home
Ayurveda
The structure of literary criticism. The role of literary knowledge in journalism

The structure of literary criticism. The role of literary knowledge in journalism

07.05.2019

The intellectualist direction is represented by the literary theory and practice of "scientific poetry", which denies any emotions. Experiences, argue supporters of "scientific poetry", "impoverish", make a poetic work "primitive". Feeling ceases to be both the main theme of poetic research and an impulse for the poet, and the essence of poetry lies in its vocation to synthesize the data obtained as a result of scientific analysis.

If the scientist relies on the method of scientific analysis and logical thinking, then the poet relies on his life impressions and on the method of intuitive synthesis. Science, in order to give a person knowledge, divides, splits into parts the reality surrounding him; poetry restores - but already at a new level - harmony in the Universe, comprehends the connections of familiar parts and elements with life and generalizes them into a single whole.

"Scientific poetry" makes special demands on poetic form. It is argued, for example, that the phonetic content of poetic vocabulary must be in full agreement with the poetic idea in order to characterize it with sound, approximately recreate the external situation in which this idea is brought to life. To prove their ideas, representatives of "scientific poetry" compiled tables of correlations between vowels and consonants, short and long, sharp and muffled sounds, talked about the use of simple, rough and melodic sound combinations and words, about rhythm, about the use of scientific formulas and terms. An attempt to combine science and poetry turned into a mechanical synthesis, the hope of finding universal principles for describing the world further alienated thought from spiritual search. In essence, poetry was placed outside the boundaries of independent artistic research and turned into a figurative illustration of scientific discoveries and laws.

Many representatives of "intellectual", "scientific" poetry bring the decomposition of verse to a geometric composition of letters, which is then passed off as a poetic work. Scandalously sensational geometric images show that "mathematical lyricism" rejects not only the urgent problems and artistic specificity of poetry as an art form, but seeks to deprive it of traditional visual means. After all, poetry was born and exists thanks to the poetic word. The works of experimental authors may be of interest as a wayward scatter of type or as a polygraphic rebus imitating symbolism.

In formal experimental poetry, the diverse content of the world is sacrificed to a pure form, which leads to the neglect of the unity of expression and image and destroys the integrity of the artistic image. It ignores the fact that the nature of figurativeness depends on the language and on the genre laws of art, which are conservative and relatively independent, and on the creative individuality of writers who express human emotions, thoughts and moods of the era in different ways.

The artistic language, in contrast to the scientific language, is marked by figurative and emotional expressiveness. That is why the tropes and melodic pattern acquire exceptional importance in it. The effect of the inseparability of figurativeness and strikingness is extremely evident in poetry, in which the infringement of one of the components leads to the disintegration of the artistic image.

Henri Poincaré argued that scientific thinking is carried out in the "indicative mood", and morality, in the broad sense of culture, in the "imperative" mood. The subordination of the second to the first, as shown by some trends in the culture of the 20th century, leads to the fact that literature becomes the sum of experiments, and not the search necessary for knowing the world.

The importance of literature as a source of understanding of the world should not be exaggerated. It is not the author's task to reconcile the opposing sides of reality or to develop precise methods that will solve the numerous problems facing the individual and society. It is a mistake to apply the criteria of expediency of choice to the evaluation of a work. Meanwhile, one cannot ignore the fact that it is on the border of science and artistic creativity that answers to the eternal questions and demands of modernity are born.

Science comprehends the continuous and predictable process of human existence, which can be generalized in formulas and concepts of physical, physiological, etc. structures, its methods are associated with intellectual activity and are focused on an objective result.

Fiction offers a special type of anthropological knowledge, it considers the versatile and spontaneous expression of the individual and the social, generalizes the accidental. Writers explore the contradictions between the needs and abilities of the characters, try to find a compromise between social necessity and the personal aspirations of the characters, strive to artistically comprehend the boundaries of individual claims, norms and prohibitions, which ultimately determine the reader's view of the world, the nature of the needs and desires of the recipient.

Fiction is not a figurative illustration of scientific concepts and ideas. This is an original spiritual and cognitive system that achieves unity between the universal truth and its specific manifestations. Literature as a form of artistic knowledge does not adapt scientific and philosophical truths to sensual contemplation, but explores the relationship between the objective and the subjective in their concrete textual embodiment.

The originality of the figurative nature of literature is determined, first of all, by the special nature of the subject of the image. If a scientist seeks to comprehend the essence of an object, regardless of human relations and assessments, then the writer is interested in reality not in itself, but in its relation to a person, to his life-emotional direct impressions. Social and individual-psychological reality is refracted by the artist through essential human relationships, thoughts, feelings, and only in the light of such an assessment does it enter into the subject of art. The artistic image, in contrast to the scientific concept, has an aesthetic sensual-emotional immediacy. Even language in literature plays the role not only of a symbol, but also of the plastic material from which the image is created.

The conditions for a scientific approach to reality are that facts are compared within the set task, then the selected material is classified, and the interaction of elements is studied. Then experiments, observations and comparisons follow in order to test the internal connections of the structure. Schematization is a characteristic feature of the scientific approach.

The writer makes various elements of reality "interact" within a certain plot model. He brings the results of artistic comprehension to the reader's judgment. In the book, social phenomena, historical information, psychological well-being of people, philosophical systems, financial relations, humanitarian concepts, and physiological data are involved in interaction. The degree of their "accuracy" and objectivity may be different, but the general direction of the creative process is focused on discovering the internal connections of the phenomena of reality, creating a unique portrait of reality.

Fiction cognizes and generalizes the world with the help of artistic images. It explores the prevailing trends in social and individual evolution. A literary work becomes a cognitive sphere for the reader, a source of knowledge about certain life situations that he encounters in reality. Literature expands the world of the reader, opens up endless possibilities for the search for knowledge that is different from that which is achieved scientifically.

Science studies the total man. Literature consciously takes into account the individual characteristics of people who, after all, are its authors and objects of study.

To find out the specific differences between literature and scientific creativity, one should, as an example, compare the results of the work of a scientist who conducted an experiment in his laboratory and a writer who created a work.

Usually the results of a scientific experiment are presented in a scientific journal or book. Of the countless thoughts, actions, and various approaches that directly related to the experiment, only a very small part of them is mentioned in the article. The goals of the experiment are reported, the experimental setup and methods of work are described, the theoretical substantiation is presented, innovations in calculations are indicated, etc. In conclusion, the result is given, the receipt of which presumably stimulated the study.

A work of art differs from a scientific statement in that it is a subjective image of objective things, in which generalization and individualization are inseparable from the laws of genre and language.

Fiction provides the transmission of our cultural heritage through the centuries and is a "living" and typical evidence of the social and spiritual life of a person, is a portrait of the past, an allegorical picture of the present, a source of reflection on the future.

An irreproachable mathematical formula, like a literary work of genius, is able to evoke an aesthetic experience with the perfection of the logical construction, conciseness, reasoning and comprehensiveness of the approach.

To the remark of the theoretical physicist Ehrenfest about de Broglie’s wave mechanics (“If this is so, then I don’t understand anything in physics”), Einstein replied: “In physics you understand, you don’t understand in geniuses.” Literary creativity, like scientific creativity, changes a person's ideas about the universe and about himself, encourages him to go on a path that no one had dared to think about before. Of course, every outstanding work of literature and science becomes an equal event in the history of culture and civilization. Geniuses, in whatever genres they work, influence the consciousness of people, reconsider the established boundaries of knowledge. They change logic, points of reference in assessments, criteria for values, style of thinking.

Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

MF NOU VPO “Saint-Petersburg

Humanitarian University of Trade Unions”

Correspondence faculty

TEST

By discipline:

literature

Literature as art. Literary criticism as a science.

Performed:

2nd year student

Faculty of Culture

Davydova Nadezhda Vyacheslavovna

T. 8-963-360-37-54

Checked:

Murmansk 2008

Introduction 3

1. Literary criticism as a science. Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines 4

2. What the science of literature can and cannot do 6

3. Literary criticism and its “surroundings” 8

4. On the accuracy of literary criticism 13

The place of literature among other arts 18

Conclusion 23

References 24

Introduction

Fiction is one of the main types of art. Her role in the knowledge of life and the education of people is truly grandiose. Together with the creators of wonderful literary works, readers are attached to the lofty ideals of truly human life and human behavior.

Therefore, he named R.G. Chernyshevsky art and literature "textbook of life".

Literature (from Latin litteratura - manuscript, composition; to Latin litera - letter) in a broad sense - all writing that has social significance; in a narrow and more common sense - an abbreviated designation of fiction, which is qualitatively different from other types of literature: scientific, philosophical, informational, etc. Literature in this sense is a written form of the art of the word.

Literary criticism is a science that comprehensively studies fiction, “This term is of relatively recent origin; before him, the concept of “history of literature” (French, histoire de la littérature, German, Literaturgeschichte), its essence, origin and social relations was widely used; the totality of knowledge about the specifics of verbal and artistic thinking, the genesis, structure and functions of literary creativity, about the local and general patterns of the historical and literary process; in a narrower sense of the word - the science of the principles and methods of researching fiction and the creative process

Literary criticism as a science includes:

history of literature;

theory of literature;

literary criticism.

Auxiliary literary disciplines: archiving, library science, literary local history, bibliography, textual criticism, etc.

1. Literary criticism as a science. Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines

The science of literature is called literary criticism. Literary criticism as a science arose in the early 19th century. Of course, since antiquity there have been literary works. Aristotle was the first who tried to systematize them in his book, he was the first to give the theory of genres and the theory of genres of literature (epos, drama, lyrics). He also owns the theory of catharsis and mimesis. Plato created a story about ideas (idea > material world > art).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “Poetic Art”, based on an earlier work by Horace. It separates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the 18th century, German scholars tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Limits of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of the dominance of romanticism begins in ideology, philosophy, and art. At this time, the Grimm brothers created their theory.

Literature is an art form, it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of different sciences.

Literary criticism studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also the entire artistic literature of the world - written and oral.

Modern literary criticism consists of:

literary theory

literary history

literary criticism

The theory of literature studies the general patterns of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, the work and the reader. Develops general concepts and terms.

Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.

The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genera and genres.

Literary aesthetics - studies literature as an art form.

The history of literature studies the development of literature. It is divided by time, by direction, by place.

Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate the work in terms of aesthetic value.

From the point of view of sociology, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she is also engaged in the study of literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

1) textology - studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

2) paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, only manuscripts

3) bibliography - an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

4) library science - the science of funds, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, consolidated catalogs.

2. What Literature Can and Cannot Do

The first acquaintance with literary criticism often causes a mixed feeling of bewilderment and irritation: why does someone teach me how to understand Pushkin? Philologists answer this in the following way: firstly, the modern reader understands Pushkin worse than he thinks. Pushkin (like Blok, and even more so Dante) wrote for people who did not speak quite like we do. They lived a life unlike ours, learned other things, read other books and saw the world differently. What was clear to them is not always clear to us. To mitigate this difference in generations, a commentary is needed, and a literary critic writes it.

Comments are different. They not only report that Paris is the main city of the French, and Venus is the goddess of love in Roman mythology. Sometimes you have to explain: in that era, this and that was considered beautiful; such and such an artistic device pursues such and such a goal; such-and-such a poetic meter is associated with such-and-such themes and genres. . . From a certain point of view, all literary criticism is a commentary: it exists to bring the reader closer to understanding the text.

Secondly, as is known, the writer is often misunderstood by his contemporaries. After all, the author counts on the ideal reader, for whom each element of the text is significant. Such a reader will feel why an insert novella appeared in the middle of the novel and why a landscape is needed on the last page. He will hear why one poem has a rare meter and whimsical rhyme, while another is written briefly and simply, like a suicide note. Is such understanding given to everyone by nature? No. The average reader, if he wants to understand the text, often has to “pick up” with his mind what the ideal reader perceives with intuition, and for this the help of a literary critic can be useful.

Finally, no one (except a specialist) is obliged to read all the texts written by a given author: one can love War and Peace very much, but never read The Fruits of Enlightenment. Meanwhile, for many writers, each new work is a new replica in a continuing conversation. Thus, Gogol again and again, from the earliest to the latest books, wrote about the ways in which Evil penetrates the world. Moreover, in a sense, all literature is a single conversation in which we join from the middle. After all, the writer always - explicitly or implicitly, voluntarily or involuntarily - responds to ideas hovering in the air. He conducts a dialogue with writers and thinkers of his era and previous ones. And with him, in turn, contemporaries and descendants enter into a conversation, interpreting his works and starting from them. To grasp the connection of a work with the previous and subsequent development of culture, the reader also needs the help of a specialist.

One should not demand from literary criticism that for which it is not intended. No science can determine how talented this or that author is: the concepts of “good - bad” are outside of its jurisdiction. And this is encouraging: if we could strictly define what qualities a masterpiece should have, this would give a ready-made recipe for genius, and creativity could well be entrusted to a machine.

Literature addresses both the mind and the senses at the same time; science - only to reason. It will not teach you to enjoy art. A scientist can explain the author's thought or make some of his methods understandable - but he will not save the reader from the effort with which we "enter", "get used" to the text. After all, in the end, the understanding of the work is its correlation with one's own life and emotional experience, and this can only be done by oneself.

Literary criticism should not be despised because it is not capable of replacing literature: after all, love poems cannot replace the feeling itself. Science may not be so small. What exactly?

3 . Literary criticism and its “vicinities”

Literary criticism consists of two large sections - theory and history. O rii literature.

The subject of study for them is the same: works of artistic literature. But they approach the subject differently.

For the theoretician, a particular text is always an example of a general principle; for a historian, a particular text is of interest in itself.

Literary theory can be defined as an attempt to answer the question, “What is fiction?” That is, how does ordinary language become the material of art? How does literature “work”, why is it able to influence the reader? The history of literature, in the final analysis, is always the answer to the question: “What is written here?” For this, the connection of literature with the context that gave rise to it (historical, cultural, domestic), and the origin of a particular artistic language, and the biography of the writer are studied.

A special branch of literary theory is poetics. It proceeds from the fact that the evaluation and understanding of a work change, while its verbal fabric remains unchanged. Poetics studies precisely this fabric - the text (this word is in Latin and means “fabric”). The text is, roughly speaking, certain words in a certain order. Poetics teaches us to single out in it those “threads” of which it is woven: lines and stops, paths and figures, objects and characters, episodes and motifs, themes and ideas...

Side by side, with literary criticism there is criticism, it is even sometimes considered part of the science of literature. This is justified historically: for a long time, philology dealt only with antiquities, leaving the entire field of modern literature to criticism. Therefore, in some countries (English - and French-speaking) the science of literature is not separated from criticism (as well as from philosophy, and from intellectual journalism). There, literary criticism is usually called that - critics, critique. But Russia learned the sciences (including philology) from the Germans: our word “literary criticism” is a tracing paper from the German Literaturwissenschaft. And the Russian science of literature (like the German one) is essentially the opposite of criticism.

Criticism is literature about literature. The philologist tries to see someone else's consciousness behind the text, to take the point of view of a different culture. If he writes, for example, about “Hamlet”, then his task is to understand what Hamlet was for Shakespeare. The critic always remains within the framework of his culture: he is more interested in understanding what Hamlet means to us. This is a completely legitimate approach to literature - only creative, not scientific. “It is possible to classify flowers into beautiful and ugly, but what will this give for science?” - wrote the literary critic B. I. Yarkho.

The attitude of critics (and writers in general) towards literary criticism is often hostile. The artistic consciousness perceives the scientific approach to art as an attempt with unsuitable means. This is understandable: the artist is simply obliged to defend his truth, his vision. The scientist's striving for objective truth is alien and unpleasant to him. He is inclined to accuse science of pettiness, of soullessness, of blasphemous dismemberment of the living body of literature. The philologist does not remain in debt: the judgments of writers and critics seem to him lightweight, irresponsible and not going to the point. This was well expressed by R. O. Jacobson. The American University where he taught was going to entrust the chair of Russian literature to Nabokov: “After all, he is a great writer!” Jacobson objected: “The elephant is also a big animal. We do not offer him to head the department of zoology!”

