Stoya- from the 1st to the 2nd century AD. This period is also known as Roman Stoicism, since it was in this state that the development of the doctrine was already continuing. The main representatives of the third era are Seneca and Epictetus.

What is this philosophy based on?

In order to understand how the sages expressed their thoughts in those days, what exactly they put into the heads of those around them, it is necessary to understand what the teaching of Stoicism was. The theory of this school, which was "patented" by Zeno, was divided into three parts. It was logic, physics and ethics (exactly such a sequence). It was often compared to a blooming garden, where logic is a protective fence, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is its fruits. Similarly, the egg was divided into these three parts - the shell, protein and yolk (in a known sequence). Zeno's colleague, Cleanthes, believed that Stoicism is a much broader doctrine, therefore it should include more components. He introduced such sections as dialectics, rhetoric, politics, ethics, theology and physics. Those sages who continued to develop the doctrine after the death of the founders returned to the original theory, which included three elements.

Logics

Stoic logic consists of purely theoretical conclusions, each of which must be correct. At the same time, we note right away that it is impossible to compare them, since the theory of each subsequent one refutes the correctness of the previous one. It is necessary to go through this stage of the teaching because, as Chrysippus argued, this changes the state of the material soul. So, let's briefly consider a few logical conclusions of Stoicism:

• If A exists, then B also exists. A exists, therefore B also exists.
• A and B do not exist at the same time. And we have, so B cannot exist.
• Either A exists or B exists, but B does not exist. Therefore, A exists.

Physics

To understand this section, it is important to remember that Stoicism in philosophy is a purely material thing. It is on matter that all his teachings are based, which reject feelings, emotions, and other manifestations of something inexplicable and intangible. So, the Stoics see the world as a living organism, which is a material part of the material God, who created it all. This is exactly what the person himself is, whose fate is predetermined by the Creator - in this context it is called fate. Therefore, any objection to the plan of the Almighty is meaningless and even punishable. The Stoics believe that on the way to the fulfillment of one's duty, a person meets passion, which becomes his most important thorn. Having got rid of passions, a person becomes strong and ready to fight. Force, in turn, is the finest matter that is sent by the Lord.

Ethics of Stoicism

In the ethical aspect, the Stoics are comparable to the cosmopolitans. They claim that every person is a citizen of the universe, and everyone is equal before their Creator. On the same bar are masters and slaves, barbarians and Greeks, men and women. Ancient stoicism teaches everyone to be kind, directs them on the true path, makes them self-develop and improve. At the same time, any deviation from dogmas, indulgence in passions or committing sins are considered a lower act. To put it more succinctly, the essence of the ethics of Stoicism is that everyone is part of a mosaic, one of many elements of a common design. And the one who agrees with this, fate leads, and the one who refutes his destiny, she drags.

Summarize this information

After we have considered all the elements that make up Stoicism, let us briefly characterize it. It is necessary to live in harmony with nature, without harming others and yourself. It is worth obeying your fate, going with the flow, because everything has its own reason. At the same time, it is necessary to remain impartial, strong and courageous. A person should always be ready to overcome any obstacle in order to become better and more useful for the world and for God. The characteristic of Stoicism also lies in its affects. There are four of them: disgust, pleasure, fear and lust. The "ortho logos" - the correct judgment - will help to avoid these.

Ancient Stoya and its development

In those centuries when Stoicism was only born in ancient Greece, it was more theoretical than practical. All the philosophers who were its adherents, including the founder himself, pored over the creation of the theory, the written basis of the new school. They succeeded, as we can see today. Specific logical conclusions appeared, a certain material base in the "physics" section, as well as results that were titled "ethics". According to the ancient Greek sages, the essence of Stoicism lies precisely in the dispute. This is clearly demonstrated by the conclusions that are considered logical. Perhaps it is the Stoics who are the authors of the famous expression "truth is born in a dispute."

Middle stage of development

At the turn of the era, when Greece became a colony of the mighty and domineering Rome, the knowledge of the Hellenes became the property of the Empire. The Romans, in turn, preferred deeds to words, so this philosophical school ceased to be purely theoretical. Gradually, all the knowledge acquired by the Greeks began to be put into practice. It was the quotes of the Greek sages that motivated many warriors. Their words served as a support and support for people who were lost in life. Moreover, over the years, stoicism has become so accustomed to society that the lines (but not completely) between slaves and masters, as well as between the sexes, gradually began to blur. In a word, Roman society became more humane, reasonable and educated.

