Topic: Russian culture of the IX-XVII centuries. Features of Russian culture of the 10th - 16th centuries Features of Russian culture of the 15th century

Noticeable shifts are taking place in the cultural life of Russia. Local cultural traditions are gradually becoming a thing of the past, giving way to all-Russian trends. "Survey Horizon" phenomena of public life among cultural figures is expanding. And, of course, there are more opportunities, monetary, political and psychological, within the framework of a large state. The motives of patriotism and national pride assert themselves even more weightily and sonorously. At the same time, along with acquisitions, there were also losses - the mighty breath of the creators of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo disappeared (A. Rublev and F. Grek, chronicles and legends about the fight against the Horde), the growing and deadening influence of autocratic tyranny and the extremes of serfdom, the oprichnina terror on the cultural environment of Russian society. In contradictions, struggles, the culture of that era develops.

Folklore of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries . Records of oral-poetic folk art of this time have not been preserved. But some literary works, documents, such as Stoglav, cathedral letters, etc., mention folk songs and games.

The events of that glorious era were reflected in fairy tales. Yes, in “The Tale of Borma-Yaryzhka” its hero, a simple Russian man, obtains for Tsar Ivan the Terrible signs of royal dignity in Babylon City. A similar story developed in , but it deals with regalia for the Byzantine emperor. Russian fairy tale reworks this plot, adapts it "for myself", some of its variants connect the receipt of regalia by the king with the capture of Kazan.

Other tales glorify the mind, sharpness of people from the people ( "Smart Judge Boy", "Fire Serpent", "Wise Maiden" etc.), some fairy tales were included in "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"(about a peasant girl who became the wife of a prince).

Proverbs and songs, sayings and riddles, words and teachings reflected the lively folk speech, apt and sharp. Such, for example, are the proverbs that he wrote in his message to the elders of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery: “The king favors, but the kennel does not favor”, “give free rein to the king, ino and kennel”.

In the second half of the century, a large number of fairy tales idealized the image of Ivan the Terrible as a fighter against the boyars, "peasant" king, defender of the poor, just judge, etc. The genre of historical song flourishes. In them, the people glorify the capture of Kazan, especially the heroes of the assault - gunners,. Yermak, in the eyes of the singers and the people, is the ideal Cossack hero. In the song about Kostryuk-Mastryuk, a simple Russian, “village villager”, wins in single combat the visiting braggart Prince Kostruk. The image of the latter reflected the real features of the royal brother-in-law, the brother of his wife, Prince Dmitry Mamstrukovich Cherkassky. On the one hand, the people sing of the tsar for military exploits, reprisals against the boyars; on the other hand, he notes his cruel temper; on the whole, he supports the defense of a united Russia - "Moscow kingdom", "stone Moscow" How "middle of the Russian kingdom".

The people in their work are proud of the strong; his sons - peasants and artisans - begin to realize themselves not only faceless "men of God" but also real people with earthly worries, joys and sorrows.

Education. The centers of literacy and education remained, as before, monasteries. In them and in the churches, especially at the metropolitan and episcopal courts, there were libraries of handwritten, and later printed books, sometimes very significant (for example, in the Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergius, Joseph-Volokolamsk, Kirillo-Belozersky, Rostov and other monasteries, in Novgorod Sophia Cathedral, etc.).

"Masters of Literacy" appear in cities and villages. They taught children and adults. Well-known spiritual figures Zosima Solovetsky and Alexander Svirsky studied in the Onega villages, Anthony of Siysk - in a village near the White Sea, Simeon, the Archbishop of Novgorod - in his native village near Moscow, etc. The teachers were monks, clerks. Boyars and nobles put their signatures on many acts; to a lesser extent - peasants and townspeople.

First they taught the alphabet, then the Book of Hours (prayers, liturgical texts according to the hours of the church service), writing, the Psalter (Psalms of King David). This usually ends the lesson. Those who are richer managed to continue it - the next in line were "Apostle", Gospel. Mathematical wisdom was reduced to counting up to a thousand and beyond, addition and subtraction, less often multiplication and division took place.

Texts and numbers were taught by heart and aloud, in the common school room, and because of this it was filled with noise and discord. For negligence, the teacher, in accordance with custom, could and should have "crush ribs", "increase wounds" to his students. The same goal - suggestion "book wisdom"- served and "soul-saving" rod. But even then, with encouragement, they speak and write about didascals - teachers who “I want yours for teaching, so that he is cunning and reasonable in mind, and sensible, and not a rude person”.