But science and creativity are quite capable of interacting. Andrei Bely, Vladislav Khodasevich, Anna Akhmatova left a noticeable mark in literary criticism: the artist's intuition helped them see what eluded others, and science provided methods of proof and rules for presenting their hypotheses. And vice versa, literary critics V. B. Shklovsky and Yu. N. Tynyanov wrote remarkable prose, the form and content of which were largely determined by their scientific views.

Philological literature is connected by many threads with philosophy. After all, any science, cognizing its subject, simultaneously cognizes the world as a whole. And the structure of the world is no longer a topic of science, but of philosophy.

Of the philosophical disciplines, aesthetics is closest to literary criticism. Of course, the question: “What is beautiful?” - not scientific. A scientist can study how this question was answered in different centuries in different countries (this is quite a philological problem); can explore how and why a person reacts to such and such artistic features (this is a psychological problem), but if he himself begins to talk about the nature of the beautiful, he will not be engaged in science, but in philosophy (we remember: “good - bad” - not scientific concepts). But at the same time, he is simply obliged to answer this question for himself - otherwise he will have nothing to approach literature with.

Another philosophical discipline that is not indifferent to the science of literature is epistemology, that is, the theory of knowledge. What do we learn through literary text? Is it a window to the world (into a foreign consciousness, into a foreign culture) - or a mirror in which we and our problems are reflected?

No single answer is satisfactory. If a work is only a window through which we see something that is foreign to us, then what do we really care about other people's affairs? If books written many centuries ago are able to excite us, then they contain something that concerns us.

But if the main thing in a work is what we see in it, then the author is powerless. It turns out that we are free to put any content into the text - to read, for example, “Cockroach” as love lyrics, and “Nightingale Garden” as political propaganda. If this is not so, it means that the understanding is right and wrong. Any work is multi-valued, but its meaning is located within certain boundaries, which, in principle, can be outlined. This is the difficult task of a philologist.

The history of philosophy is in general a discipline as philological as it is philosophical. The text of Aristotle or Chaadaev requires the same study as the text of Aeschylus or Tolstoy. In addition, the history of philosophy (especially Russian) is difficult to separate from the history of literature: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Tyutchev are the largest figures in the history of Russian philosophical thought. Conversely, the writings of Plato, Nietzsche or Fr. Pavel Florensky belong not only to philosophy, but also to artistic prose.

No science exists in isolation: its field of activity always intersects with adjacent fields of knowledge. The area closest to literary criticism is, of course, linguistics. “Literature is the highest form of the existence of language,” the poets said more than once. Its study is unthinkable without a subtle and deep knowledge of the language - both without understanding rare words and phrases (“On the way, a combustible white stone” - what is it?), And without knowledge in the field of phonetics, morphology, etc.

Literary criticism borders on history. Once upon a time, philology was generally an auxiliary discipline that helped the historian work with written sources, and the historian needs such help. But history also helps the philologist to understand the era when this or that author worked. In addition, historical works were part of fiction for a long time: the books of Herodotus and Julius Caesar, Russian chronicles and N. M. Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State” are outstanding monuments of prose.

Art history - in general, is engaged in almost the same thing as literary criticism: after all, literature is only one of the art forms, only the best studied. The arts develop interconnectedly, constantly exchanging ideas. So, romanticism is an era not only in literature, but also in music, painting, sculpture, even in landscape gardening art. And since the arts are interconnected, their study is interconnected.

Recently, cultural studies have been rapidly developing - an area at the junction of history, art history and literary criticism. It studies the interconnections of such different areas as everyday behavior, art, science, military affairs, etc. After all, all this is born from the same human consciousness. And it sees and comprehends the world differently in different eras and in different countries. The culturologist seeks to find and formulate just those very deep ideas about the world, about the place of man in the universe, about the beautiful and the ugly, about good and evil, which underlie this culture. They have their own logic and are reflected in all areas of human activity.

But even such a seemingly remote area from literature as mathematics is not separated from philology by an impenetrable line. Mathematical methods are actively used in many areas of literary criticism (for example, in textual criticism). Some philological problems may attract a mathematician as a field of application of his theories: for example, Academician A. N. Kolmogorov, one of the greatest mathematicians of our time, dealt a lot with poetic rhythm, based on the theory of probability.

It makes no sense to enumerate all the areas of culture, one way or another connected with literary criticism: there is no area that would be completely indifferent to him. Philology is the memory of culture, and culture cannot exist without the memory of the past.

4. On the accuracy of literary criticism

In literary criticism, there is a peculiar inferiority complex, caused by the fact that eno does not belong to the circle of exact sciences. It is assumed that a high degree of accuracy in any case is a sign of "scientific". Hence the various attempts to subordinate literary criticism to a precise methodology of research and the inevitably associated limitations on the range of literary criticism, giving it a more or less chamber character.

As you know, in order for a scientific theory to be considered accurate, its generalizations, conclusions, and data must be based on some kind of homogeneous elements with which it would be possible to perform various operations (including combinatorial, mathematical ones). To do this, the studied material must be formalized.

Since accuracy requires formalization of the volume of study and the study itself, all attempts to create an accurate research methodology in literary criticism are somehow connected with the desire to formalize the material of literature. And in this desire, I want to emphasize this from the very beginning, there is nothing odious. Any knowledge is formalized, and any knowledge itself formalizes the material. Formalization becomes inadmissible only when it forcibly attributes to the material a degree of precision that it does not possess and, in its essence, cannot possess.

Therefore, the main objections to various kinds of excessive attempts to formalize the material of the literature come from indications that the material is not amenable to formalization in general or, specifically, to the proposed type of formalization. Among the most common mistakes is an attempt to extend the formalization of the material, suitable only for some part of it, to the entire material. Let us recall the assertions of the Formalists of the 1920s that literature is only a form, there is nothing in it but a form, and it should be studied only as a form.

Modern structuralism (I mean all its many offshoots, with which we must now more and more reckon), which has repeatedly emphasized its kinship with the formalism of the 20s, is essentially much broader than formalism, since it makes it possible to study not only the form of literature , but also its content - of course, formalizing this content, subordinating the content under study to terminological clarification and constructivization. This makes it possible to operate with the content according to the rules of formal logic with the selection of their “cruel being” in constantly moving, changing objects of study. That is why modern structuralism cannot be reduced to formalism in general methodological terms. Structuralism captures the content of literature much more broadly, formalizing this content, but not reducing it to form.

However, here's what to keep in mind. In an attempt to achieve accuracy, one cannot strive for accuracy as such, and it is extremely dangerous to demand from the material a degree of accuracy that it does not and cannot have by its very nature. Accuracy is needed to the extent that it is allowed by the nature of the material. Excessive precision can be an obstacle to the development of science and understanding of the essence of the matter.

Literary criticism must strive for precision if it is to remain a science. However, it is precisely this requirement of accuracy that raises the question of the degree of accuracy acceptable in literary criticism and the degree of accuracy possible in the study of certain objects. This is necessary at least in order not to try to measure the level, size and volume of water in the ocean in millimeters and grams.

What in the literature cannot be formalized, where are the boundaries of formalization and what degree of accuracy is acceptable? These issues are very important, and they need to be addressed in order not to create violent constructivizations and structuralizations where this is impossible due to the nature of the material itself.

I will confine myself to a general formulation of the question of the degree of accuracy of literary material. First of all, it must be pointed out that the usual opposition between the imagery of literary creativity and the ugliness of science is wrong. It is not in the figurativeness of works of art that one should look for their inaccuracy. The fact is that any exact science uses images, proceeds from images, and in recent times has increasingly resorted to images as the essence of scientific knowledge of the world. What is called a model in science is an image. Creating this or that explanation of the phenomenon, the scientist builds a model - an image. A model of an atom, a model of a molecule, a model of a positron, etc. - all these are images in which a scientist embodies his guesses, hypotheses, and then exact conclusions. Numerous theoretical studies have been devoted to the significance of images in modern physics.

The key to the inaccuracy of artistic material lies elsewhere. Artistic creativity is “inaccurate” to the extent that it is required for the co-creation of the reader, viewer or listener. Potential co-creation is inherent in any work of art. Therefore, deviations from the meter are necessary for the reader and listener to creatively recreate the rhythm. Deviations from style are necessary for the creative perception of style. The inaccuracy of the image is necessary to fill this image with the creative perception of the reader or viewer. All these and other "inaccuracies" in works of art require their study. The necessary and permissible dimensions of these inaccuracies in different eras and by different artists require their study. The acceptable degree of formalization of art will also depend on the results of this study. The situation is especially difficult with the content of a work, which, to one degree or another, allows for formalization and at the same time does not allow it.

Structuralism in literary criticism can be fruitful only if there is a clear basis for the possible areas of its application and the possible degrees of formalization of this or that material.

So far, structuralism is probing its possibilities. It is at the stage of terminological searches and at the stage of experimental construction of various models, including its own model - structuralism as a science. There is no doubt that, as with all experimental work, most experiments will fail. However, every failure of an experiment is in some respect its success. Failure forces one to discard the preliminary solution, the preliminary model, and partly suggests ways for new searches. And these searches should not exaggerate the possibilities of the material, they should be based on the study of these possibilities.

Attention should be paid to the very structure of literary criticism as a science. In essence, literary criticism is a whole cluster of various sciences. This is not one science, but various sciences, united by a single material, a single object of study - literature. In this regard, literary criticism approaches in its type such sciences as geography, oceanology, natural history, etc.

In the literature, different aspects of it can be studied, and in general, various approaches to literature are possible. You can study the biographies of writers. This is an important section of literary criticism, because many explanations of his works are hidden in the biography of the writer. You can study the history of the text of works. This is a huge area with many different approaches. These different approaches depend on what kind of work is being studied: whether it is a work of personal creativity or impersonal, and in the latter case, it means a written work (for example, medieval, the text of which existed and changed for many centuries) or oral (texts of epics, lyrical songs and etc). You can engage in literary source studies and literary archaeography, historiography of the study of literature, literary bibliography (bibliography is also based on a special science). A special field of science is comparative literature. Another special area is poetry. I have not exhausted even a smaller part of the possible scientific studies of literature, special literary disciplines. And here's what you should pay serious attention to. The more specialized the discipline that studies a particular area of literature, the more accurate it is and requires more serious methodological training of a specialist.

The most precise literary disciplines are also the most specialized.

If you arrange the entire cluster of literary disciplines in the form of a kind of rose, in the center of which there will be disciplines dealing with the most general issues of literary interpretation, then it turns out that the farther from the center, the more accurate the disciplines will be. The literary "rose" of disciplines has a certain rigid periphery and a less rigid core. It is built, like any organic body, from a combination of rigid ribs and a rigid periphery with more flexible and less rigid central parts.

If we remove all “non-rigid” disciplines, then the “rigid” ones will lose the meaning of their existence; if, on the contrary, we remove “hard”, precise special disciplines (such as the study of the history of the text of works, the study of the life of writers, poetry, etc.), then the central consideration of literature will not only lose accuracy, it will generally disappear in the chaos of the arbitrariness of various unsupported special consideration of the issue of assumptions and conjectures.

The development of literary disciplines should be harmonious, and since special literary disciplines require more training from a specialist, special attention should be paid to them when organizing educational processes and scientific research. Special literary disciplines guarantee that necessary degree of precision, without which there is no concrete literary criticism, the latter, in turn, supports and nourishes accuracy.

5. Literature as an art form.

The place of literature among other arts

Literature works with the word - its main difference from other arts. The meaning of the word was given in the Gospel - the divine idea of the essence of the word. The word is the main element of literature, the link between the material and the spiritual. The word is perceived as the sum of the meanings given to it by culture. Through the word is carried out with the common in world culture. Visual culture is one that can be perceived visually. Verbal culture - meets the needs of a person more - the word, the work of thought, the formation of personality (the world of spiritual beings).

There are areas of culture that do not require a serious attitude (Hollywood films do not require much internal commitment). There is literature at depth that requires a deep relationship, experience. Works of literature are a deep awakening of the inner forces of a person in various ways, since literature has material. Literature as the art of the word. Lessing, in his treatise on Laocoon, emphasized the arbitrariness (conventionality) of signs and the immaterial nature of the images of literature, although it paints pictures of life.

Figurativeness is transmitted in fiction indirectly, with the help of words. As shown above, words in a particular national language are signs-symbols, devoid of figurativeness. How do these signs-symbols become signs-images (iconic signs), without which literature is impossible? To understand how this happens, the ideas of the outstanding Russian philologist A.A. Potebni. In his work “Thought and Language” (1862), he singled out the internal form in the word, that is, its closest etymological meaning, the way in which the content of the word is expressed. The internal form of the word gives the direction of the listener's thought.

Art is the same creativity as the word. The poetic image serves as a link between the external form and the meaning, the idea. In the figurative poetic word, its etymology is revived and updated. The scientist argued that the image arises on the basis of the use of words in their figurative meaning, and defined poetry as allegory. In those cases where there are no allegories in literature, a word that does not have a figurative meaning acquires it in context, falling into the environment of artistic images.

Hegel emphasized that the content of works of verbal art becomes poetic due to its transmission "by speech, words, a combination of them that is beautiful from the point of view of language." Therefore, the potentially visual principle in literature is expressed indirectly. It is called verbal plasticity.

Such mediated figurativeness is an equal property of the literatures of the West and the East, lyricism, epic and drama. It is especially widely represented in the art of the word of the Arab East and Central Asia, in particular, due to the fact that the depiction of the human body in the painting of these countries is prohibited. Arabic poetry of the tenth century assumed, in addition to purely literary tasks, also the role of fine arts. Therefore, much in it is a “hidden painting”, forced to turn to the word. European poetry also draws a silhouette and conveys colors with the help of the word:

On pale blue enamel What is conceivable in April,

Birch branches raised

And imperceptibly evening.

The pattern is sharp and fine,

Frozen thin mesh

Like on a porcelain plate

This poem by O. Mandelstam is a kind of verbal watercolor, but the pictorial principle is subordinated here to a purely literary task. The spring landscape is just an occasion to reflect on the world created by God, and the work of art, which is materialized in a thing created by man; about the essence of the artist's work. The pictorial beginning is also inherent in the epic. O. de Balzac possessed the talent of painting in the word, sculpting - I. A. Goncharov. Sometimes figurativeness in epic works is expressed even more indirectly than in the poems cited above and in the novels of Balzac and Goncharov, for example, through composition. Thus, the structure of I.S. Shmelev’s story “The Man from the Restaurant”, which consists of small chapters and is focused on the hagiographic canon, resembles a composition of hagiographic icons, in the center of which is the figure of a saint, and around the perimeter there are stamps telling about his life and deeds.

Such a manifestation of pictorialism is again subordinated to a purely literary task: it gives the narrative a special spirituality and generalization. No less significant than verbal and artistic indirect plasticity is the imprinting in literature of something else - according to Lessing's observation, invisible, that is, those pictures that painting refuses. These are reflections, sensations, experiences, beliefs - all aspects of the inner world of a person. The art of the word is the sphere where the observation of the human psyche was born, formed and achieved great perfection and refinement. They were carried out with the help of such speech forms as dialogues and monologues. Imprinting of human consciousness with the help of speech is available to the only kind of art - literature. The place of fiction among the arts

In different periods of the cultural development of mankind, literature was given a different place among other types of art - from the leading to one of the last. This is due to the dominance of one or another direction in literature, as well as the degree of development of technical civilization.