Roman philosophy. Stoicism in its final years

At the dawn of a new era, this trend has already become a kind of religion and an unwritten life charter for every Roman. The whole logic of Stoicism, its conclusions, laws and metaphors are in the past. The main ideas of the Greek sages - the materiality of everything and everyone, impartiality and submission to fate - were embodied in life. But here it is necessary to emphasize that it was at this time that Christianity began to spread in the world, which gradually conquered all the countries of Europe and Asia. How were things in the Roman Empire? For the Romans, stoicism is everything. This teaching contained their life, their faith. They believed that man should be as close to nature as possible. He must remain cold, extremely calm and restrained. But the main idea that the Romans themselves derived, based on the knowledge of the Greeks, is the fight against the fear of death. In their opinion, a person who coped with this flaw becomes one of the most important links in the universe.

Features of the development of stoicism in Rome

It is clear that if we are talking about death, about fears, then this is a clear sign that philosophy is turning into theology. The second, as you know, people are afraid, and therefore they obey all dogmas, unconditionally following every rule. In the last years of its existence, Roman stoicism acquired not only enormous proportions, but also pessimistic motives. For its representatives (and this was the vast majority of the elite of society), it was no longer self-development and unity with nature that was important, but complete submission to fate, up to the loss of one's own "I". At the same time, the main task was to cope with the fear of death. That is, everyone was determined that at any moment he might not be, and there is nothing to worry about. Such motifs are especially clearly seen in the work of Epictetus. They took root after Marcus Aurelius himself, the emperor of a great power, adopted stoicism.

Contact with Christianity

In the early years of its existence, the Christian religion did not find adherents in every corner of the globe. For a long time, peoples could not abandon the ancient beliefs, the traditions of their ancestors. In some cases, they were combined with Christianity (dualism), the same trend was observed in the Roman Empire. From the first century AD, stoicism began to spread in the state on a huge scale. This could be compared to new laws that became mandatory for everyone. The Romans literally became obsessed with apathy and unity with nature, but very soon their views begin to change under the influence of a new faith. For a long time, the people, including the ruling dynasty, did not accept Christianity. Years passed, and the foundations of these theological teachings began to complement each other. It should be borne in mind that Christianity at that time was the youngest religion, it needed a certain basis, which Stoicism could provide it with. This relationship can now be clearly traced. Indeed, in both theories we are told that one cannot be biased, one must not indulge in vices, evil, fear. Both Christianity and Stoicism are teachings about kindness, about knowledge, about strength, and also about the fact that the ways of the Lord are inscrutable, and each of us must be submissive to the Highest Plan.

Paradoxes and incidents

It often happens that a certain doctrine, which stretches over several centuries, therefore, is compiled by different people, as a result, it consists of inconsistencies and some absurdities. This is exactly what Stoicism is in philosophy. This doctrine originated in the 4th century BC and existed after that for 600 years. In the course of development, there was not only a transition from appatism to pessimism. At the center of the problem was the fact that a person is simultaneously subject to God and his plans, but at the same time remains internally free. It was spiritual restlessness that many Stoics preached both in Greece and in Rome. Modern researchers believe that this is one of the sides of the logical doctrine. The first conclusion excludes the correctness of the second, and vice versa.

Stoicism today

It is almost impossible to meet a typical stoic in the 21st century. The dogmas of ancient teachings are comprehended either by researchers who are closely engaged in this, or by theologians, while adherents of predominantly Eastern religions (there are more similarities with the philosophy of stoicism). Each of us, to a small extent, can draw the knowledge of the ancient authors from the Bible. In fairness, it should be noted that even most of the sacred commandments are based on the ancient theology of the Romans. But sometimes people of our time are still called Stoics. This happens in the event that a person completely surrenders, becomes a fatalist, loses all faith in himself and his abilities. Such people are typical apaths who take any twist of fate, any loss or find, for granted. They do not really enjoy life and are not upset if something terrible happens.