But, obviously, in real life there were, depending on the circumstances and the nature of the teachers, both. No wonder Domostroy includes teachings that exclude each other: “do not weaken, beating the baby”, “Teaching children, love them and take care of them”. IN "Bees", collections of moralizing content, you can find sound thoughts about raising children and educators: “Let the teacher subdue the student by temper, and not by word”.

Grammar manuals appeared - the works of Maxim Grek: “The Beginning of Greek and Russian Letters”, “Foreword about Bukovica, Reksha about ABC”, “Conversation about the teaching of literacy...”, “Saying with a literate degree” etc. Knowledgeable people highly revered grammar, it is said in "ABC" end of the 16th century “base and sole for all sorts of free tricks”.

In this century, the first manual on arithmetic appears - “A book recommended in Greek for Arithmetic, and in German for Algorism, and in Russian for tsifir counting wisdom”. According to the simple system of calculus ( "small number") studied units, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands (darkness), hundreds of thousands (legions), millions (leodras), according to a complex system ( “great Slovenian number”) - millions (also - darkness), trillions (also - legions), trillions of trillions (also - leodry, another name - septillions), crows (leodry leodry - a number of 49 digits). Fractions (known as far back as the 11th century) are also being studied at this time; numerator called "upper number", the denominator is "under number".

Under Ivan IV, Fedor Ivanovich, some young people were sent to Constantinople to study the Greek language and grammar. Traveled "parobki" with similar goals in European countries.

Some noble people collected libraries of handwritten books at home. Tsar Ivan the Terrible had a large collection of such books. Where his library went is unknown. Maybe she is walled up in the Kremlin dungeons. Or the books included in it were later distributed to other libraries, for example, the metropolitan, later the patriarchal, and others.

The emergence of printing was a turning point for enlightenment. Even under Ivan III, Bartholomew Gotan, the Lübeck printing pioneer, tried to print books in Russia. But the first experience failed. More than half a century later, in the mid-1950s, 16th century, the first books of the so-called “out of print”(did not have a designation of the place and year of publication) appeared in Moscow. It was then that Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich started a printing house. 10 years later, on April 1, 1564, Ivan Fedorov published in it "Apostle". Then followed "Book of Hours" and others, books. Two years later, Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and died in Lvov in 1583. Here he continued his favorite work. Among other books "Drukar Muscovitin"(Moscow printer), as he was called in Ukraine, published the first printed Russian Primer “for the benefit of the Russian people,” as he wrote in the afterword.

In Moscow, books were published by employees and followers of Ivan Fedorov (Andronik Nevezha and others); in total, about 20 books of theological content appeared. A big step forward has been made in the field of education and enlightenment.

Scientific knowledge. Elements of scientific knowledge, multiplied from century to century, were applied in nature. Thus, the need for accurate accounting of land and the calculation of taxes from them gave rise to a complex system of sosh writing - the same amount of money was taken from the plow, that is, from a certain amount of land, which was not the same for different estates.

Gennady, Archbishop of Novgorod, Metropolitan Zosima in Moscow and their assistants at the end of the 15th century. Paschalia compiled special tables indicating the dates of Easter and other holidays by year. Later, Agathon, a priest of St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, prepared a manuscript of the work "Circle of peace", who continued the Gennadiev tables. In the middle of the 16th century, Yermolai-Erasmus did the same, the author “Sighted Easter”. Translation works "Six-winged", "Cosmography" allowed to calculate the lunar phases, eclipses of the Sun and the Moon.

Knowledge in the field of physics and technology was required by foundry masters in the manufacture of cannons, squeakers, including rifled guns created in Russia. The same is with the construction of buildings, stone and wooden, sometimes very high, up to 50 - 60 m; in this case, one cannot do without accurate calculations, knowledge of building statics, and technology.

Salt and potash production, medical and icon painting required knowledge of applied chemistry, medicine, and they are reflected in prescription manuscripts, herbalists (herbs, their healing properties, preparation of medicines from them).

Geographical knowledge can be studied according to the documents of that time - scribes and boundary books, according to embassy and category books; by cards ( "drawings") and unsubscribes from service people, chronicles and descriptions of travelers, Russians and foreigners.