For example, ancient thinkers, Renaissance artists and classicists were convinced of the advantages of sculpture and painting over literature. Leonardo da Vinci described and analyzed a case that reflects the Renaissance value system. When the poet presented King Matthew with a poem praising the day on which he was born, and the painter presented a portrait of the beloved of the monarch, the king preferred the picture to the book and said to the poet: “Give me something that I could see and touch, and not just listen to , and do not blame my choice because I put your work under my elbow, and I hold a work of painting with both hands, fixing my eyes on it: after all, the hands themselves undertook to serve a more worthy feeling than hearing ”The same relationship should be between science the painter and the science of the poet, which also exists between the corresponding feelings, the objects of which they are made. A similar point of view is also expressed in the treatise “Critical Reflections on Poetry and Painting” by the early French educator J. B. Dubos. In his opinion, the reasons for the power of poetry, which is less strong than that of painting, are the lack of visibility in poetic images and the artificiality (conventionality) of signs in poetry.

Romantics in the first place among all kinds of arts put poetry and music. Indicative in this regard is the position of F. V. Schelling, who saw in poetry (literature), “because it is the creator of ideas”, “the essence of all art”. Symbolists considered music the highest form of culture.

However, already in the 18th century, a different trend arose in European aesthetics - the promotion of literature to the first place. Its foundations were laid by Lessing, who saw the advantages of literature over sculpture and painting. Subsequently, Hegel and Belinsky paid tribute to this trend. Hegel argued that “verbal art, in terms of both its content and the way it is presented, has an immeasurably wider field than all other arts. Any content is assimilated and formed by poetry, all objects of spirit and nature, events, stories, deeds, deeds, external and internal states”, poetry is “universal art”. At the same time, the German thinker saw a significant drawback in this comprehensive content of literature: it is in poetry, according to Hegel, that “art itself begins to decompose and acquires for philosophical knowledge a point of transition to religious ideas as such, as well as to the prose of scientific thinking.” However, it is unlikely that these features of the literature deserve criticism. The appeal of Dante, W. Shakespeare, I. V. Goethe, A. S. Pushkin, F. I. Tyutchev, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, T. Mann to religious and philosophical problems helped create literary masterpieces. Following Hegel, V. G. Belinsky also gave the palm to literature over other types of art.

“Poetry is the highest kind of art. Poetry is expressed in the free human word, which is both sound and picture, and a definite, clearly articulated representation. Therefore, poetry contains in itself all the elements of other arts, as if it uses suddenly and inseparably all the means that are given separately to each of the other arts. Moreover, Belinsky's position is even more literary-centric than that of Hegel: the Russian critic, unlike the German aesthetics, does not see anything in literature that would make it less significant than other types of art.

The approach of N. G. Chernyshevsky turned out to be different. Paying tribute to the possibilities of literature, a supporter of “real criticism” wrote that, since, unlike all other arts, it acts on fantasy, “in terms of the strength and clarity of the subjective impression, poetry is far below not only reality, but also all other arts. ". In fact, literature has its weaknesses: in addition to its insubstantiality, the conventionality of verbal images, it is also the national language in which literary works are always created, and the resulting need for their translation into other languages.

The modern literary theorist estimates the possibilities of the art of the word very highly: “Literature is the “first among equals” art.”

Mythological and literary plots and motifs are often used as the basis for many works of other types of art - painting, theater sculpture, ballet, opera, variety art, program music, cinema. It is this assessment of the possibilities of literature that is truly objective.

Conclusion

Works of art constitute a necessary accessory of life for both the individual and human society as a whole, because they serve their interests.

We cannot point to a single person in modern society who would not like to look at pictures, listen to music, read works of fiction.

We love literature for sharp thoughts, noble impulses. It opens up to us the world of beauty and the soul of a person who is fighting for lofty ideals.

The science of literature is literary criticism. It covers various areas of the study of literature and at the present stage of scientific development is divided into independent scientific disciplines, such as literary theory, literary history and literary criticism.

Literary criticism often becomes the sphere of intervention, ideology and formulates ideas dictated by the interests of leaders, parties, state structures. Independence from them is an indispensable condition for being scientific. Even in the most difficult times, the works of M. Bakhtin, A. Losev, Yu. Lotman, M. Polyakov, D. Likhachev distinguished themselves with independence, which guaranteed scientific character and testified to the possibility of living in society and being free even from a totalitarian regime.

Bibliography

1. Borev Yu.B. Aesthetics: In 2 volumes. Smolensk, 1997. T. 1.

2. Lessing G.E. Laocoön, or on the limits of painting and poetry. Moscow., 1957.

3. Florensky P.A. - Analysis of spatiality and time in artistic and visual works. - Moscow., 1993.

4. L.L. Ivanova - lessons, literary criticism - Murmansk, 2002.

5. N. Karnaukh - Literature - Moscow

6. E. Erokhina, E. Beznosov-bustard; 2004, - a large reference book for schoolchildren and students

7. Theory of Literature Encyclopedia-Astrel-2003,

8. A. Timofeev-dictionary of literary terms - Moscow enlightenment-1974,

9. N. Gulyaev - theory of literature - textbook - Moscow - high school-1985,

10 www. referul. en

11 www. bankreferatov. en

12 www. 5ballov. en

13 www. ytchebnik. en

14 www. eduzone. net

Lecture course I. Introduction. Literary criticism as a science. Literary criticism is a philological science about the essence, origin and development of fiction as an art form. ..."

-- [ Page 1 ] --

lecture course

I. Introduction. Literary criticism as a science.

Literary criticism is a philological science about the essence, origin and

development of artistic literature as an art form. The place of literary criticism in

system of humanitarian knowledge. His interaction with linguistics, rhetoric,

art history, aesthetics, cultural studies, social history, philosophy,

sociology, psychology, religious studies, semiotics and other sciences.

The structure of modern literary criticism. Main disciplines: history of national literatures, literary and artistic criticism, theory of literature and methodology of literary studies. Auxiliary disciplines:

historiography, paleography, textology, bibliography.

Literary theory is a branch of literary criticism that studies the general patterns of artistic development, a literary work in its entirety, a system of figurative and expressive means of language and style.

Consistency and historicism as fundamental methodological principles of literary criticism. Historical movement of basic literary concepts.

II. General properties of fiction.

Topic: Literature as an art form. Aesthetic essence of literature.

Fine arts as a special form of spiritual culture, a specific form of self-awareness of mankind and the artistic development of reality.

The origin of art from primitive syncretic creativity. Its connection with ritual, magic, mythology. Art and border spheres of spiritual culture, their mutual influence.

Literature as a reflection (reproduction) of reality, a form of its artistic knowledge, comprehension, evaluation, transformation. The theory of mimesis, the theory of reflection. Religious art concept.

Literature and other forms of social consciousness. The difference between artistic comprehension and scientific knowledge. Subjective nature of creativity, anthropocentrism of literature, its value orientations. Reflection in the writer's work of the features of his personality, talent and worldview. Aesthetic, sociological, philosophical views of the writer as a source of the work. Creative reflection. integrity of the creative process.

Literature in the system of spatial and temporal forms of art. The meaning of Lessing's treatise "Laocoön, or on the Limits of Painting and Poetry" (1766). Literature as a temporary art that reproduces the phenomena of life in their development. Figuratively expressive and cognitive possibilities of artistic speech.

III. Literary and artistic work.

Topic: A literary work as a unity of form and content.

The integrity of a literary work as an ideological and artistic system.

The organic unity of the objective and subjective aspects of the text. The concepts of "artistic semantics", "meaning", "literal content", "discourse" as related to the content sphere of the work.

The concreteness of the form, its relative independence. Artistic form as the embodiment of figurative content. Functional consideration of form elements in their substantive role. Form as “hardened” content. Mutual transition of content and form.

Topic: The main components of the content and form of a literary work.

The ideological and thematic basis of the work. Theme, topic, issue. Types of problems: mythological, national-historical, social, philosophical, their relationship. Author's activity in choosing a topic. The relationship between the subject of the image and the subject of knowledge. Author's interpretation of the theme, artistic idea. Value aspect and emotional orientation of the idea. Artistic tendency and tendentiousness.

Artistic image, its structure. Literary hero, character. External and internal appearance, artistic detail. Means of psychological characterization of heroes. The character's speech as a subject of artistic representation. Speech behavior.

The system of characters in the work: main, secondary, episodic. Their correlation. Typification, typical image.

Plot as a form of conflict reproduction. Event and action. Aristotle on the unity of plot action. Situation, conflict, conflict, intrigue - correlations of concepts. Plot components. Narrative and non-narrative episodes. Prologue and epilogue.

Spatio-temporal organization of plot action. The concept of a chronotope.

The composition of the work. Narrative structure. Subjective forms of narration on behalf of a hero, a minor character, an observer, a chronicler.

The concept of plot. The problem of "redundancy" of the term.

Topic: Literary types and genres.

The historical nature of the concept of "literary gender". The system of literary genders in the aesthetics of Aristotle, connection with the theory of mimesis. Generic and genre-species division of literature in classicism (N. Boileau). The content principle of generic division in Hegel. “Division of poetry into genera and types” by V. G. Belinsky. Synthetic internatal formations.

Genres and types of epic. Unlimited volume, arbitrary speech structure.

The main genres and types: fairy tale, legend, heroic epos, epic, novel, story, short story, short story, essay. Universal forms of narrativity.

Genres and types of lyrical works. The concept of a lyrical hero. Combination of object and subject in one person. The originality of the lyrical situation. Lyric Meditation. Role lyrics. Lyric story. composition features.

Expressiveness of lyrical speech. The intensity of associative links, the condensation of semantics. Melodic lyrical verse.

Drama and dramatic genres. Tragedy, comedy, drama. The principle of self-expression of heroes, its forms. Space and time in drama. Correlation of plot and stage time. The severity of the conflict. Story and non-story characters. Hero and

Historical change in the genre canons of dramaturgy.

Topic: Rhythmic organization of artistic speech. Fundamentals of poetry.

The concept of verbal rhythm. The origin of rhythm in poetry and prose. The concept of a poetic system. The connection of the system of versification with the peculiarities of the national language. Tonic and syllabic systems. Reform of verse in the 18th century. The syllabic system. Basic meter. Accent verse. Free verse.

A stanza as a form of organization of poetic speech. Types of stanzas. Rhyme and its role in poetry. Varieties of rhyme. Blank verse. Types of stanzas and methods of rhyming.

Classification of sound repetitions. Fonika.

Verse prose: rhythmic prose, prose poems.

Topic: Language and style of fiction.

Language as the "primary element" of literature. Language and speech. Literary language, fiction, artistic speech. Figurative and expressive functions of language. Types of linguistic representation: nominative, verbal-objective, allegorical, intonational-syntactic.

Language and style. Style as an aesthetic unity and interaction of all sides, components and details of the expressive-figurative form of a work of art.

Style-forming factors, their interaction. The use of the term "style" in relation to the work, work of a writer, a group of writers. Stable signs of style.

IV Patterns of historical development of literature.

Topic: Literary process. Artistic method The concept of the literary process. Literary process in the context of cultural and historical development and the problem of its periodization. National originality of literature. International connections and influences. Literary traditions and innovation.

The concept of artistic method, literary direction and current.

Different interpretation of these categories in science. Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism are the leading trends in European literatures of the 17th - the first decades of the 19th century.

The main stages in the development of realism. Classical realism of the 19th century and the creative individuality of the writer. Literary currents and trends in the twentieth century: realism, modernism, literary avant-garde.

– – –

2. Fiction as the art of the word. The originality of its "material".

Aesthetic essence of literature: artistic and scientific knowledge, commonality and differences.

3. Literature and reality. Theories of mimesis (imitation) and reflection.

Religious concept art.

4. Literature in the system of spatial and temporal art forms. Lessing's treatise Laocoön, or on the Limits of Painting and Poetry.

Individual work of the student Study the fragments of works from the reader “Introduction to Literary Studies”: V. G.

Belinsky “A look at Russian literature of 1847” (on the difference between art and science); A.

I. Bugrov “Aesthetic and artistic”; G. O. Lessing “Laocoon, or about the limits of painting and poetry”. Additionally: G. V. F. Hegel “Lectures on Aesthetics” (on poetry).

Make a diagram reflecting the main differences between literature and science. Give a scientific explanation for combinations, such as: “poetry - talking painting”, “architecture - frozen music”.

No. 2. Literary work as a work of art

1. A literary work as a systemic unity of elements of content and form;

their interrelation and interdependence, conventionality of distinction.

2. The ideological and thematic basis of the work: the theme is the subject of the artistic image, the idea is the expression of the author's position. Theme, topic, issue.

3. Artistic image. Its functions. Typology.

4. Plot, composition, plot. Correlation of concepts.

5. Answer the questions, giving a theoretical justification for your answers: 1) What is the ideological and thematic originality of A. S. Pushkin's story “The Captain's Daughter”? 2) Describe the typology of artistic images in N. V. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". 3) How do plot, plot, composition correlate in M. Yu. Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”?

Individual work of the student Study the fragments of works from the reader “Introduction to Literary Studies”: G.V.

F. Hegel “Lectures on Aesthetics” (on the unity of form and content in art); L. N.

Tolstoy “Letters to N. N. Strakhov, 23 and 26 April. 1876”; A. A. Potebnya “From notes on the theory of literature”, A. N. Veselovsky “Poetics of the plot”. On specific examples, prove the thesis: “Content is nothing but the transition of form into content, and form is nothing but the transition of content into form” (Hegel).

No. 3. Literary types and genres

1. The principle of dividing literature into genera as a theoretical problem. Aristotle, Boileau, Hegel, Belinsky on the difference between literary genera in terms of content and formal features.

2. A. N. Veselovsky on genre-generic syncretism. The debatability of the concept of “literary gender” in modern literary criticism. Genre as “memory of art” (M. Bakhtin).

3. Epos and epic genres. Genesis and evolution.

4. Lyrics and lyrical genres. Genesis and evolution.

5. Drama and dramatic genres. Genesis and evolution.

6. Border and individual genre-generic formations. Stability and historical variability of the “genre” category.

7. Is satire the fourth kind of literature? Justify your point of view.

Student's individual work

Study the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" fragments of works:

Aristotle “On the Art of Poetry”, N. Boileau “Poetic Art”, G. V. F. Hegel “Lectures on Aesthetics”, V. G. Belinsky “On the Russian Story and the Stories of Mr. Gogol”, V. V.

Kozhinov “On the principles of dividing literature into genera”, on the basis of them, give a theoretical justification for the categories “literary gender”, “genre (kind)”.

Describe the genre and generic originality of the works of A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin" and "The Captain's Daughter", N. V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace".

No. 4. Analysis of the epic work

I. Generic and specific properties of the epic genre:

1. The plot-event basis, the volume and principles of selection of vital material, the time frame of the work.

2. Epic in revealing the human character:

a) the image of the hero in the variety of his connections with the outside world. Man and environment.

Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin - a petty Petersburg official, a typical representative of the "humiliated and insulted";

b) showing the inner world of the hero through deeds, actions, in comparison with other characters;

The variety of emotional and semantic shades of Gogol's word (irony, humor, satirical and accusatory tone, elements of sympathy and compassion).

3. The value of extra-fable elements in the story. Lyrical-dramatic beginning in epic works.

II. Features of Gogol's narration (individual features of the writer's style) 1. “Simplicity of fiction” and “perfect truth of life” (V. G. Belinsky);

2. “Comic animation, always overcome by a deep feeling of sadness and despondency” (V. G. Belinsky), “laughter through tears”.

3. Gogol's lyricism.

4. The role of the fantastic in the story.

III. Non-standard interpretations of Ch. Lotto's story. (Individual task).

Student's individual work Read N.V. Gogol's story "The Overcoat" and prepare its analysis, highlighting the generic (epic), specific (related to the genre of the story itself) and individual (typical of Gogol) elements of the narrative. Show their combination and interaction.

Option II.

A.P. Chekhov's story "Vanka" as an epic work.