Afterword

Stoicism in philosophy is a whole science that has existed for centuries and gave rise to many knowledge and teachings that appeared in the Middle Ages. The Stoics believed that the Universe is material, and each of its cells, each element has its own destiny and purpose. Therefore, in no case can one oppose the events that are taking place. Everything that happens has its reasons, and a person living in harmony with nature, with this course of life situations, will be a worthy part of the Universe. The one who opposes all this will be unhappy. For his fate is in any case predetermined, and there is no escape from it. Because everyone has a choice. A person can put up with fate and live in happiness and rapture until death. Or resist everything, making yourself and others unhappy.

STOICISM

STOICISM - one of the schools of ancient Greek philosophy, the founder of which was Zenon from Kition (a city on the island of Cyprus), who lived in the late 4th - early 3rd centuries. BC. It got its name from the Stoja Pecile Hall, in which Zenon first spoke as an independent speaker. The Stoics also include Cleanthes, a disciple of Zeno and his successor in the Stoa, and Christippus, a disciple of Cleanthes. It is customary to attribute to the later Stoa Diogenes from Seleucia (a city in Babylonia), who later became the Athenian ambassador to Rome and introduced the Romans to ancient Greek philosophy; Panetia is the teacher of Cicero, Posidonius, who also lived in Rome at the same time as Cicero in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. Moving on to the Romans, Stoic philosophy acquires here an increasingly rhetorical and instructive-ethical character, losing the actual physical part of the teachings of its ancient Greek predecessors. Among the Roman Stoics, Seneca, Epictetus, Antoninus, Arrian, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertes and others should be noted. In the form of complete books, only the works of the Roman Stoics have survived - mainly Seneca, Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, according to which, as well as from individual surviving fragments of the early Stoics, one can form ideas about the philosophical views of this school. Stoic philosophy is divided into three main parts: physics (philosophy of nature), logic and ethics (philosophy of the spirit). The physics of the Stoics is composed mainly of the teachings of their philosophical predecessors (Heraclitus and others) and therefore is not particularly original. It is based on the idea of ​​the Logos as an all-determining, all-generating, all-pervasive substance - a rational world soul or God. All nature is the embodiment of a universal law, the study of which is extremely important and necessary, because it is at the same time a law for a person, in accordance with which he should live. In the bodily world, the Stoics distinguished between two principles - the active mind (aka Logos, God) and the passive mind (or qualityless substance, matter). Under the influence of the ideas of Heraclitus, the Stoics assign the role of an active, all-producing beginning to fire, gradually turning into all the other elements - air, water, earth (as into their own forms). Moreover, this self-development of the world is carried out cyclically, i.e. at the beginning of each new cycle, fire (aka God and Logos) again and again gives rise to other principles, which at the end of the cycle turn into fire. Sooner or later, therefore, a cosmic conflagration will take place, everything will become fire; “The whole process will be repeated again and again ad infinitum. Everything that happens in this world has happened before and will happen again countless times.” Each time the so-called “inseminating logoi” pour out from the world Logos, which determine the nature of all individual bodies. Thus, the Logos permeates this whole world and controls its body, being thereby not only a providence, but also a destiny, a kind of necessary chain of all the causes of everything that exists. We are talking about cosmic determinism, according to which the direction of all natural processes is strictly determined by natural laws. Each body is rigidly included in the universal nature due to "its own nature", i.e. all things are parts of a single system. It must be said that only the early Stoics paid attention to this department in their philosophy; their Roman followers emphasized the role of logic and ethics much more. In the logic of the Stoics, it was mainly about the problems of the theory of knowledge - reason, truth, its sources, as well as about proper logical questions. Speaking about the unity of comprehending thinking and being, they assigned a decisive role in cognition not to sensory representation, but to “comprehended representation”, i.e. "gone back into thought and become inherent in consciousness." To be true, a representation must be grasped through thought. The mind at the same time, as it were, gives its consent to such a representation, recognizing it as true. The Stoics worked a lot on the development of formal logic, studied forms of thought as "fixed fixed forms", paying special attention to simple and complex statements, the theory of inference, etc. However, the main part of their teaching, which made them famous in the history of philosophy and culture, was their ethics, the central concept of which was the concept of virtue. Like everything in this world, human life is also considered as part of a single system of nature, since each person contains a grain of divine fire. In this sense, every life is in harmony with nature, it is what the laws of nature have made it to be. Living according to nature and the Logos is the main purpose of man. Only such a life, directed towards goals that are also natural goals, can be called virtuous. Virtue is will. Virtue, which is in harmony with nature, becomes the only human good, and since it lies entirely in the will, everything really good or bad in human life depends solely on the person himself, who can be virtuous under any conditions: in poverty, in prison, being sentenced to death, etc. Moreover, each person also turns out to be completely free, if only he could free himself from worldly desires. The sage becomes the ethical ideal of the Stoics as the true master of his destiny, who has achieved complete virtue and dispassion, for no external force can deprive him of virtue due to his independence from any external circumstances. He acts in harmony with nature, voluntarily following fate. In the ethics of the Stoics we encounter elements of formalism reminiscent of Kant's ethical formalism. Since all possible good deeds are not really good deeds, nothing really matters except our own good deeds. One should be virtuous not at all in order to do good, but on the contrary, one must do good in order to be virtuous. Of great interest today are the ideas of the late Stoics - Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius and others, of which the first was an important dignitary and educator of the future emperor Nero, the second was a slave, and the third was the emperor himself, who left us the most interesting reflections "Alone with himself" imbued with the idea of ​​patience and the need to resist earthly desires. Russell said that the ethics of the Stoics somehow reminded him of “green grapes”: “we cannot be happy, but we can be good; let's imagine that as long as we are kind, it doesn't matter if we are unhappy." C, especially in his Roman version, had a great influence with his religious tendencies on the then emerging Neoplatonism and Christian philosophy, and his ethics turned out to be surprisingly relevant in modern times, attracting attention with the idea of ​​​​the inner freedom of the human person and natural law.