Historical knowledge is reflected in chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends; knowledge of the language - in various dictionaries ( “Greek Subtlety Speeches”, “The meaning of the Polovtsian language”, “Se Tatar language”, dictionary of Slavic words, etc.).

In the second half of the XVI century. the specified applied knowledge is multiplied and complicated. For example, the construction of the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square in Moscow, a very complex structure, could not do without theoretical information on mechanics and mathematics. The same - with the casting of powerful cannons that accompanied the Russian armies on campaigns against Kazan, Livonia, etc.

In the second half of the 16th - early 17th century. there were detailed manuals on salt making ( “Painting, how to start making a new pipe in a new place”), on a scribal case (1556), article “About earthly layout, how to layout the earth”(calculation of the area of ​​squares, straight lines and triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids).

IN "walking" the authors described the countries they visited; such, for example, is the journey of the ambassador and merchant Vasily Poznyakov, who visited Constantinople and Mount Athos, Jerusalem and Egypt (1558-1561). And even earlier, in 1525, diplomat and translator Dmitry Gerasimov, in a conversation with Pavel Jovius Povokomsky, said: China and India can be reached not only by the southern warm seas, but also by the Arctic Ocean. He described the conversation in his treatise on Russia, and it became known in Western Europe. There, as if under the influence of these reports, an expedition was organized, a member of which R. Chancellor ended up in Russia. Ivan the Terrible promised a reward to those who find “sea route to China and India”.

Russian literatureXV - XVI centuries . Historical and political thought. There has been a significant rise in this area. In chronicles, stories and legends, ideas of the greatness of the grand ducal and royal power, the world role of Russia are developed. As stated in “Chronograph”(review of world history) 1512, after the conquest of Byzantium and others by the Turks "kingdoms" which they are in “Put the desolation and subdue the Sha under your power”, “our Russian land ... grows and grows younger and rises”.

"Tale of the Babylonian Kingdom" with their idea of ​​the succession of the power of the Byzantine emperors from the rulers of Babylon on Russian soil, are supplemented by a version about the transfer of the Monomakh's cap, porphyry and scepter by the Byzantine emperor Leo to the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh: “... and to this day that Monomakhov’s hat is in the Russian state, in the God-protected in the reigning city of Moscow”.

"The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" beginning of the 16th century derives the genealogy of Moscow rulers from Augustus, Caesar of Rome. Thus, the autocracy and sovereignty of the power of Russian monarchs were exalted. This was used both in subsequent journalism and in political practice. "Royal place" Ivan the Terrible, for example, on one of the shutters has a carving with a story about sending Monomakh's cap from Byzantium. And Grozny himself, in a letter to the Swedish king, stated without a shadow of a doubt: “We are related from Augustus Caesar”.

The same or similar ideas are developed in the letters of Philotheus, abbot of the Pskov Eleazarov Monastery, to Vasily III, in "The Tale of the White Hood", “Tales about the beginning of Moscow”, chronicles of the XVI century.

In the writings of free-thinking heretics at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries ( "the heresy of the Judaizers"), especially their left, radical, wing, denied the main tenets of the Christian doctrine - the trinity of God, the virgin birth, communion, the need for icons, the very institution of the church. The heretics criticized bribery and other vices of the spiritual brethren. The more moderate wing claimed only free-thinking in literature and scientific research.

The humanistic, rationalistic ideas of the heretics, their criticism of church, monastic land tenure, acquisitions at first aroused sympathy even from Grand Duke Ivan III. But in the end, the church orthodoxies led by Iosif Sanin prevailed! hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, whom the grand ducal authorities considered the best support for themselves than heretics. The church council of 1504 condemned the latter, some of them were executed.

Ideas "non-covetousness" the Trans-Volga elders (monks of the Trans-Volga monasteries) led by Nil Sorsky also developed it. They denounced the desire to appropriate the labor of others, love of money, gluttony, pride, vanity and other vices. They preached humility, contemplative life, moral self-improvement. Monks, according to their teachings, must earn their living by their own labor, have no land and peasants, and renounce worldly fuss and money-grubbing. Joseph Volotsky spoke about something else: “Churches Wealth Is God’s Wealth”.