1. Plot-event basis, volume and principles of selection of vital material.

2. Epic in revealing the human character; his attitude to life:

a) the versatility of the outside world in the perception of Vanka (workshop, city, village);

b) the typical character of the image of the protagonist, the disclosure of his tragedy in the patterns of causal relationships;

c) a variety of forms of showing the inner world of Vanka: speech, actions, attitude towards others.

3. The combination in the story of various temporal (present - past) and spatial (city - village) layers as a property of the epic kind.

5. Chekhov detail.

Match:

L. N. Tolstoy. Childhood.

“August 12, 18 ..., exactly on the third day after my birthday, on which I turned ten years old and on which I received such wonderful gifts, at seven o’clock in the morning Karl Ivanovich woke me up by hitting a cracker over my very head - from sugar paper on a stick - a fly ... ”M. Gorky. Childhood.

“In a dark cramped room, on the floor, under the window, lies my father, dressed in white and unusually long; the toes of his bare feet are strangely splayed, the fingers of the tender hands, quietly placed on his chest, are also crooked; his merry eyes are tightly covered with black circles of copper coins, his kind face is dark and scares me with badly bared teeth…” Student’s individual work Read the story “Vanka” by A.P. story) and individual (characteristic for A.P. Chekhov) elements of the narrative. Show their combination and interaction. Compare Chekhov's principles of the embodiment of children's perception with the principles of other authors - L. N. Tolstoy and M. Gorky. Prepare the report “Genre of the story today” (individual task).

No. 5. Fundamentals of versification. Russian verse.

1. The difference between poetic and prose speech. Its specific features. The concept of verbal rhythm.

2. The concept of a poetic system. Connection of versification systems with the peculiarities of the national language. Tonic, syllabic-tonic and syllabic systems in the historical aspect (based on Russian poetry).

3. Rhyme in poetry. Its main functions. Types of rhymes. Rhyming methods. Blank verse.

4. The stanza and its types. Superstrophes. Sonnet and wreath of sonnets. Onegin stanza: structure, genesis, artistic functions.

Student's individual work Study the fundamental features of the tonic, syllabic and syllabic systems of versification. Practice the skills of determining the meter by chanting. Give an analysis of the poetic text (optional) taking into account the peculiarities of rhythm, rhyme, strophic. Comment on the statements: “I think that over time we will turn to blank verse. There are too few rhymes in Russian” (A.S.

Pushkin); “... For heroic or majestic transmissions, one must take long meters with a large number of syllables, and for funny ones, short ones” (V. V. Mayakovsky).

No. 6. Analysis of a lyrical work

1. Dialectics of objective and subjective in lyrics. The value of "external" factors (biographical, historical, social, literary, etc.) in the creation of this poem.

2. Principles of genre systematization of lyrical texts. The genre of the poem.

3. Theme and idea of a lyrical work. Features of their expression.

4. Lyrical image as an image-experience. The ratio of the author's "I" (narrator) and the lyrical hero (character) in a poetic text.

5. Compositional and plot organization of the poem: the presence of a temporary canvas, parallelisms, repetitions, comparisons, oppositions, etc. as plot-forming factors.

6. The problem of the poetic word. Verbal-figurative leitmotifs.

7. Rhythmic-intonation system. Strophic, meter and rhythms, rhyme and meaning. Sound recording.

8. This poem in a comparative aspect (traditional and innovative in lyrics).

Individual work of the student Outline from the article by V. G. Belinsky “Division of poetry into genera and types” the section “Lyric poetry”. Study from the reader fragments of works on the specifics of lyrics: A. N. Veselovsky “From the history of the epithet”, “Psychological parallelism and its forms in the reflection of poetic style”; L. Ya. Ginzburg “About lyrics”. Give a holistic analysis of one or two (on the instructions of the teacher) of the following poems according to the proposed plan.

Texts Pushkin A.S. To sea. To *** (I remember a wonderful moment ...). Winter morning. Prophet. Anchar.

Do I wander among the noisy streets. Again I visited ... Lermontov M.Yu. Sail. Borodino.

Clouds. Motherland. I go out alone on the road ... Nekrasov N.A. Troika. Motherland. In memory of Dobrolyubov. Uncompressed strip. Tyutchev F.I. Spring thunderstorm. Insomnia. Fet A.A. I came to you with greetings. I won't tell you anything. Blok A.A. Stranger. On the railway. Yesenin S.A. dissuaded by a golden grove ... I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ... Mayakovsky V.V. Listen, if the stars light up ..., as well as poems by Akhmatova A.A., Tsvetaeva M.I., Pasternak B.L. and others (optional).

No. 7. Analysis of a dramatic work

1. Genre and generic features of comedy. Moral and social content of the conflict in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

2. Arrangement of characters in a dramatic work. The principle of ideological polarization of characters in Griboyedov's play.

3. Features of the disclosure of the human character in the drama. The main means of his “self-identification” (M. Gorky): replica, verbal gesture, dialogue, monologue, deed, system of actions, self-characterization, opinion and attitude of other characters towards him.

5. The function of off-stage and off-plot characters. Off-stage images in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

6. Plot-compositional structure of a dramatic work. Correlation of Chatsky's personal and social drama. The main stages of the development of the plot.

7. Elements of epic and lyrics in drama. Lyrical and psychological plan of Griboedov's play.

8. Is this a comedy? Disputes about the genre nature of "Woe from Wit".

9. Play and stage. Features of the stage embodiment of the comedy by A. S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”.

Student's individual work Reveal the specifics of the dramatic genre in the process of analyzing the comedy of A.S.

Griboyedov "Woe from Wit". Pay attention to the essence of the dramatic conflict in the play, the originality of its development, the principles of constructing a dramatic character, and the methods of the author's "intervention" in the course of events. Prepare an abstract report on the topic: “Features of the stage performance of A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” (individual task).

No. 8. Classicism and its fate in Russian literature

1. The general concept of the creative method. Its relationship with the concepts of "literary trend (trend)", "school", "writer's style".

2. Socio-historical conditions for the emergence and formation of classicism in Russia.

3. Genres of Russian classicism, their specificity. Principles of depiction of characters.

The theory of "three styles".

4. Normativity of theory and literary criticism: deviations from the canons of classicism in the work of Russian writers.

5. Features of classicism in the method of enlightenment realism. The concept of “enlightenment realism” is debatable.

A. P. Sumarokov. Epistle on poetry.

Writing poetry is not as easy as many think.

The ignorant one and rhyme will get tired.

It should not be that she takes our thought captive, But that she be our slave...

Without annoying the muses with their bad success:

Tears to Thalia, and Melpomene with laughter ...

Consider the property we and the power of epigrams:

Then they live, rich in their beauty, When composed sharp and knotty;

They must be short, and their strength lies in the fact To utter something with a mockery about someone.

The warehouse of fables should be playful, but noble, And the low spirit in it is suitable for simple words, As de La Fontaine wisely showed, And he became glorious in the world as a fable verse, Filled all the parables from head to toe with a joke And, singing fairy tales, played all the same with a whistle ... Sonnet, rondo, ballads - playing poetically, But they must be played wisely and nimbly.

In the sonnet they demand that the warehouse be very clean ... If the lines with rhymes are called poetry.

Poems float according to the rules of the wise muses.

The syllable of songs should be pleasant, simple and clear.

Vitiystvo is not necessary - it is beautiful by itself ... Try to measure my hours in the game by hours, So that I, who have forgotten, can believe you, That if it’s not a game, then your action, But the very then that happened being ... The property of a comedy is to correct temper with a mockery;

To laugh and use is its direct charter.

Imagine a soulless clerk in an order, Judge, that he will not understand what is written in the decree.

Imagine to me a dandy who raises his nose to that, That he thinks for a whole century about the beauty of hair, Who was born, as he imagines, for Cupid, To persuade such a fool somewhere to himself.

Imagine a Latin speaker at his debate, Who will not lie without "ergo" nothing.

Imagine me proud, swollen like a frog, Stingy, that is ready to stranglehold for a penny.

Imagine a gambler who, having taken off his cross, Shouts from behind his hand, with a sitting figure: “Rest!” Follow Boal and fix the people.

Are you laughing, passions in vain, present them to me as an example And, presenting them, follow Molière.

When you have a proud spirit, your mind is flying And suddenly running swiftly from thought to thought, Leave idyll, elegy, satire And drama for others: take a rattling lyre And with magnificent Pindar soar up to heaven Or lift up a loud voice with Lomonosov ... All is praised: is it drama , eclogue or ode - Compose what your nature attracts you to;

Only enlightenment, writer, let your mind:

Our beautiful language is capable of everything (1747).

V. K. Trediakovsky. Raven and Fox.

There is no place for the Crow to carry away the cheese part happened:

On a tree with that flew up, which fell in love.

This Fox wanted to eat here;

In order to get home, I would think of such flattery:

Raven's beauty, having cleaned the color of feathers, And also praising his things, Directly, she said: “I will honor you with Zeus in the future as a bird, be your voice for myself, And I will hear the song of all your kindness worthy.”

The raven is arrogant with praise, thinking it proper to himself, He began, as loudly as possible, croaking and shouting, In order to receive the last praise for himself.

But thus from his nose dissolved That cheese fell to the ground. Liska, encouraged

With self-interest, he says to him for laughter:

“You are kind to everyone, my Raven; only you without a heart fur.

I. A. Krylov. A Crow and a fox.

How many times have they told the world, That flattery is vile, harmful; but everything is not for the future, And in the heart of a flatterer will always find a corner.

Somewhere God sent a piece of cheese to a crow;

Crow perched on the spruce, She was just about to have breakfast, Yes, she became thoughtful, and kept the cheese in her mouth.

To that misfortune, the Fox ran close;

Suddenly, the cheese spirit stopped Lisa:

The fox sees the cheese, the fox is captivated by the cheese.

The rogue approaches the tree on tiptoe, twirls its tail, keeps its eyes on Crow.

And he says so sweetly, breathing a little:

“Darling, how good!

Well, what a neck, what eyes!

To tell, so, right, fairy tales!

What feathers! what a sock!

Sing, little one, don't be ashamed! What if, sister, With such beauty, you are a master of singing, After all, you would be our king bird! Veshunin's head was dizzy with praise, From joy his breath sank into the goiter, And at Lisitsy's friendly words

The crow croaked at the top of its throat:

The cheese fell out - there was such a cheat with it.

No. 9. Romanticism and realism in Russian literature

1. Historical and typological features of romanticism: philosophical and aesthetic subjectivism, romantic duality, antagonism of the ideal and reality, romantic maximalism. The proximity of the author to the hero, the lyrical coloring of the author's speech.

2. The essence of the realistic method: the reconstruction of reality in its objective laws, historicism, the depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances. A variety of means of the author's characterization of the hero.

3. Aesthetic criticism of romantic individualism by Russian realist writers.

Student's individual work Formulate the main features of classicism as an artistic method, based on the recommendations of A.P. Sumarokov (“Epistle on Poetry”). Summarize the material, give examples from Russian and foreign literature. Compare the fable of V.K.

Trediakovsky "The Raven and the Fox" with the fable of I. A. Krylov "The Crow and the Fox". Find common and different. Consider how the principles of classicism are realized in Trediakovsky's work and how they are either transformed (or destroyed) in Krylov's text.

“The Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov in the interpretation of modern researchers (the problem of the creative method) K. N. Grigoryan: “... It is hard not to notice, to ignore the most characteristic features of the romantic aesthetic system, the romantic style, clearly expressed in Lermontov’s novel” (Grigoryan K. N. On Modern Trends in the Study of “A Hero of Our Time.” On the Problem of Romanticism // Russian Literature. - 1973. - No. 1. P. 59).

V. M. Markovich: in Lermontov’s novel “critical realism of the middle of the century in its classically pure and complete form” (Markovich V. M. “The Hero of Our Time” and the Formation of Realism in the Russian Novel // Russian Literature. - 1967. - No. 4 pp. 56).

K. N. Grigoryan: “As for the novel “A Hero of Our Time”, realistic tendencies affected the depiction of pictures of the everyday life of mountaineers, Russian warriors, “water” society, in subtle well-aimed observations ... but the whole point is that they did not result in into an aesthetic system ”(Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of“ A Hero of Our Time ”. On the Problem of Romanticism // Russian Literature. - 1973.

- No. 1. S. 78).

D. D. Blagoy: “... according to the method of typification, according to the vision and re-creation of objective reality, and finally, according to its style ... “A Hero of Our Time” ... continues, develops, deepens and strengthens the traditions of Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” to “A Hero of Our Time” (Problems of romanticism. Collection of articles. - M., 1967. P. 315).

K. N. Grigoryan: “The images, the general coloring, the way of expression - everything is borrowed from the poetics of romanticism, the language of early Pushkin, even more so from Zhukovsky” (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “A Hero of Our Time”. To the problem Romanticism // Russian Literature. - 1973. - No. 1. P. 60).

K. N. Grigoryan: “Pechorin is all, by the nature of his worldview and life position, in romanticism. His individualism, sharply emphasized proud independence is a means of asserting personality, self-defense, marking a clear line between himself and a hostile environment. It is absurd to demand from Pechorin the clarity of the ideal; the author of the novel did not have this clarity either. Therefore, the ideal is romantic” (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “The Hero of Our Time”. To the problem of romanticism // Russian Literature. - 1973. - No. 1. P. 68).

D. D. Blagoy: “... To separate oneself from such a hero in the creative act of creating a novel, to place oneself next to him and essentially above him was the most important moment in the formation of the method of realistic typification in Lermontov’s work, the greatest triumph of Lermontov as a realist artist” ( Problems of Romanticism.

Sat. articles. - M., 1967. S. 312).

K. N. Grigoryan: “Yes, the critical beginning in A Hero of Our Time is very significant, but what is the nature of this criticism? What is the author's attitude to Pechorin's "self-disclosures"? One thing, in any case, is clear - the author does not judge him from the outside, he is vitally interested in the fate of the hero, and if he repairs Pechorin, he also repairs himself. It’s not about realism, but about Lermontov’s personality” (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “A Hero of Our Time”. On the Problem of Romanticism // Russian Literature. - 1973. - No. 1. P. 61).

B. I. Bursov: Lermontov is “simultaneously both a romantic and a realist ... His largest work in prose, the novel “A Hero of Our Time”, is predominantly realistic” (B. I. Bursov, National Identity of Russian Literature. - L., 1967. P. 175).

D. E. Maksimov: “A Hero of Our Time” stands on the verge of a romantic and realistic period in the history of Russian literature and combines the characteristic features of both of these periods ”(Maksimov D. E. Poetry of Lermontov. - M .; L., 1964. S. 107).

B. T. Udodov: “Lermontov’s creative method opened up new perspectives for literature in the artistic exploration of the complex nature of man in several dimensions at once. This is a kind of “realism in the highest sense” (Dostoevsky’s expression), which goes beyond the usual definitions, synthesized the achievements of realism and romanticism of its time ”(Lermontov Encyclopedia. - M., 1981. P. 108).

No. 10. Techniques and skills of literary work.

Abstract and rules of abstracting.

Abstract and rules for its writing.

Review and rules for its creation.

The main stages of work with critical literature.

Rules for keeping a reader's diary.

Student's individual work Write down 3-4 annotations from the books; get acquainted with the procedure for issuing the imprint of the book; give an example of a reader's diary; make a plan for an essay on the topic: "Reading activities of a younger student."

No. 11. Reading activity of a younger student

1. Children's book and its specificity.

2. The reading circle of the modern junior schoolchild. Parameters for systematizing the reading circle of a younger student.

3. Fiction for younger students. Criteria for selecting educational material for reading and literary education of children of this age category.

4. Principles of organizing the reading activity of primary school students.

Student's individual work Select 3-4 books addressed to younger students that are of the greatest interest from your point of view, and check how strictly they comply with sanitary and hygienic requirements for printing publications; what is the “golden fund” of literature for children and how can it be presented; model a fragment of the organization of the reading activity of younger students.