The latest philosophical dictionary. - Minsk: Book House. A. A. Gritsanov. 1999

See what "STOICISM" is in other dictionaries:

The teaching of one of the most influential philosophies. schools of antiquity founded c. 300 BC Zeno of Kition. The history of S. is traditionally divided into three periods: the early standing (Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus and their students, 3-2 centuries BC), the middle standing ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

STOICISM- STOICISM is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of Antiquity, founded c. 300 BC e. Zeno from Kitia; the name "Stoya" comes from the name of the "Painted Portico" (Στοὰ Ποικίλη) in Athens, where Zenon taught. ... ... ancient philosophy

- (Greek from stoikizo to belong to the Stoic sect). The philosophy of Zeno, which took its name from the portico (stoa portico) on which his students gathered; distinguished by a special strictness of morals, adhering to the rule: live according to the law of reason, always ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Stoicism- Stoicism ♦ Stoicisme An ancient philosophical school founded by Zeno of Kition. It was rethought and updated by Chrysippus, and further developed thanks to Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. The school owes its name not to the founder, ... ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

stoicism- a, m. stoicisme, German. Stoizism. Named after the portico of the Stoa in Athens, where the philosopher Zeno taught. SIS 1954. 1. A direction in ancient philosophy that required the conscious subordination of a person to the necessity and domination of man that prevails in the world ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

Modern Encyclopedia

Stoicism- [from the Greek stoa portico (a gallery with columns in Athens, where the philosopher Zeno, the founder of Stoicism) taught), the direction of ancient philosophy. Ancient Stoa (3-2 centuries BC) Zeno from Kition, Cleanthes, Chrysippus; Middle Stoya (2nd 1st centuries BC) ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

STOICISM, stoicism, pl. no, husband. (from the Greek stoikos stoic). 1. Rationalistic philosophical doctrine in ancient Greece and Rome (history of philosophy). 2. trans. Firmness in life's trials, stamina, ability to resist temptations (book ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

See stamina Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language. Z. E. Alexandrova. 2011. stoicism n., number of synonyms: 9 ... Synonym dictionary

- (Stoicism) Capitalized, this word refers to the philosophy of Zeno (circa 300 BC) and his followers. The Stoics believed that everything in the world is predetermined by necessity, and therefore everything should be treated calmly. This is the last…… Political science. Dictionary.

One of the schools of ancient Greek philosophy, the founder of which was Zenon from Kition (a city on the island of Cyprus), who lived at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 3rd century. BC. The name was received from the name of the Stoja Pecile hall, in which Zenon first performed as ... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia

Books

• , Aurelius M.. Stoicism is a truly unique philosophical school: originating in the III-II century BC. e., it also captivates our contemporaries. In this book, you will get acquainted with the brightest thoughts of some of the best ...