The struggle between the Josephites and the nonpossessors continued after the death of their leaders (Joseph died in 1525, Nile in 1508). Iosiflyan was headed by Metropolitan Daniel, the non-possessors - monk-prince Vassian Patrikeev Kosoy (princes Golitsyn, Kurakin, Khovansky and others came from the Patrikeev family). The latter was joined by Maxim the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis), a learned monk from Athos, who arrived in Moscow in 1518. They found support among the opposition boyars and paid the price for it: church councils of 1525 and 1531. condemned them, and they ended up in exile. Their denunciations of the church, and thus the secular authorities, references to the plight of the peasants corresponded to the topical moods of Russian society.

Tales and legends tell about the most important events of that era - the annexation of Novgorod the Great and other Russian lands to Moscow, Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his deeds, Russia's struggle against foreign invaders (for example, "The Tale of the Battle of Molodino" 1572 “The story of the passage of Stefan Batory to Pskov” in 1581 and others).

A galaxy of talented publicists worked in the 16th century. F. I. Karpov, a highly educated person (he knew Latin, Greek, Oriental languages), the falconer of Vasily III, mourned the imperfection of society, secular power: “Now there are strife everywhere, now they live from theft”, “understood what harmful and objectionable ways, with lame feet, with blind eyes, the earthly power and the whole human race now walk”. Rulers should, in his opinion, bring to the world “the truth, to eradicate the evil ones who do not want to be cured and love God”.

In the middle of the century, many publicists sharply and passionately discussed the problems of autocracy and the organization of the state, the boyars and the situation of the peasants. I. S. Peresvetov is a supporter of strong tsarist power, its support "warriors"-nobles and restrictions on the rights of the boyars, centralization of management. He wrote: “It is impossible for a king to be without a thunderstorm: like a horse under a king without a bridle, so is a kingdom without a thunderstorm”. He is a supporter "truth" (“God does not love faith, but the truth”), "books", "wisdom", an opponent of servility, bondage, “Which land is enslaved, in that land evil is created... great impoverishment throughout the kingdom”.

Yermolai-Erasmus, a priest of one of the churches of the Moscow Kremlin, calls to alleviate the situation of the peasants, for, as he says: “Plowmen are most useful, their labors create the most important wealth”.

Sylvester, archpriest of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the same Kremlin, in the messages, "Domostroye"(he owns the final edition of the monument) preaches rational management, obtaining "correct contraction"(arrived).

The second half of the century was marked by a vivid, emotional correspondence between the Tsar the Terrible and the fugitive prince A. M. Kurbsky. To the first of these belong also the epistles to many other persons, temporal and spiritual; second - “The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow” and other writings. The tsar proceeds in his judgments from the notions of the God-ordained power of the autocrat, its unlimitedness: “We are free to favor our lackeys (all subjects - V. B.), but I am free to execute”.

Kurbsky is the enemy "fierce" king, who, according to him, should rule with "wise advisors". Being a follower of non-possessors (he was a student of Maxim the Greek), the prince opposed the Josephite clergy. Along with Kurbsky, Cornelius, hegumen of the Pskov-Caves Monastery, compiler of the Pskov chronicle in 1567, and the authors of the story about the defeat of Novgorod by Tsar the Terrible in 1570, inserted into the Novgorod Chronicle, criticize the oprichnina.

In the XVI century. one after another, large annalistic codes are compiled - Vologda-Perm, Voskresensky, Nikonovsky, etc. They include, in addition to the previous codes, stories, legends, and extensive documents. In the second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the so-called Facial Code was compiled - the Nikon Chronicle was decorated with almost 16 thousand miniature illustrations (“faces”, hence the name of the code). In it, the history of Russia is conducted from ancient times to the mid-50s. 16th century This grandiose monument, like others, affirms the ideas of the greatness of the Russian autocracy, its centralization policy. These are the same ideas underlying the “Book of Powers” ​​(1562-1563, the author is Athanasius, who left the circle of Metropolitan Macarius), “Kazan History” (“Kazan Chronicler”, mid-60s), Chetiy-Minei (collection of the lives of Russian saints, arranged according to the months of the year).

At the end of the century, heavyweight in style appeared "The Tale of the Honest Life of Tsar Fedor"(author - Patriarch Job), "The Life of Metropolitan Philip". The compilation of chronicles continues, although not as extensive as before.