Organizational recommendations: the student needs to know the full name of the discipline, get acquainted with the place of the discipline in the schedule grid, determine the reporting of the discipline: test or exam, get acquainted with the rating scale and the course program.

Recommendations for mastering the content of the discipline. In the process of studying a discipline, it is important for a student to form an idea of the methodological foundations of literary criticism, to get acquainted with the scientific concepts of scientists, to single out a subject, an object, to realize the basic scientific concepts of this discipline.

The student must understand that this discipline highlights the problems of interpreting a literary text in the unity of theory and practice. Classroom classes are held in the form of lectures and practical exercises. The task of students in lectures is to work on mastering new material (listen, understand, write down, analyze, compare with previously studied material). In practical classes, the student must demonstrate the knowledge gained on the selected topic, for this he must familiarize himself with the issues raised for discussion, read the recorded lecture, and then, in the process of independent reading of the recommended literature, supplement the missing material, formulate differences in the concepts and views of the textbook authors, master terminology and be sure to prepare for a free confident answer in class. The answer to any question must be accompanied by examples from literary texts, which the student must find on their own.

After each lesson, it is necessary to additionally collect information on the topic covered from various sources: additional literature offered by the teacher, Internet sites, dissertations, abstracts, articles from journals, and compile a personal card index for this discipline, monthly monitor articles in journals that present new scientific , practical developments, as well as perform various types of independent work, which are included in the rating criteria.

An important component of a student's education in a higher educational institution is independent work (SIW). It includes both preparation for classes and exams, and work on the creation of educational products in the form of an abstract, presentation, reports, abstracts, essays, development and solution of pedagogical tasks related to the organization of children's reading. Most of these tasks are aimed at the development of creative thinking, as well as the formation of skills to create and implement educational and scientific student projects, design the educational process and analyze the results of their activities.

Highlighting the most complex issues that require in-depth study, making presentations on them in the POWER POINT program and systematic presentations to colleagues with reports will help to better understand the material and become a factor in increasing the effectiveness of the student's educational and professional activities.

According to the results of processing, interpretation of scientific data, it is desirable for the student to issue a scientific article or include the processed material in his educational or research work. Active involvement in research work and the learned material of this subject will help in future professional activities.

As a result of mastering the course, the student must first of all learn how to analyze literary texts according to the following approximate plan for analyzing a literary work.

1. The history of the creation of the work:

time of creation, life circumstances directly related to its creation.

2. Genre-genre features.

3. Topics, issues. Idea. Features of their expression.

4. The plot and its features.

5. Composition and its features.

6. System of images-characters. The image of a lyrical hero.

7. Ways to characterize characters or a lyrical hero.

8. Features of the speech organization of the work:

narrator's speech, characters' speech, lexical composition, syntax features, expressive means.

9. Rhythmic-intonation system:

meter and size, rhymes, stanzas.

10. The meaning of the name, its connection with all elements of the literary text.

Work algorithm: prepare answers to each of the proposed items and emphasize the interdependence of all elements and aspects of the analyzed work of art.

– – –

terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999 and later editions.

Introduction to Literary Studies / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. M.: Ed. Moscow State University, 1992.

Volkov I.F. Theory of Literature: Textbook for Students and Teachers. M., 1995.

Zhirmunsky V.M. Theory of Literature. Poetics. Stylistics.L., 1977.

Kvyatkovsky A. Poetic Dictionary. M., 1966.

Kormilov S.I. Basic concepts of the theory of literature. Literary work.

Prose and verse: To help teachers, high school students and applicants. M.: Ed.

Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. V.M. Kozhevnikov and P.A.

Nikolaev. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1987.

Fundamentals of Literary Studies: a textbook for philological faculties ped. high fur boots/Meshcheryakov V.P., Kozlov A.S., Kubareva N.P., Serbul M.N.; Under total ed.

V.P. Meshcheryakova - M .: Moscow Lyceum, 2000.

Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic. M., 1988.

Section 2. Literary work as an integral structure.

Topic 2.1.

Image as the basic unit of artistic form.

1. Define an artistic image.

2. The difference between an artistic image and concrete-sensual images (illustrative, factual, informational and journalistic).

3. Comment on the features of the artistic image: a combination of the general and the special, emotionality, expressiveness (an expression of the author's ideological and emotional attitude to the subject), self-sufficiency, associativity, ambiguity, careful selection of details.

4. Typology of artistic images.

5. The image of a person is the main image of fiction. Image-character, protagonist, -hero, -character, -type.

6. Typification and its forms (methods).

7. Means and techniques for creating images. Image and figurative details.

9. Distinctive features of epic, lyrical and dramatic images and ways to create them.

Literature:

1. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: Basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999. S.209-220.

2. Vinogradov I.A. Image and means of image // Vinogradov I.A. Questions of Marxist poetics. Selected works. M., 1972.

3. Volkov I.F. Theory of Literature. M., 1995. S.68-76.

4. Khrapchenko M.B. Horizons of the artistic image. M., 1982.

5. Epstein M.N. Artistic image // LES. M., 1987.

Topic 2.2.

Theme and idea of a literary work.

1. The theme of a literary work. The difference between life material and the theme of a work of art.

2. Aesthetic creed, aesthetic ideal and aesthetic intentions of the author.

3. Main theme and private themes. Subject. Thematic integrity of a work of art.

4. Idea, ideological content of a work of art.

4. Theme and idea, their relationship in the work.

5. Ambiguity in the interpretation of the idea of a work of art (the idea is objective and subjective).

Literature:

1. Introduction to literary criticism: Reader, M., 1988.

2. Soviet children's literature / Ed. V.D. One-time. M., 1978. S.7-25.

3. Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. V.M. Kozhevnikov and P.A.

Nikolaev. M., 1987.

4. Corresponding chapters in textbooks on literary criticism and literary theory.

Topic 2.3.

plot and composition.

Lesson number 1. The plot of a literary work.

1. The concept of the plot. Plots chronicle, concentric, multilinear.

Wandering stories.

2. Extra-plot elements.

3. The ratio of the plot and the plot.

4. The concept of motive.

5. The connection of the plot with the theme and idea of the work of art.

6. Conflict, its originality in the epic, lyrics and drama.

7. Exposition, its role and place in the work.

8. The plot, its role and place in the work.

9. Development of action. Peripeteia.

10. Climax, its meaning.

11. The denouement, its role and place in the work.

12. Prologue and epilogue.

13. Plot in epic and dramatic works. Features of the plot in a lyrical work. Show the example of A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", one of the stories of I.S. Turgenev, poems by A.A. Feta "Butterfly".

14. The dynamism of the plot is a distinctive feature of works for children.

Literature:

1. Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. M., 1988. S. 197-215.

2. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: Basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999. S.202-209 (motive); 381-393 (plot).

4. Kozhinov V.V. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of Literature. The main problems in historical coverage. Issue. 2. M., 1964.

6. Lotman Yu.M. The structure of the artistic text. M., 1970. S. 282-288.

7. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 1996. S. 176-209 (plot construction); With. 230-243 (about the lyrical plot).

8. Epstein M.N. Plot // Brief literary encyclopedia. T.7. M., 1972.

Lesson number 2. The composition of a literary work.

1. The concept of the composition of a literary work. Types of composition: simple and complex. Conditionality of the composition by the ideological concept.

2. External composition (architectonics): the ratio of the whole and its constituent elements: chapters, parts, stanzas.

3. Composition and plot. Extra-plot elements.

4. Various ways of constructing a plot (montage, inversions, silence, inserted novels, plot framing, etc.).

5. Composition of individual images. The role of the portrait, interior, speech characteristics, internal monologue, dialogue, mutual characteristics of characters, diaries, letters and other means.

6. Composition of non-plot works. The role in it of poetic meters and rhythm, figurative and expressive means of language, etc.

Literature:

1. Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. Moscow, 1988, pp. 188–215.

2. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets; M., 1999 (See the relevant concepts in the Consolidated Index of Terms).

3. Zhirmunsky V.M. Composition of lyrical poems // V.M. Zhirmunsky Theory of verse. L., 1975.

4. Kozhinov V.V. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of Literature. The main problems in historical coverage. Book. 2. M., 1964.

7. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 1996.

8. Khalizev V.E. Composition // Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.,

Topic 2.4.

Genera and types of literature.

1. Primitive syncretic creativity as the source of the origin of literary genera.

2. Signs of the generic division of literature: the subject of the image, speech structure, ways of organizing artistic time and space.

3. Specific features of lyrics as a kind of literature. The ratio of objective and subjective in a lyrical work. The image of a lyrical hero.

The division of lyrics as a genus into types (genres). Main lyrical genres: ode, epistle, elegy, lyric poem, etc.

4. Specific features of the epic as a kind of literature. The predominance of the objective beginning in the narrative. Narrator image. Main epic genres:

novel, story, story, poem, epic, fairy tale, fable, etc.

5. Specific features of drama as a kind of literature. Dramaturgy and theatre.

Main genres of drama: tragedy, drama, comedy, vaudeville, melodrama, etc.

6. Intergenre and intergeneric formations. Possibilities of synthesizing elements of lyrics, epic and drama within the framework of one work of art.

Give a description of the genera and genres on the basis of works of children's literature. Make a chart of literary genres and genres. Indicate 4-5 works of literature for children and adults related to a particular genre.

Literature:

1. Belinsky V.G. The division of poetry into genera and types // Belinsky V.G. Full sob.

op. T.5. M., 1954. (Make a brief synopsis of the article).

2. Veselovsky A.N. Three chapters from historical poetics (1899) (Syncretism of ancient poetry and the beginning of differentiation of poetic genera) // Introduction to literary criticism. Reader / Ed. P. Nikolaev. M., 1997. S.296-297. (You can use other readers, where there are fragments from the work of A.N.

Veselovsky "Historical poetics").

3. Volkov I.F. Theory of Literature. M., 1995.

4. Timofeev L.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. M., 1976.

5. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 1996.

6. Kozhinov V.V. To the problem of literary types and genres // Theory of Literature.

The main problems in historical coverage. Book. 2. M., 1964.

7. Chernets L.V. Literary genres: Problems of typology and poetics. M., 1982.

Corresponding articles of dictionaries and reference books.

Topic 2.5. poetic language.

1. Literary language and the language of a literary work, their features, interrelation and interdependence.

2. Language as a "primary element of literature" (M. Gorky). Language and style.

4. Common words as the basis of poetic vocabulary.

5. Archaisms, their role in the children's book. Show on the example of a poem by S.Ya.

Marshak "False story".

6. Neologisms, their role in the children's book. Show on the example of the works of K.I.

Chukovsky and V.V. Mayakovsky.

7. Dialectisms, their role in the children's book. Show on the example of the story M.A.

Sholokhov "Nakhalenok", tales by P.P. Bazhov.

8. Vulgarisms, their role in the children's book. Show on the example of A.P.

Gaidar Timur and his team.

9. Artistic functions of homonyms, synonyms and antonyms.

Tropes and their role in the literary text.

1. Polysemy of a word in an artistic context. The concept of a path.

2. Epithets, their types, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.

3. Comparisons, their types, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.

4. Metaphors and their meaning in a work of art. Deployment and implementation of metaphor. Give examples.

5. Personification. Give examples.

6. Allegory. Give examples.

7. Metonymy, its types, ideological and artistic role. Synecdoche. Give examples.

8. Paraphrase and its functions, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.

9. The functions of hyperbole and litotes in a literary text. Examples.

10. Irony, its meaning.

Similar works:

“YEREVAN STATE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF RUSSIAN PHILOLOGY P. B. Balayan L. A. Ter-Sarkisyan B. S. Khojumyan Russian Language Textbook Grammar. Communication. Speech. Yerevan YSU Publishing House UDC 811.161.1(075.8) LBC 81.2Rus ya73 B 200 VN Harutyunyan Authors: Ph.D., Assoc. P. B. Balayan, Ph.D., Assoc. L. A. TerSarkisyan, Ph.D., Assoc. B. S. Khojumyan Balayan P. B., L. A. Ter-Sarkisyan, B. S...."

“study, but the subject of the word, which is addressed to the understanding of the reader. Therefore, it is best to consider this book as a kind of hermeneutic diary. Only a few articles deal with general theoretical problems of understanding. They are placed at the beginning of the collection. Basically, we are talking about specific works of art, or rather, not “goes ...”

«BULLETIN OF TOMSK STATE UNIVERSITY 2009 Philology №2(6) PHILOLOGICAL EDUCATION: HISTORY AND MODERNITY UDC 81:378.4(571.16) L.T. Leushina, S.F. Fominykh CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY AT TOMSK STATE UNIVERSITY AND ST. PETERSBURG CLASSICAL PHILOLOGISTS The influence of the St. Petersburg school of classical philologists on the formation and development of classical philology in Tomsk is considered. Keywords: classical philology, antiquity, culture, literature, latin, ancient greek,...»

"Tver Regional Branch of the Union of Writers of Russia Tver State University Department of Philological Foundations of Publishing and Literary Creativity Studio of Literary Mastery "VERBALIS" LITHOSPHERE Literary Almanac Issue Tver 2014 Sciences Senior Lecturer P.S. Gromova (compiler), Doctor of Philology Professor S.Yu. Nikolaeva (responsible editor), Doctor of Philology...»

«A C T A U N I V E R S I T AT I S L O D Z I E N S I S FOLIA LITTERARIA ROSSICA 8, 2015 NATALYA VERSHININA Pskov State University Faculty of Philology Department of Literature 180000 Pskov st. Nekrasova, 24 POSITIVISM IN THE CONTEXT OF THE 1850–1880S (ON THE EXAMPLE OF ALEKSANDR YAKHONTOV'S LITERARY AND SOCIAL ACTIVIT) IES) In the article for the first time, based on fundamental...

"Potyomkina Ekaterina Vladimirovna Commented reading of a literary text in a foreign audience as a method for the formation of a bilingual personality DISSERTATION for the degree of a candidate ..."

“Interview with Yulia Mikhailovna BESPALOVOY “I APPEARED IN SOCIOLOGY BOTH RANDOMLY AND NOT RANDOMLY” Yu. Main areas of research: sociology of culture, personality, qualitative methods. The interview took place in 2010-2011. I am connected with Yulia Mikhailovna Bespalova by several memorable meetings in Tyumen and Moscow and ... "

“The work was carried out at the Department of Foreign Literature and Theory of Intercultural Communication of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Nizhny Novgorod State Linguistic University. ON THE. Dobrolyubova. Doctor of Philology, Professor Nauchny TsVETKOVA Marina Vladimirovna, Consultant: Professor of the Department of Applied Linguistics and Intercultural Communication of the Nizhny Novgorod Branch of the Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education "Higher School of Economics" Doctor of Philology, Professor

“In the world of science and art: issues of philology, art history and cultural studies www.sibac.info No. 11 (54), 2015 3.3. MUSICAL ART NATIONAL SCHOOL OF CLAVIR ART: DEVELOPMENT FEATURES Gudkova Larisa Alexandrovna post-graduate student, Moscow Pedagogical State University, RF, Moscow E-mail: [email protected] Getman Victoria Viktorovna ped. Sci., Associate Professor, Department of Musicology and Music Education, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Russian Federation,...”

« Russian and Foreign Philology Department of Applied Linguistics Bastrikov A.V., Bastrikova E.M. Russian language and culture of speech (for students of the Linguistics program at IMOIV) Lecture notes Kazan - 2014 Institute of International Relations, History and Oriental Studies Course of study: 45.03.02 - Linguistics (bachelor's degree, 1st year, full-time study) ... "

“Aldon Borkowska The Image of Modern Polish Literary Russian Studies In the early 50s of the last century, when Poland, liberated from the German occupiers, found itself in the sphere of Russian influence, the departments of Russian philology were formed and began to conduct active scientific activities at Polish universities. However, the interest of the Poles in the culture and language of the eastern neighbor appeared long before that. True, relations between Poland and Russia have never been simple and far from always friendly....”