Stoic philosophy

The response to the spread of Cynic ideas was the emergence and development of the philosophical school of the Stoics("Stoya" is the name of the portico in Athens where it was founded). Among the Roman Stoics, Seneca, Epictetus, Antoninus, Arrian, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertes and others should be noted. Only the works of the Roman Stoics, mainly Seneca, Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, have come down to us in the form of complete books.

Zeno of Kition is considered the founder of this philosophical school (not to be confused with Zeno of Elea, the author of the so-called "aporias" - paradoxes).

Stoic philosophy has gone through a series of stages.

Early standing (III - II centuries BC), representatives - Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus and others;

Middle standing (II - I centuries BC) - Panettius, Posidonius;

Late standing (I century BC - III century AD) - Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.

The main idea of ​​the philosophical school of the Stoics (similar to the main idea of ​​the philosophy of the Cynics) is liberation from the influence of the outside world. But unlike the Cynics, who saw liberation from the influence of the outside world in the rejection of the values ​​of traditional culture, an asocial lifestyle (begging, vagrancy, etc.), the Stoics chose a different path to achieve this goal - constant self-improvement, perception of the best achievements of traditional culture, wisdom .

Thus, the ideal of the Stoics is sage who has risen above the fuss of the surrounding life, freed from the influence of the outside world thanks to his enlightenment, knowledge, virtue and dispassion (apathy), autarky (self-sufficiency). A real sage, according to the Stoics, is not even afraid of death; It is from the Stoics that the understanding of philosophy as the science of dying comes. Here the model for the Stoics was Socrates. However, the similarity of the Stoics with Socrates is only that they build their ethics on knowledge. But unlike Socrates, they seek virtue not for the sake of happiness, but for the sake of peace and serenity, indifference to everything external. This indifference they call apathy (dispassion). Dispassion is their ethical ideal.

However: “After the death of the parents, it is necessary to bury them as simply as possible, as if their body meant nothing to us, like nails or hair, and as if we were not indebted to him for such attention and care. Therefore, if the meat of the parents is suitable for food, then let them use it, as they should use their own members, for example, a severed leg and the like. If this meat is not suitable for consumption, then let them hide it by digging out a grave, or after burning it, scatter its ashes, or throw it away, not paying any attention to it, like nails or hair ”(Chrysippus). The list of such quotes can be continued, and they talk about the justification of suicide, the permissibility in certain situations of lies, murder, cannibalism, incest, etc.

At the heart of the Stoic world outlook, and all Stoic ethics as its conceptual understanding, lies fundamental experience of the finitude and dependence of human existence; an experience that consists in a clear awareness of the tragic situation of a person subordinate to fate. His birth and death; the inner laws of his own nature; drawing of life; everything that he strives for or tries to avoid depends on external causes and is not entirely in his power.

However, another, no less significant, experience of Stoicism is awareness of human freedom. The only thing that is completely in our power is reason and the ability to act according to reason; agreement to regard something as good or evil and the intention to act on it. Nature itself gave man the opportunity to be happy, despite all the vicissitudes of fate.

Stoic philosophy is divided into three main parts: physics(philosophy of nature), logic And ethics(philosophy of the spirit).

Physics of the Stoics compiled mainly from the teachings of their philosophical predecessors (Heraclitus and others) and therefore does not differ in particular originality.

IN Stoic logic it was mainly about the problems of the theory of knowledge - reason, truth, its sources, as well as about proper logical questions.

TO characteristic features of Stoic philosophy also include:

A call to life in harmony with nature and the World Cosmic Mind (Logos);

Recognition of virtue as the highest good, and vice as the only evil;

Definition of virtue as knowledge of good and evil and following good;

A call to virtue as a permanent state of mind and moral guide;

Recognition of official laws and state power only if they are virtuous;

Non-participation in the life of the state (self-restraint), ignoring laws, traditional philosophy and culture, if they serve evil;

Justification of suicide if it is committed as a protest against injustice, evil and vices and the inability to do good;

Admiration for wealth, health, beauty, perception of the best achievements of world culture;

High aestheticism in thoughts and actions;

Condemnation of poverty, disease, poverty, vagrancy, begging, human vices;

Recognition of the pursuit of happiness as the highest goal of man.