“Vil Ivanovich Akopov DOCTOR AND PATIENT: morality, law, problems Managing editor – Doctor of Philology A.I. Akopov MEDICAL ETHICS LEGAL PROBLEMS OF MEDICINE MEDICAL ERRORS PROFESSIONAL CRIMES ROSTOV-ON-DON Akopov V.I. Doctor and patient: morality, law, problems. Rostov-on-Don: Institute of Mass Communications, 1994. - 192 p. The book of Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Forensic Medicine of the Rostov Medical Institute V.I. Akopova is dedicated to the most ... "

“Faslnomai Vazorati koroi horii umurii Toikiston SIYOSATI HORI maallai ilmivu nazariyav va ittiloot No. 1, 2013 Sarmuarrir amrokhon Zarif – Vaziri koroi horii umurii Toikiston. Muovini sarmuarrir Nizomiddin Zoidov – Muovini vaziri koroi horii umurii Toikiston, doctor ilmoi philology, professor Kotibi masul Abdulfayz Atoev – Sardori Rayosati ittiloot, matbuot, talil va tarrezii siyosati horii Vazorati koroi horii umurii Toikiston ayati tari Riya Erkin Ramatulloev – Mushoviri Presidential pressure...»

«Natalia Alexandrovna Abieva Associate Professor of the Department of Intercultural Communication, St. Petersburg University of Management and Economics Academic degree - Candidate of Philology Academic title - Associate Professor Education: 1971-1977, Leningrad State University named after. A.A. Zhdanova, Faculty of Philology (diploma of a specialist in the specialty of philologist-Germanist), 1979-1986, applicant for the Department of the History of Foreign Literature, Leningrad State University. A.A. Zhdanov (diploma of a candidate of philological sciences, dissertation on ... "

“Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications Department of Television and Radio Broadcasting and Mass Media Television in Russia Status, trends and development prospects INDUSTRY REPORT Moscow UDC 654.191/.197(470)(093.2) BBC 32.884.8+32. T3 The report was prepared by the Department of Broadcasting and Mass Communications, the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, Analytical Center "Video International" Under the general editorship of E.L. Vartanova, V.P. Kolomiets Author's...»

“Language, consciousness, communication: Sat. articles / Ed. N.V. Ufimtseva, V.V. Krasnykh, A.I. Izotov. - M.: MAKS Press, 2010. - Issue. 40. - 156 p. ISBN 978-5-317-03524-2 Personal meaning: the result of knowledge or external influence? © Doctor of Philology I.A. Bubnova, 2010 The problem of understanding is one of those problems, the discussion of which has not stopped for millennia. Moreover, unlike many other issues that are of interest exclusively to representatives of one branch of science, about ... "

Smirnov Mark. The last Solovyov. 83 MONOGRAPH IN THE MAGAZINE Mark Smirnov THE LAST SOLOVIEV* The life and work of the poet and priest Sergei Solovyov (1885–1942) FROM THE AUTHOR “Books have their own destiny” is the Latin saying. The fate of the hero of this book - the poet and priest Sergei Solovyov - the reader will learn from further narration. About the fate of the book itself, more precisely, about how and why it was written, I would like to tell in this preface. In the 1970s, when I was studying at the Leningrad ... "

« Annotation The article examines Nakhchivan toponyms in historical sources. Which materials of these sources are understandable, accurate and systematic, they reflect historicity and modernity. From these sources, it becomes clear that life has existed in Nakhchivan since the period when the first people settled here, ... "

"B. V. Warnecke OLD PHILOLOGISTS1 In my old age I live again. The past passes before me - How long has it been rushing? Pimen in Pushkin2 and in the seventh decade3 the most suitable occupation is to sum up the results of the outgoing life. Doing this both in sleepless nights and during the day, basking in the sun, I constantly come to the conclusion that I should consider myself a very happy person: not because fate saved me from blows and trials, on the contrary, I endured a lot of them, but because, that I have fallen to the lot of a great and rare happiness ... "

“OUR AUTHORS NECHAEVA Natalya Viktorovna. - Natalia V. Nechaeva. Russian State Pedagogical University. A. I. Herzen, St. Petersburg, Russia. The Herzen State Pedagogical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia. Email: [email protected] Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of Translation of the Institute of Foreign Languages. The main areas of scientific research: linguoculturology, lexicology of the German language, translation and translation studies. Key Publications: ORDNUNG Concept...»

11. Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines

12. Literary criticism and other scientific disciplines

The word "literature" comes from the Latin littera, which means "letter" The concept of "literature" covers all written and printed works on various topics. There is philosophical, juridical, economic literature, and so on. Hudozhnya literature is one of the art forms, figuratively recreates the world by means of languages in different ways in the light of language.

Awareness of literature as art falls on the 19th century

11 Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines

. literary criticism is the science of the art of the word. It was formed in the late 18th - early 19th centuries.

In literary criticism, there are three main and a number of auxiliary disciplines. The main ones are: history of literature, theory of literature, literary criticism. Each of them has its own subject and tasks.

The history of literature (Greek historia - a story about the past and Lat litteratura - letter writing) studies the features of the development of fiction in connections and mutual influences, the role of individual writers and your cows in the literary process, the formation of genera, types, genres, trends, currents. The history of fiction studies the development of literature in connection with the development of society; social, cultural gray to the highest, starting from ancient times and ending with the works of the present. There are national, continental and world literary histories. The literature of each nation has its own specific features.

Literary theory (Greek thedria - observation, research) studies the general patterns of development of fiction, its essence, content and form, criteria for evaluating works of art, methodology and methods for analyzing literature as an art of the word, features of genera, types, genres, trends, trends and styles. The theory of literature was established at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries.

Literary criticism (Greek kritike - judgment) studies new works, the current literary process, its subject is a separate work, the work of a writer, new works of several writers. Literary criticism helps readers understand the features of the content and form of a work of art, its achievements and losses, contributes to the formation of aesthetic taste.

The leading genres of literary criticism are literary portraits, literary critical reviews, reviews, testimonials, annotations, etc.

Literary theory, literary history and literary criticism are closely related. Without a theory of literature there is no history, and without history there is no theory of literature. Achievements of the theory of literature. Use wow literary historians and literary critics. A literary critic is both a literary theorist, a literary historian, and a comparativist (lat. comparativus - comparative). He studies literature in interrelationships, connections, mutual influences, looking for similarities and differences in a literary work.

Literary criticism enriches the history of literature with new facts, revealing trends and prospects for the development of literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines are textual criticism, historiography, bibliography, paleography, hermeneutics, translation studies, psychology of creativity.

Textology (Latin texturn - fabric, connection and Greek logos - word) is a branch of historical and philological science that studies literary texts, compares options, clears editorial and censorship changes, and restores the author's text. Textological work is important for publishing works and for studying creative process. Undesirable changes in literary texts were made in antiquity. Many of them are in the works of writers who were repressed during the Soviet period. The texts, where the national idea sounded, were retouched by the publishers according to the communist ideology. In a poem. V. Symonenko "About the land with a reshaped brow" with such lines; with the following rows:

Vkrainonko!

Poverty writhing and smoldering in this

You scream into my brain like a curse

And we go, and your corrupt

Love is terrible!

My communist joy!

Take me!

Take my little angry one. I!

In the manuscript, the first two lines were sharper:

Vkrainonko!

In the stench and fog of dung

The first two lines of the next stanza were:

Love of the world!

And my joyless joy!

The task of the textologist is to establish the original work, its completeness, completeness, compliance with the will of the author and his intention, the textologist can determine the name of the author of an unnamed work

textologists distinguish between author's self-editing and author's self-censorship, caused by the ideological pressure of textological study of changes and amendments that the writer makes to works that reveal his creative work in the laboratory.

Historiography (Greek historia - a story about the past and grapho - I write) is an auxiliary discipline of literary criticism that collects and studies materials on the historical development of the theory, criticism and history of the letter of atura throughout all epochs; it is formed by studies of historical periods (antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Baroque, Enlightenment, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Postmodernism) and disciplines attributed to specific personalities (homeroznavstvo, danteznavstvo, Shevchenko studies, francoznavstvo, forestry, sosyuroznavstvo).

Bibliography (Greek biblion - book and grapho - I write, describe) is a scientific and practical discipline that discovers, systematizes, publishes and distributes information about the manuscript, printed works, compiles indexes, lists, which are sometimes accompanied by concise annotations that help you select the right literature. There are different types of bibliographic indexes: general, personal, thematic. Special bibliographic chronicle magazines are published: a chronicle of journal articles, a chronicle of reviews. Chronicle of newspaper articles.

The history of bibliography begins in the 2nd century BC, from the writings of a Greek poet and critic. Callimachus, leader. Library of Alexandria. Callimachus cataloged it. Domestic bibliography begins with the XI century. The first Ukrainian bibliographic work - "Izbornik. Svyatoslav" (1073 hectares" (1073 rubles).

Paleography (Greek palaios - ancient and grapho - I write) is an auxiliary literary discipline that studies ancient texts, establishes the authorship, place, and time of writing a work. Before the advent of the printing press, works of art were copied by hand. The scribes sometimes made their own corrections to the text, supplemented or shortened it, put their names under the works. The names of the authors were gradually forgotten. We still do not know, for example, the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" Paleography is a historical and philological science that has existed since the 17th century. The following types of paleography are known: epigraphy, which studies inscriptions on metal and stone, and papyrology - on papyrus, codicology - handwritten books, cryptography - graphics of secret writing systems. A French explorer began paleography. B. Montfaucon ("Greek paleography", 1708). In Ukraine, the first studios of paleography in grammar. Lawrence. Zizania (1596). Today, ieography is developing - the science of modern written texts, which were modified by censors or editors or changed by censors or editors.

Hermeneutics (Greek hermeneutikos - I explain, I explain) is a science associated with the study, explanation, interpretation of philosophical, historical, religious, philological texts. The name "hermeneutics" comes from the name. Hermes. In ancient mythology - the messenger of the gods, the patron of travelers, roads, trade, the conductor of the souls of the dead. According to. Yu. Kuznetsova, the etymology of the concept is not connected with the name. Hermes, the term comes from the ancient Greek word erma, which means a pile of stones or a stone pillar, with which the ancient Greeks designated the burial place. Hermeneutics is a method of interpreting works of art, comments on works, prepares a textologist for publication. At first, hermeneutics interpreted the predictions of oracles, sacred texts, later - legal laws and works of classical poets and classical poets.

Hermeneutics uses various methods of interpreting literary texts: psychoanalytic, sociological, phenomenological, comparative-historical, existentialist, semiotic, structural, poststructural, mythological, deconstructivist, receptive, gender.

Translation studies - a branch of philology, is associated with the theory and practice of translation, its task is to comprehend the features of literary translation from one language to another, which are the components of translation aisternost. The main problem of translation studies is the problem of the possibility or impossibility of an adequate translation. Translation studies includes the theory, history and criticism of translation. He introduced the term "translation studies" into Ukrainian literary criticism. V. Koptilov. They made a significant contribution to understanding the problems of translation studies. O. Kundzich,. M. Rylsky,. Roksolana. Zorivchak,. Lada. Kolomietsak,. Lada. Kolomyets.

The psychology of literary creativity was formed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century on the border of three sciences: psychology, art history and sociology. In the field of view of the psychology of creativity, conscious and subconscious e, intuition, imagination, reincarnation, personification, fantasy, inspiration. They studied the psychology of literary creativity. O. Potebnya,. I. Franko,. M. Arnaudov,. G. Vyazovsky,. S. Freud,. K. Jung. Today -. A. Makarov,. R. Pikhmanets.. Pikhmanets.

12 Literary criticism and other scientific disciplines

The science of literature is associated with such disciplines as history, linguistics, philosophy, logic, psychology, folklore, ethnography, art history.

Artistic works appear in certain historical conditions, they always reflect the features of the time. A literary critic must know history in order to understand this or that literary phenomenon. Literary critics study archival materials, memoirs, letters, in order to better understand the events, the atmosphere of the era, the biography of the artist.

Literary criticism interacts with linguistics. Artistic works are the material for linguistic research. Linguists decipher the sign systems of the past. Literary criticism, studying the features of languages, how works are written, cannot do without the help of linguistics. The study of the language allows a deeper understanding of the specifics of fiction.

Before the advent of writing, works of art were distributed orally. The works of oral folk art are called "folklore" (English folk - people, lore - knowledge, teaching). Folklore works appear even after the emergence of writing. Developing in parallel with fiction, folklore interacts with it, influences it indifferently.

Philosophy influences the development of literature and literary criticism: rationalism is the philosophical basis of classicism, sensationalism is the philosophical basis of sentimentalism, positivism is the philosophical basis of realism and naturalism. The literature of the 19th-20th centuries was influenced by existentialism, Freudianism, and intuitionism.

Literary criticism has contacts with logic and psychology. The main subject of fiction is man. These sciences make it possible to penetrate deeper into her inner world, to understand the processes of artistic creation orchity.

Literary criticism is connected with theology. Works of fiction may have a biblical basis. Biblical motifs in the works of "Psalms to David" by T. Shevchenko, "Moses" and. Bagryany, "Cain" J. Byronsky" by Ivan. Bagryany, "Cain". J.. Byron.

Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Literary criticism studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.

Literary criticism originates from ancient times. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his book "Poetics" was the first to give the theory of genres and types of literature (epos, drama, lyrics).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise "The Art of Poetry", based on an earlier work by Horace ("The Science of Poetry"). It separates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the XVIII century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing "Laocoon. On the Limits of Painting and Poetry", Gerber "Critical Forests").

At the beginning of the 19th century in Germany, the Grimm brothers created their theory.

In Russia, the science of literature as an independent discipline, as a certain system of knowledge and a tool for analyzing literary phenomena with its own concepts, theory and methodology, was established by the middle of the 19th century.

Modern literary criticism consists of three independent, but closely related core disciplines:

literary theory
literary history
literary criticism.

Literary theory explores the nature of verbal creativity, develops and systematizes laws, general concepts of fiction, patterns of development of genera and genres. Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, the work and the reader.

The theory of literature develops in the process of philosophical and aesthetic comprehension of the totality of the facts of the historical and literary process.

^ Literary history explores the originality of various national literatures, studies the history of the emergence, change, development of literary movements and trends, literary periods, artistic methods and styles in different eras and among different peoples, as well as the work of individual writers as a naturally conditioned process.

The history of literature considers any literary phenomenon in historical development. Neither a literary work, nor the work of a writer can be understood without connection with time, with a single process of the literary movement.

The history and theory of literature are closely interrelated. However, their means and techniques are different: the theory of literature seeks to determine the essence of the developing aesthetic system, gives a general perspective on the artistic process, and the history of literature characterizes specific forms and their specific manifestations.

^ Literary criticism(from the Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging) is engaged in the analysis and interpretation of works of art, their evaluation in terms of aesthetic value, the identification and approval of the creative principles of a particular literary movement.

Literary criticism proceeds from the general methodology of the science of literature and is based on the history of literature. Unlike the history of literature, it illuminates the processes taking place primarily in the literary movement of our time, or interprets the literature of the past from the point of view of contemporary social and artistic tasks. Literary criticism is closely connected both with life, social struggle, and with the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of the era.

Criticism points out to the writer the merits and faults of his work. Turning to the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and to realize it in the general process of literary development.

In modern literary criticism, various genres are cultivated - an article, a review, a review, an essay, a literary portrait, a polemical remark, a bibliographic note.

The source base of the theory and history of literature, literary criticism are auxiliary literary disciplines:

textology
historiography
bibliography

Textology studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, revisions, time of writing. The study of the history of the text at all stages of its existence gives an idea of the sequence of the history of its creation (the "material" embodiment of the creative process - sketches, drafts, notes, variants, etc.). Textology also deals with the establishment of authorship (attribution).

Historiography is devoted to the study of the specific historical conditions for the appearance of a particular work.

Bibliography- a branch of scientific description and systematization of information about published works. This is an auxiliary discipline of any science (scientific literature on a particular subject), based on two principles: thematic and chronological. There is a bibliography for individual periods and stages, for personalities (authors), as well as a bibliography of fiction and literary criticism. Bibliographies can be auxiliary (with explanatory annotations and brief comments) and advisory (containing lists of major publications on certain sections and topics).

Modern literary criticism is a very complex and mobile system of disciplines, which is characterized by close interdependence of all its branches. Thus, literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines; criticism is based on the data of the history and theory of literature, and the latter take into account and comprehend the experience of criticism, while criticism itself eventually becomes the material of the history of literature, etc.

Modern literary criticism is developing in close connection with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, linguistics, and psychology.

Control questions to the topic "Literary criticism as a science"

1.
What is the subject of study of literary criticism as a science?

2.
What is the structure of literary criticism (main and auxiliary disciplines of the science of literature)?

3.
What does literary theory study?

4.
What is the study of literary history?

5.
What are the functions of literary criticism?

6.
What is the subject of study of auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism?

7.
The relationship of all the main and auxiliary sections of the science of literature.

Lecture 2

^ SPECIFICITY OF ART LITERATURE

The term “literature” refers to any works of human thought fixed in the written word and having social significance. There are technical, scientific, journalistic, reference literature, etc. However, in a stricter sense, literature is usually called works of fiction, which, in turn, is a kind of artistic creativity, i.e. art.

Art – a kind of spiritual assimilation of reality by a social person, aimed at the formation and development of his ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. Piece of art is the result (product) of artistic creativity . Onov in a sensual-material form embodies the spiritual and meaningful intention of the artist and is the main custodian and source of information in the field of artistic culture.

Works of art are a necessary accessory to the life of both an individual and human society as a whole.

Ancient forms of world exploration were based on syncretism. During the centuries of life and activity of people, various types of art arose. whose boundaries were not clearly defined for a long time. Gradually, an understanding came of the need to distinguish between artistic means and images characteristic of different arts.

All types of art spiritually enrich and ennoble a person, give him a lot of different knowledge and emotions. Outside of man and his emotions there is no art and cannot be. The subject of art, and therefore of literature, is a person, his inner and outer life, and everything that is somehow connected with him.

The general properties of art find a specific manifestation in its various types, which at different times subdivided it into pictorial(epic and dramatic genre of literature, painting, sculpture and pantomime) and expressive(lyrical kind of literature, music, choreography, architecture); then on spatial and temporal etc. Their modern classification involves the division of classical arts into spatial(architecture), temporary(literature), pictorial(painting, graphics, sculpture); expressive(music), representative(theater, cinema); lately there have been many arts , possessing synthetic character.

^ Artistic image

Art is thinking with artistic images, therefore imagery is a common essential feature of all types of art. An artistic image is a way of reflecting, reproducing life, specific to art, its generalization from the standpoint of the artist's aesthetic ideal in a living, concrete-sensual form.

^ Artistic image is a special way of mastering and transforming reality, inherent only in art. In the artistic image, the objective-cognitive and subjective-creative principles are inextricably merged.

One of the most important specific features of art is artistic convention as a principle of artistic depiction, in general, denoting the non-identity of the artistic image with the object of reproduction. The artistic specificity of the image is determined by the fact that it reflects and comprehends the existing reality and creates new, fictional world.

There can be no work of art without images. In the visual arts, the image is always perceived visually. But in music, the artistic image is addressed not to sight, but to hearing, and does not necessarily have to evoke any visual associations; it does not necessarily have to “depict”. In fiction, the visual representation of an image is also not a general rule (although it is very common); usually a character or a literary hero is called an image, but this is a narrowing of the concept of “artistic image”.

^ In fact, any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art is an artistic image.

The place of fiction among the arts

In different periods of the cultural development of mankind, literature was assigned a different place among other types of art - from the leading to one of the last. For example, ancient thinkers considered sculpture the most important of the arts. In the 18th century, a tendency arose in European aesthetics to promote literature to the fore. Renaissance artists and classicists, like ancient thinkers, were convinced of the advantages of sculpture and painting over literature. Romantics in the first place among all kinds of arts put poetry and music. Symbolists considered music to be the highest form of culture, and they tried in every possible way to bring poetry closer to music.

The peculiarity of literature, its difference from other types of art, is due to the fact that it is verbal (verbal) art, since its “primary element” is the word. Using the word as the main "building" material when creating images, literature has great potential in the artistic exploration of the world. Being, in fact, a temporary art, literature, like no other art, is capable of reproducing reality both in time and space, and in expression, both in “sound” and in “picture” images, limitlessly expanding for the reader the scope of his life impressions (true, verbal images, unlike pictorial and sculptural ones, are not visual, they arise in the reader's imagination only as a result of the associative connection of words and ideas, therefore the intensity of the aesthetic impression depends largely on the reader's perception).

Reproducing speech activity (using such forms as dialogues and monologues), literature recreates the processes of people's thinking and their spiritual world. Literature can depict thoughts, sensations, experiences, beliefs - all aspects of a person's inner world.

Imprinting human consciousness with the help of speech is available to the only kind of art - literature. Literature as the art of the word is the sphere where the observation of the human psyche was born, formed and achieved great perfection and refinement.

Literature allows you to understand the laws of personality development, human relations, the characters of people. It is capable of reproducing various aspects of reality, recreating events of any scale - from the daily actions of an individual to historical conflicts that are important for the fate of entire nations, social movements. This is a universal form of art, which, moreover, is distinguished by its acute problematic nature and a more distinct expression of the author's position than in other types of art.

Nowadays, the brightest literary artistic images, plots and motifs often form the basis of many works of other types of art - painting, sculpture, theater, ballet, opera, variety art, music, cinema, acquiring a new artistic embodiment and continuing their life.

^ Functions of Fiction

Fiction is distinguished by a variety of functions:

Cognitive function: literature helps to understand nature, man, society.

Communicative function: the language of fiction becomes the most effective means of communication between people, generations and nations (but it should be borne in mind that literary works are always created in the national language, and therefore there is a need to translate them into other languages).

aesthetic the function of literature lies in its ability to influence people's views, to form an aesthetic taste. Literature offers the reader an aesthetic ideal, a standard of beauty and an image of the base.

emotional function: literature has an impact on the feelings of the reader, evokes feelings.

Educational function: the book carries priceless spiritual knowledge, forms the individual and social consciousness of a person, contributes to the knowledge of good and evil.

^ Literature and Science

There is a close relationship between literature and science, as they are called upon to cognize nature and society. Literature, like science, has enormous cognitive power. But science and literature each have their own object of knowledge, and special means of presentation, and their own goals.

Distinctive character poetic thoughts that she appears before us in a living concrete image. The scientist operates with a system of evidence and concepts, and the artist recreates a living picture of the world. The science, observing a mass of homogeneous phenomena, establishes their patterns and formulates their in logical terms. Wherein scientist is distracted from the individual characteristics of the subject, from his concrete-sensual form. When abstracting, individual facts, as it were, lose their objectivity, are absorbed by a general concept.

In art, the process of knowing the world is different. Artist, like a scientist, when observing life, he goes from single facts to generalizations, but expresses his generalizations in concrete-sensual images.

The main difference between the scientific definition and the artistic image is that we can only understand the scientific logical definition, while the artistic image refracted in our feelings, we seem to see, imagine, hear, feel.

Control questions to the topic "Specificity of fiction":

1.
Art is a kind of spiritual exploration of reality.

2.
Artistic convention as a principle of artistic depiction.

3.
What is an artistic image?

4.
Fiction as an art form. Its place among other art forms.

5.
The specificity of the verbal image in relation to the images of other arts.

6.
What is the difference between a literary image and a musical, pictorial, sculptural image?

7.
What are the distinguishing features of literature as a work of art?

8.
What are the subject, goals and functions of fiction?

9.
Literature and science.

Lectures 3-4-5.

^ LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE

Each art form uses only its own means of expression. These means are usually called the language of this art. Distinguish between the language of fiction, the language of sculpture, the language of music, the language of architecture, etc.

^ The language of fiction, in other words, poetic language, is the form in which the type of verbal art is materialized, objectified, in contrast to other types of art, for example, music or painting, where sound, paint, color serve as means of materialization; the language of choreography - specific expressive movements of the human body, etc.

The artistic image in literature is created both through the word and through composition, and in poetry also through the rhythmic and melodic organization of speech, which together form the language of the work. Therefore, the language of fiction can be considered the totality of all these means, and not just one of them. Without the totality of these means, a work of fiction cannot exist. However, the word, the primary element, the main building material of literature, plays the main, decisive role in the language of fiction.

The language of fiction (poetic language) differs from the literary (canonized, normative) language, which does not allow deviations, in that elements of colloquial language, vernacular, dialect expressions, etc. are used in a work of art.

Considering language as the main means of artistic depiction of life in literature, one should focus on the features poetic language, which differs from other forms of speech activity in that it is subordinate creation of artistic images. The word in the language of a work of art acquires an artistic meaning. The figurativeness of artistic speech is expressed in its emotional saturation, extreme accuracy, economy and simultaneous capacity.

The search for the most necessary, the only possible word in this or that case is associated with great creative efforts of the writer. Artistic speech is not a set of any special poetic words and phrases. Figurative and expressive means (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) are not in themselves, out of context, a sign of artistry.

Any word, except for the direct, exact meaning denoting the main feature of an object, phenomenon, action, has a number of other meanings, i.e. it is polysemantic (the phenomenon of polysemy of words). Polysemy allows you to use the word in a figurative sense, for example, iron hammer - iron character; storm - a storm of anger, a storm of passion; fast driving - quick mind, quick look etc.

^ The use of a word, expression, phrase in a figurative sense is called a trope. trails are based on an internal convergence, a correlation of two phenomena, of which one explains, clarifies the other. Tropes are often found in colloquial speech, some of them become so familiar that they seem to lose their figurative meaning ( ate a plate, lost his head, a river runs, it rains, table legs). In artistic speech, the paths most clearly and accurately reveal the most essential feature of the depicted object or phenomenon, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

There are various types of trails, since the principles of convergence of diverse objects and phenomena are different. ^ The simplest types of trope are simile and epithet.

Comparison- this is a comparison of two objects or phenomena that have a common feature, to explain one to the other. Comparison consists of two parts, which are connected most often through conjunctions ( like, exactly, as if, like, as if etc.):

You look like a pink sunset, and like snow, radiant and bright;

like fiery snakes; similar to black lightning.

Quite often, the comparison is expressed using the instrumental case: “Inaudibly, the night comes from the east like a gray she-wolf” (M. Sholokhov); “Silvering with frosty dust / His beaver collar” (A.S. Pushkin).

In addition to direct comparisons, there are negative comparisons: “It’s not the wind that hums on the feather grass, it’s not the wedding train that hums, relatives howled along Prokla, the family howls along Prokla” (Nekrasov). Often there are examples when writers resort to so-called comparisons that reveal a number of signs of a phenomenon or group of phenomena: “I remember a wonderful moment / You appeared before me, / Like a fleeting vision, like a genius of pure beauty” (Pushkin).

^ Epithet– a more difficult type of trail – artistic definition emphasizing the most essential feature of an object or phenomenon ( golden head, gray sea, fiery speech). The epithet must not be confused with a logical definition (oak table) separating one object from another. Depending on the context, the same definition can perform both a logical and artistic function: gray sea - gray head; oak table - oak head, and therefore the epithet is always used only with the word being defined, enhancing its figurativeness. In addition to adjectives, the epithet can be expressed by a noun (" gold, gold folk heart"- Nekrasov).

Metaphor- one of the main types of trail. The metaphor is based on a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another according to the principle of their similarity: the east burns a new dawn», « star of captivating happiness". Unlike comparison, which contains two members (the object of comparison and the object with which it is compared), in a metaphor there is only the second member. The object of comparison in the metaphor is not named, but implied. Therefore, any metaphor can be expanded into a comparison:

"Parade, deploying my army pages,

I walk along the line front ... ".

A type of metaphor is personification. personification- such a metaphor in which objects, natural phenomena and concepts are endowed with signs of a living being:

“A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff”, “Mountain peaks sleep in the darkness of night”,

"Hands of my dear - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair."

Personification is most often found in oral folk art, which was due to the fact that a person at an early stage of his development, not understanding the laws of nature, spiritualized it. Later, such personification developed into a stable poetic turn, helping to reveal the most characteristic feature of the depicted object or phenomenon.

Allegory- this is a figurative allegory, the expression of abstract ideas (concepts) through specific artistic images. In the visual arts, allegory is expressed by certain attributes (for example, the allegory of "justice" - a woman with weights). In literature, allegory is most often used in fables, where the whole image has a figurative meaning. Such works are called allegorical. Allegorical images are conditional, since they always mean something else.

The allegoricalness of fables, fairy tales, proverbs is characterized by stability, certain and constant qualities are assigned to their characters (greed, anger for a wolf; cunning, dexterity for a fox; power, strength, etc. for a lion). Allegorical fable and fairy-tale images are unambiguous, simple, applicable to one concept.

Metonymy- replacement of the direct name of an object or phenomenon with a figurative one. It is based on the convergence of objects that are not similar, unlike metaphor, but are in a causal (temporal, spatial, material) or other objective relationship. For example: “Soon you will find out yourself at school, / Like an Arkhangelsk peasant / By his own and God’s will / Became reasonable and great.”

Varieties of metonymy are diverse, as are the connections between objects and phenomena of reality. The most common are the following: 1) the name of the author instead of his works: ( bought Pushkin, carried Gogol, did not get Rasputin): 2) the name of the weapon instead of the action (" His pen breathes love»); 3) the name of the place, the country instead of the people and the people who are and live there (“ No. / My Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head»); 4) the name of the containing instead of the content (" The hiss of foamy glasses»); 5) the name of the material from which the thing is made, instead of the thing itself (" porcelain and bronze on the table»); 6) the name of one sign, attribute instead of a person, object or phenomenon (“ All flags will visit us»).

A special kind of metonymy is synecdoche, in which the value from one object or phenomenon is transferred to another according to the principle of a quantitative ratio. Synecdoche is characterized by the use of the singular instead of the plural:

“And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced” (Lermontov),

and vice versa, plural instead of singular:

“... what can their own Platons

and quick-witted Newtons

The Russian land is to give birth" (Lomonosov).

Sometimes a definite number is used instead of an indefinite one (" a million Cossack hats poured onto the square» Gogol). In some cases, the specific concept replaces the generic one ("the proud grandson of the Slavs" Pushkin) or the specific one (" Well, sit down, luminary!» Mayakovsky).

paraphrase- indirect mention of the object by not naming, but describing (for example, "night luminary" - the moon). A paraphrase is also called the replacement of a proper name, the name of an object with a descriptive phrase, in which the essential features of the implied person or object are indicated. Lermontov in his poem "The Death of a Poet" calls Pushkin " slave of honor”, thereby revealing the reasons for his tragic death and expressing his attitude towards him.

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”. There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls” instead of Gogol) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry” instead of Pushkin).

A special case of paraphrase is euphemism- a descriptive expression of "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose").

Hyperbola And litotes also serve as means of creating an artistic image. Figurative meaning hyperbole(artistic exaggeration), and litotes(artistic understatement) is based on the fact that what was said should not be taken literally:

“Yawning tears the mouth wider than the Gulf of Mexico” (Mayakovsky)

“You have to bow your head below a thin blade of grass” (Nekrasov)

Hyperbola tropes based on a clearly implausible exaggeration of a quality or feature (for example, in folklore, the images of the heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and others personifying the mighty strength of the people).