The most famous representatives of Stoic philosophy were Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca(5 BC - 65 AD) - a major Roman philosopher, educator of Emperor Nero, during whose reign he had a strong and beneficial influence on public affairs. After Nero began to pursue a vicious policy, Seneca retired from public affairs and committed suicide.

In his works, the philosopher:

He preached the ideas of virtue;

He urged not to participate in public life and focus on oneself, one's own spiritual state;

Welcomed peace and contemplation;

He was a supporter of life invisible to the state, but joyful for the individual;

He believed in the limitless possibilities for the development of man and mankind as a whole, foresaw cultural and technological progress;

He exaggerated the role of philosophers and sages in government and all other spheres of life, despised the simple and uneducated people, the "crowd";

He considered the moral ideal and human happiness to be the highest good;

I saw in philosophy not an abstract theoretical system, but a practical guide for managing the state, social processes, for achieving happiness in life for people.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus(121 - 180 AD) - the largest Roman Stoic philosopher, in 161 - 180 years. - Roman Emperor. Wrote a philosophical work "To myself."

TO the main ideas of the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius relate:

Deep personal respect for God;

Recognition of the highest world principle of God;

Understanding God as an active material and spiritual force, uniting the whole world and penetrating into all its parts;

Explanation of all the events taking place around the Divine Providence;

Seeing as the main reason for the success of any state undertaking, personal success, the happiness of cooperation with the Divine forces;

Separation of the outer world, which is not subject to man, . and the inner world, subject only to man;

Recognition as the main reason for the happiness of an individual is bringing his inner world into line with the outside world;

Separation of soul and mind;

Calls for non-resistance to external circumstances, for following fate;

Reflections on the finiteness of human life, calls to appreciate and maximize the opportunities of life;

Preference for a pessimistic view of the phenomena of the surrounding reality.

Stoicism is a philosophy for strict people. The point, however, is not to be harsh, but to accept life as it can be: unpleasant or joyful. Bad things happen and we shouldn't try to avoid them.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Explain the origin of the word "stoic".

2. What is the main idea of ​​Stoic philosophy? What is fatalism?

3. What is positive about the fatalistic view of the world?

4. What is stoic happiness?

In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. The history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a certain sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day.

In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, ideological clashes and struggle are projected. The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic separation very clearly explain the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society; it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The richness of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

Lecture five . MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

Medieval philosophy, breaking away from one mythology - pagan, was captured by another mythology - Christian, becoming a "servant of theology", but retained the character of a holistic, all-encompassing world miro-views. The chronological framework of medieval philosophy is determined, of course, by the time span of the Middle Ages itself. The beginning of the Middle Ages is attributed to the final fall of Rome and the death of the last Roman emperor, the infant Romulus Augustulus in 476. The standard periodization is the 5th-15th centuries, a thousand years of the existence of medieval culture.

When and how did the Middle Ages begin? - this era begins when the corpus of texts of the Old and New Testament acquires the status of the only unconditional text.

In contrast to antiquity, where truth had to be mastered, the medieval world of thought was confident about the openness of truth, about revelation in Holy Scripture. The idea of ​​revelation was developed by the Church Fathers and enshrined in dogmas. Thus understood, the truth itself strove to take possession of man, to penetrate him. Against the background of Greek wisdom, this idea was completely new.

During the Middle Ages, there was a philosophical struggle in Europe and the Middle East. On one side was the authority of the church, which believed that religious dogmas should only be accepted on faith. On the other side were religious philosophers who sought to combine religious ideas with philosophical ideas taken from the teachings of the Greek classics Plato and Aristotle.

It was believed that a person was born in truth, he must comprehend it not for his own sake, but for its own sake, for God was it. It was believed that the world was created by God not for the sake of man, but for the sake of the Word, the second Divine hypostasis, the incarnation of which on earth was Christ in the unity of Divine and human nature. Therefore, the far-off world was originally thought to be built into the higher reality; accordingly, the human mind was built into it, partaking of this reality in a certain way - due to the innateness of man into the truth.