Litotes- a trope opposite to hyperbole and consisting in an excessive understatement of a sign or quality.

“Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble” (Griboedov)

Gogol and Mayakovsky very often resorted to hyperbole.

Irony(mockery) is the use of words in a figurative sense, directly opposite to their usual meaning. The irony is based on the contrast of its internal meaning and external form: “... You will fall asleep, surrounded by the care of your dear and beloved family,” Nekrasov about the “owner of luxurious chambers”, revealing in the next line the true meaning of the attitude of relatives towards him: “looking forward to your death ".

The highest degree of irony, evil, bitter or angry mockery is called sarcasm.

^ Tropes contribute to a large extent to the artistic expressiveness of the poetic language, but do not define it entirely. The greater or lesser use of tropes depends on the nature of the writer's talent, on the genre of the work and its specific features. In lyrics, for example, tropes are used much more widely than in epic and drama. Thus, tropes are only one of the means of artistic expressiveness of the language, and only in interaction with all other means helps the writer to create vivid life pictures and images.

^ Poetic figures– deviations from the neutral mode of presentation for the purpose of emotional and aesthetic impact. The artistic expressiveness of the language is achieved not only by the appropriate selection of words, but also by their intonational-syntactic organization. Syntax, like vocabulary, is used by the writer to individualize and typify speech, being a means of creating character. To be convinced of this, it is enough to compare the speeches of the characters from the novel "Fathers and Sons" by Turgenev. Special ways of constructing a sentence that enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech are called poetic figures. The most important poetic figures are inversion, antithesis, repetition, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal and exclamation.

Inversion- (permutation) means an unusual order of words in a sentence:

Not the wind blowing from above

Sheets touched on a moonlit night. (A.K. Tolstoy)

Antithesis- (opposition) is a combination of sharply opposed concepts and ideas:

They came together: wave and stone,

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other. (Pushkin)

This combination of concepts contrasting in meaning emphasizes their meaning more strongly and makes poetic speech more vivid and figurative. On the principle of antithesis, whole works can sometimes be built, for example, “Reflections at the Front Door” (Nekrasov), “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy, “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky.

The combination of two or more adjacent lines of verses with the same syntactic construction is called concurrency:

The stars are shining in the blue sky

The waves crash in the blue sea. (Pushkin).

Parallelism gives artistic speech rhythm, enhancing its emotional and figurative expressiveness. According to the poetic function, parallelism is close to comparison:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him.

So the temple left is the whole temple,

A defeated idol is all God! (Lermontov)

Parallelism is a form of repetition, as it is often accompanied by the repetition of individual words in a line or verse:

He laughs at the clouds, He cries for joy! (Bitter).

The repetition of the initial words in a line or in a verse that carry the main semantic load is called anaphora, and the repetition of the final epiphora:

He groans through the fields, along the roads,

He groans in prisons, in prisons ... (Nekrasov).

There the bride and groom are waiting, -

no pop,

And I'm here too.

There they take care of the baby, -

no pop,

And I'm here too. (Twardowski).

Parallel elements can be sentences, their parts, phrases, words. For example:

Will I see your bright eyes?

Will I hear a gentle conversation? (Pushkin)

Your mind is as deep as the sea

Your spirit is as high as mountains. (V. Bryusov)

There are more complex types of parallelism that combine different figures of speech. An example of parallelism with anaphora and antithesis:

“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god” (Derzhavin)

Anaphora(or single name) - the repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each parallel row, i.e. in the repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (half-verses, verses, stanzas or prose passages)

^ Sound anaphora- repetition of the same combinations of sounds:

Gr ozy demolished bridges,

Gr both from a blurry cemetery (Pushkin)

Anaphora morphemic- Repetition of the same morphemes or parts of words:

^ Cherno eye girl,

Cherno maned horse!.. (Lermontov)

Anaphora lexical- repetition of the same words:

Not intentionally the winds blew,

Not intentionally there was a storm. (Yesenin)

Anaphora syntactic- repetition of the same syntactic constructions:

Am I wandering I'm along the noisy streets,

Do I enter to the crowded temple,

I'm sitting between foolish youths,

I surrender to my dreams. (Pushkin)

Anaphora strophic- repetition of each stanza from the same word:

Earth!..

From snow moisture

She's still fresh.

She wanders by herself

And breathes like deja.

Earth!..

She runs, runs

A thousand miles ahead

Above her the lark trembles

And he sings about her.

Earth!..

Everything is more beautiful and visible

She lies around.

And there is no better happiness - on it

Live until death ... (Tvardovsky)

Epiphora - repetition of the last words:

dear friend and in this quiet house

the fever is drinking me

Can't find a place for me in this quiet house

Near peaceful fire (Block)

^ Rhetorical question- this is an unanswered question addressed to the reader or listener in order to draw their attention to the depicted:

What is he looking for in a distant country?

What did he throw in his native land? .. (Lermontov).

^ Rhetorical address, affirmation and rhetorical exclamation- also serves to enhance the emotional and aesthetic perception of the depicted:

Moscow, Moscow!.. I love you like a son... (Lermontov).

It's him, I recognize him!

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different

Another unknown chosen one ... (Lermontov).

gradation- a figure of speech consisting in such an arrangement of parts of a statement related to one subject that each subsequent part turns out to be richer, more expressive or impressive than the previous one. In many cases, the feeling of an increase in emotional richness and richness is associated not so much with a semantic increase, but with the syntactic features of the structure of the phrase:

And where is ^ Mazepa? Where the villain?

Where did you run Judas in fear? (Pushkin)

In sweet misty care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will pass ... (Baratynsky).

^ Poetic style

polyunion(or polysyndeton) - a stylistic figure consisting in an intentional increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each of the words, creating a unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

“The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity” (V.G. Korolenko)

"I will either sob, or scream, or faint" (Chekhov)

And the waves are crowding and rushing

And they come again, and hit the shore ... "(Lermontov)

“But the grandson, and the great-grandson, and the great-great-grandson

They grow in me while I myself grow ... ”(Antokolsky)

Asyndeton(or asindeton) - such a construction of speech in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Gives the statement swiftness, dynamism, helps to convey a quick change of pictures, impressions, actions.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses. (Pushkin)

Night, street, lamp, pharmacy,

Meaningless and dim light... (Block)

Ellipsis- the intentional omission of non-essential words in a sentence without distorting its meaning, and often to enhance the meaning and effect:

"Champagne!" (Implied "Bring a bottle of champagne!").

Day in dark night in love

Spring is in love with winter

Life into death...

And you? ... You are in me! (Heine)

The figure of poetic style is and oxymoron- a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incongruous). An oxymoron is characterized by the deliberate use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect (light ink, cold sun). An oxymoron is often used in the titles of prose literary works (“The Living Corpse” - a drama by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” - a novel by Y. Bondarev), is often found in poetry:

And the day has come. Gets up from the bed

Mazepa, this frail sufferer,

This dead body, just yesterday

Moaning weakly over the grave. (Pushkin)

^ Poetic phonetics (phonics)

Poetic phonetics– this is a sound organization of artistic speech, the main element of which is sound repetition as an ornamental technique for highlighting and fastening the most important words in a verse.

There are the following types of sound repetitions:

assonance- repetition of vowel sounds, mainly percussion (“He groans across the fields, along the roads ...”, Nekrasov);
alliteration- repetition of consonant sounds, mainly at the beginning of words (“It's time, the pen asks for rest ...”, Pushkin);
onomatopoeia(sound) - a system of sound repetitions, selected with the expectation of onomatopoeia rustle, whistle, etc. (“The reeds rustle quietly, barely audibly ...”, Balmont).

^ Poetic vocabulary

(Learn on your own using the Dictionary of Literary Terms)

Emphasizing the originality of a particular way of life, life, writers widely use various lexical layers of the language, the so-called passive dictionary, as well as words that have a limited scope of use: archaisms, historicisms, vernacular, jargonisms, vulgarisms, barbarisms, dialectisms, provincialisms, Slavicisms, Biblicalisms, professionalisms, neologisms.

The use of such vocabulary, being an expressive device, at the same time often creates difficulties for the reader. Sometimes the authors themselves, anticipating this, supply the text with notes, special dictionaries, as, for example, N. Gogol did in “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”. The author could immediately write Russian words, but then his work would largely lose its local flavor.

It is important not only to know the characteristics of the various layers of stylistic and lexical originality of artistic speech (dialectisms, professionalisms, jargon, vulgarisms, etc.), figurative words and expressions (tropes), intonation-syntactic means (verbal repetitions, antitheses, inversion, gradation and etc.), but to be able to find out their pictorial and expressive function in the studied work of art. For this, it is necessary to consider each means of verbal expressiveness not in isolation, but in the context of the artistic whole.

Control questions on the topic "Language of fiction":

1.
What is the main difference between poetic language and other forms of speech activity?

2.
The difference between the language of fiction (poetic language) and the standard literary language. language.

3.
Define a trail and list its types.

4.
Define poetic figures and name the most important of them.

5.
Name the main figures of poetic style.

6.
What words make up the stylistic and lexical originality of artistic speech?

7.
What is poetic phonetics and what are its types?

Lectures 6.

A literary and artistic work as a work of art is not a natural phenomenon, but a cultural one, which means that it is based on a spiritual principle, which, in order to exist and be perceived, must certainly acquire some material embodiment. Spirituality is content, and its material embodiment - form.

^ Content and form- categories that serve to designate the main aspects of a literary and artistic work. In a work of art, both form and content are equally important. A literary work is a complex whole, so there is a need to know the internal structure of the work, i.e. structural relationship between content and form.

topic, problem idea which are closely related and interdependent.

Thus, stand out content categories : theme, problem, idea.

The theme is the objective basis of the work, characters and situations portrayed by the author. In a work of art, as a rule, there is a main theme and private, subordinate themes, there may be several main themes. The totality of the main and particular themes of works is called topics.

problem considered the main question posed in the work. A distinction is made between problems that can be solved and problems that cannot be solved. Many problems are called issues.

In the choice and development of the theme of a literary work, the worldview of the writer plays an important role. The figuratively expressed author's thoughts and feelings, the attitude to the depicted and the assessment, which constitute the main generalizing idea in a work of art, are usually denoted in literary criticism by the term "idea». Idea is closely connected with the author's idea of the highest standard of life ("author's position"), about how a person and the world should be ("ideal").

The system of means and techniques that serve to embody the content and to emotionally influence the reader is art form works.

Difference between " plot" And " plot”is defined in different ways, some literary critics do not see a fundamental difference between these concepts, while for others, “plot” is the sequence of events as they happen, and “plot” is the sequence in which the author arranges them.

plot- the actual side of the narrative, those events, cases, actions, states in their causal-chronological sequence. The term "plot" refers to what is preserved as the "basis", "core" of the narrative.

Plot- this is a reflection of the dynamics of reality in the form of an action unfolding in a work, in the form of interrelated (by causal relationship) actions of characters, events that form a unity, that make up some complete whole. The plot is a form of development of the theme - an artistically constructed distribution of events.

The driving force behind the development of the plot, as a rule, is conflict(literally "collision"), a conflicting life situation, put by the writer at the center of the work. In a broad sense conflict we should call that system of contradictions that organizes a work of art into a certain unity, that struggle of images, characters, ideas, which is especially widely and fully developed in epic and dramatic works

Conflict- a more or less acute contradiction or clash between characters with their characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within the character and consciousness of a character or a lyrical subject; this is the central moment not only of epic and dramatic action, but also of lyrical experience.

There are various types of conflicts: between individual characters; between character and environment; psychological. The conflict can be external (the struggle of the hero with the forces opposing him) and internal (the struggle in the mind of the hero with himself). There are plots based only on internal conflicts (“psychological”, “intellectual”), the action in them is based not on events, but on the ups and downs of feelings, thoughts, experiences. In one work there can be a combination of different types of conflicts. Sharply pronounced contradictions, the opposite of the forces acting in the work, is called a collision.

Composition (architectonics) is the construction of a literary work, the composition and sequence of the arrangement of its individual parts and elements (prologue, exposition, plot, development of the action, climax, denouement, epilogue).

Prologue- introductory part of a literary work. The prologue tells about the events that precede and motivate the main action, or explains the author's artistic intention.

Exposure- a part of the work that precedes the beginning of the plot and is directly related to it. The exposition follows the arrangement of the characters and the circumstances, the reasons that “trigger” the plot conflict are shown.

tie in the plot - the event that served as the beginning of the conflict in a work of art; an episode that determines the entire subsequent deployment of the action (in N.V. Gogol's "Inspector General", for example, the plot is the message of the mayor about the arrival of the auditor). The plot is present at the beginning of the work, indicates the beginning of the development of artistic action. As a rule, it immediately introduces the work into the main conflict, determining the entire narrative and plot in the future. Sometimes the plot comes before the exposition (for example, the plot of the novel "Anna Karenina" by L. Tolstoy: "Everything is mixed up in the Oblonsky's house"). The writer's choice of one or another type of plot is determined by the stylistic and genre system in terms of which he draws up his work.

climax- the point of the highest rise, tension in the development of the plot (conflict).

denouement- conflict resolution; it completes the struggle of contradictions that make up the content of the work. The denouement marks the victory of one side over the other. The effectiveness of the denouement is determined by the significance of the entire preceding struggle and the climactic sharpness of the episode preceding the denouement.

Epilogue- the final part of the work, which briefly reports on the fate of the characters after the events depicted in it, and sometimes discusses the moral, philosophical aspects of the depicted (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky).

The composition of a literary work includes off-plot elements– author's digressions, inserted episodes, various descriptions(portrait, landscape, world of things), etc., serving to create artistic images, the disclosure of which, in fact, the whole work serves.

So, for example, episode as a relatively complete and independent part of the work, which depicts a completed event or an important moment in the fate of the character, can become an integral link in the problematics of the work or an important part of its general idea.

Scenery in a work of art, it is not just a picture of nature, a description of a part of the real environment in which the action unfolds. The role of the landscape in the work is not limited to depicting the scene. It serves to create a certain mood; is a way of expressing the author's position (for example, in the story of I.S. Turgenev "Date"). The landscape can emphasize or convey the state of mind of the characters, while the internal state of a person is likened or contrasted with the life of nature. The landscape can be rural, urban, industrial, marine, historical (pictures of the past), fantastic (the image of the future), etc. The landscape can also perform a social function (for example, the landscape in the 3rd chapter of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons", the urban landscape in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"). In lyrics, the landscape usually has an independent meaning and reflects the perception of nature by a lyrical hero or a lyrical subject.

Even small artistic detail in a literary work it often plays an important role and performs a variety of functions: it can serve as an important addition to characterize the characters, their psychological state; be an expression of the author's position; can serve to create a general picture of morals, have the meaning of a symbol, etc. Artistic details in a work are classified into portrait, landscape, world of things, psychological details.

^ All elements of form and content are artistically significant(including those representing the so-called "frame" - title, subtitle, epigraph, preface, dedication, etc.), are closely interconnected and constitute the artistic whole of a literary work. So, for example, the conflict belongs not only to the plot or figurative world, but also to the content; an epigraph prefixed to a literary and artistic work serves as a means of determining the theme of the narration, posing a problem, expressing the main idea, etc. Conscious violation of the chronological sequence of events present in a literary work - digressions (lyrical, journalistic, philosophical) and other elements – are subordinate to the general idea, express the position of the writer and are the material embodiment of the author's intention.

Control questions on the topic "content and form of a literary work":

2.
Define the concept idea.

3.
What's happened subject (themes) a work of art?

4.
What's happened problem(problem)?

6.
What is the difference between the concepts plot And plot?

7.
name elements compositions literary work .

8.
What is the role conflicts in a work of art. Types conflicts.

9.
name off-plot elements.

10.
What is the role of artistic details in a literary work.

11.
What's happened scenery? Role landscape in a literary work.

12.
What is the integrity of the work of art?