Communion Mind is the definition of medieval reason; the function of philosophy is to discover the right ways for the implementation of the sacrament: this meaning is contained in the expression "philosophy is the servant of theology". The mind was mystically oriented, since it was aimed at revealing the essence of the Word that created the world, and mysticism was rationally organized due to the fact that the Logos could not be represented otherwise than logically.

In the history of medieval philosophy, various periods are distinguished: patristics(II-X centuries) and scholasticism(XI-XIV centuries). In each of these periods, rationalistic and mystical lines are distinguished. The rationalistic lines of patristics and scholasticism are described in detail in the relevant sections, and we have combined the mystical lines into an article. mystical teachings of the Middle Ages.

Along with Christian, there was Arabic, i.e. Muslim and Jewish medieval philosophies.

Historians have called philosophy "the exercise of wisdom." Logic is an integral part of it, forming judgments, conclusions, worldview. Without logic it is impossible to understand physics and ethics. These two sciences underlie the philosophical movement - Stoicism. What is this concept, what is the main idea, we will consider further.

periodization

Zeno, the founder of Stoicism as a philosophical movement, tried to combine physics, ethics and logic. The first performance is attributed to the 5th century BC. Zeno acted as a teacher, sharing ideas and philosophical reflections with others.

There are several periods of Stoa:

1. Early, or Ancient - the period from the 5th to the 2nd century BC. The main figure was the founder Zeno of Kitia. But he was not the only speaker. Among them are Cleanthes and Chrysippus. The ancient Stoa is called Greek, because the teaching did not leave the country. When the mentors died, their work passed to the disciples. Among them: Diogenes of Babylon, Crates of Mallus.
2. The next period is Stoic Platonism. It existed for about a century in the 1st century BC. Poseidonius, along with Panetius of Rhodes, went beyond Greece to Rome, becoming popular.
3. The era of Roman Stoicism, or the Late Stoa. In Rome, further development of the doctrine began. The most eminent representatives of this period of time are Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Epictetus.

Doctrine principles

Stoic philosophy assigns a special place to the soul - the center and bearer of knowledge. Unlike modern understanding, it was perceived by the material part of the world. In some cases, the soul is denoted by pneuma - the combination of air with fire. The mind is the central part of the soul, it contains the ability for logical thinking and everything that determines the work of the psyche. Mind is the link between man and the world. Each person is connected with the world Mind and is a part of it.

The abstract thinking of the Stoics became the basis for the formation of formal logic. The meaning of logic is in its ability to express the activity of the mind as a conscious mind.

Like the Cynics, the Stoics preached the liberation of man from the influence of the external environment as the main idea, but they chose a different strategy of behavior for themselves. They chose the path of spiritual development, acceptance and interest in progress in world culture, and wisdom.

The teachings of the Stoics are based on three sciences:

• Physics;
• ethics;
• Logic.

Let's take a closer look at each science separately.

Physics

Physics among the Stoics implied a deep and broad concept, compared with modern science. Physics - a vision of the world c. Perfect divine unity. Alive, continuous, capable of creation. All processes are controlled and managed according to the laws of Reason. Physics is further divided into several types, depending on the areas of human life. They cover concepts:

• human body;
• gods;
• limits;
• space;
• voids;
• start.

The sign of existence, according to Stoicism, is the ability to act, or to remain inactive. Only bodies have it.

The Universe is a living organic whole, all parts of which are logically coordinated with each other. Matter is immovable, does not have any physical properties. The Deity is the physical substance from which the body of the Universe emerges. Logos is a single divine mind that controls all processes. The Stoics saw the world as a whole. Everything in nature moves and changes. The integrity of the world in consistency. Chrysippus said that the world is a sphere located in the void, which has no body.

Logics

Logic in Stoicism is the knowledge of internal and external dialogue. correct theoretical conclusions. Each subsequent statement refutes the previous one.

Rhetoric and dialectic are the main teachings of the Stoics. There was also the doctrine of concepts and inferences, and the doctrine of signs. The Stoics developed the theory of inference. The representatives of the Stoic school saw the sources of knowledge in perception and sensations. Through them ideas were formed. The Stoics identified four categories:

1. Substances are the essence from which everything is formed.
2. Qualities. From substance come things endowed with qualities. Quality refers to the permanent properties of things
3. States are variable properties of things
4. Relationships - all things are interconnected with each other.

Ethics

What is the ethics of Stoicism? The ethical reasoning of the Stoics is based on a sense of duty. Perfection is achieved in life according to the laws of nature and obedience to fate.

A person can make the world perfect within his own personality, through pride and the desire to live according to the laws of morality. The Stoics singled out a special place for the knowledge of passions and their subordination. Through knowledge and adherence to duty, inner freedom is achieved. The main features of Stoicism as a philosophical trend:

1. Life in unity with the laws of nature and the Logos (world cosmic mind).
2. Virtue is the highest good of life, vice is the only evil.
3. Virtue is a constant internal state of a person, his moral guideline.
4. Virtue is the knowledge of good and evil.
5. State laws are passed when virtue is served.
6. Ignoring laws designed to serve evil.
7. Suicide is not a sin and can be justified if it is a protest against cruelty, evil, injustice and there was no other way to do good.
8. Strive for excellence in thought and action.
9. Interest in the development of world culture, art, the desire for wealth, prosperity.
10. The pursuit of happiness is the highest goal, the meaning of human life.

The Stoics adhered to two main principles:

1. Material, as the basis.
2. Divine (Logos). It penetrates matter, creating material things.

These two principles are related to dualism. But Aristotle considered the quote - "the first essence" in the unity of form and matter, elevating the form, since it is the active principle of matter. The Stoics recognized matter as primary, despite the fact that it is passive.

Tasks

The Stoics, whose philosophies, in unity with nature, set themselves the following tasks:

1. Raise a person who has inner freedom and strength not to depend on external factors.
2. To make a person strong spiritually so that he can resist the world Chaos.
3. Teach people to live according to conscience.
4. Cultivate tolerance for the faith of others and teach them to love them.
5. Instill a sense of humor.
6. Learn how to use school theory in practice.

Philosophers

Consider the basic principles of the philosophy of the main representatives of the Stoa, as a philosophical direction.

Marcus Aurelius

Philosopher, logician and thinker Marcus Aurelius:

1. Respect and reverence for God.
2. God is the highest principle of the world, a spiritual force penetrating into every part of the world and uniting it.
3. What is happening is the work of God.
4. Success in public affairs, the achievement of happiness and success, Marcus Aurelius explains by cooperation with the Higher, Divine forces.
5. The outside world is not subject to man. He rules only the inner world.
6. The reason for human happiness is in the correspondence of the inner world with the outer.
7. Soul and body are separate.
8. People should not resist what is happening, but trust fate, follow it.
9. Human life is short, you need to use its opportunities.
10. Pessimistic perception of the world.

Seneca

The teachings of Seneca were as follows:

1. He preached virtue.
2. Participation in state and public affairs is not as important as focusing on one's own life.
3. Another hallmark of Seneca is the greeting of peace and contemplation.
4. Seneca believed that it is better to live inconspicuously, from the point of view of society and the state, but in such a way that a person feels happy.
5. He foresaw progress in the development of culture and technology, believing that human possibilities are unlimited.
6. He gave a special place to philosophers and sages in the management of various spheres of human life, despising the ignorance of ordinary people.
7. The moral ideal and a happy life from the position of Seneca is the highest human good.
8. Philosophy is not just a separate system, but a guide to managing the state, society and processes.

Stoic principles today

Today, under the definition of the Stoics understand the negative meaning. These are people who hide their feelings. The concept of teaching is in rigor, but the main meaning is not only in it. Three principles of thinkers of that time will help to receive joy and become happy:

1. Gratitude. The essence of human suffering is the inability to be grateful for what is. Psychologists advise to imagine what you want, to get used to the role in order to get what you want. The Stoics used the opposite way. The logic of the method is that the Stoics imagined how they were losing what they had and were grateful that this did not happen.
2. Black humor. It is customary to respond to insults with insults. The Stoics would have laughed at their own personality, showing the interlocutor the lack of power over themselves.
3. Focusing time and energy on what its representatives have the power to change. Setting goals, the stoic is not tied to the result, he focuses on the process.

Stoicism in philosophy is the science of rigor and duty, which gave rise to other sciences. It teaches that the entire Universe is alive and that every cell has a place and purpose.

The philosophy of Stoicism was influential in the formation of the early Christian faith.