Russian architectureXV - XVI centuries . This era is characterized by a significant rise in the art of building. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. the Kremlin ensemble in Moscow is being formed - walls and towers, cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber. They were built by Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Ruffo, Aleviz Novy and others) and Russian masters (Vasily Dmitrievich Yermolin and others). At the same time, they used the traditions of ancient Russian, primarily Vladimir-Suzdal, architecture, as well as the techniques of Italian architecture of the Renaissance.

Fortifications in the first half of the century were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Zaraysk, Kolomna. The wall of Kitay-gorod (1530s), the Novodevichy Convent (1525) appeared in the capital.

In church architecture, a tent-type temple, modeled on wooden churches ( "for wood work"). The most outstanding example of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), built to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. A contemporary chronicler could not restrain his feelings of admiration, writing down the news of this architectural miracle in his work: “Velma is wonderful in height and beauty, and lordship, such as you have not been before in Rus'”.

Throughout the century, wooden construction, as before, prevails. In addition to the widespread huts, mansions of rich people are being built, sometimes very complex in plan and bizarre in shape. Such are the mansions of the Stroganovs, eminent merchants, in Solvychegodsk (1565).

In stone architecture, the Russian national style is clearly expressed in the nine hipped buildings of St. Basil's Cathedral. It was erected on the occasion of the capture of Kazan in 1552.

They continue to build cathedrals and fortress walls in monasteries - Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergius, etc. In Moscow, the White City was surrounded by a wall, within the modern Boulevard Ring.

Following the example of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, the St. Sophia Cathedral (1568-1570) was being built in Vologda. And in Vyazemy, to the west of Moscow, in the estate of Boris Godunov, a majestic five-domed church of the Holy Trinity appears; later they began to call him Preobrazhensky.

Extensive construction throughout Russia necessitated the emergence of a special institution - the Order of stone affairs (1580s). He organized construction work, very large but in scale (calling workers from different cities, procurement of building materials).

Russian paintingXV-XVI . At the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. in icon painting and fresco painting, Dionysius with his sons and associates became famous. They own the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery. They attract with colorfulness, decorativeness, magnificent solemnity. The iconography of the Novgorod school is distinguished by greater conciseness and rigor.

In painting, the dominance of the Moscow school is increasing. Genre motifs are increasingly penetrating into icon painting, there are elements of realism. This is even more characteristic of the second half of the 16th century.

Painting is becoming more and more a matter of state. The church after the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551 strengthens the supervision of icon painters. Icon "Church Militant"(mid-16th century) sings in allegorical form, the Russian army, the young autocrat. The murals of the Golden Chamber in the Kremlin (1547-1552) are dedicated to historical events. For example, the frescoes of the Faceted Chamber, talking about Joseph the Beautiful, tell about.

At the end of the XVI century. get famous icons "Stroganov's letter". They are distinguished by miniaturization, subtlety and elegance of drawing, decorativeness and festivity. Moscow masters Prokopy Chirin, Istoma Savin and other “royal icon painters” worked in this manner. They often performed icons commissioned by eminent people of the Stroganovs. Their own masters from their former serfs in Solvychegodsk also worked for them. This school also existed in the 17th century, many craftsmen subsequently worked under its influence, including in the famous Palekh.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. On the one hand, there is an increase in skill and technical perfection; on the other hand, the loss of depth, monumentality, wide breathing of painting by A. Rublev and F. Grek.

Lifelate 15th-16th centuries . The extensive construction of temples and monasteries, palaces and towers caused a desire to decorate them with products of applied art. The craftsmen of that time made amazingly beautiful and subtle frames for books and icons with filigree (filigree) and embossing. From the end of the XV century. the flourishing of the art of enamel, forgotten in .

In church life, products with artistic sewing were often used - hanging sheets and tomb covers, shrouds and "airs". They were usually made of silk, gold and silver, in “painterly style”(a combination of multi-colored tones, dark and light, brightness and colorfulness).

Book miniatures depicted scenes from the Old and New Testaments, the lives of saints, and events in Russian history. The illustrations of the Illuminated Chronicle and the collection of the lives of the saints Cheti-Minea are rightfully considered masterpieces of Russian miniature art. Illustrations in printed editions are noted for pomp and decorativeness.

In the second half of the XVI century. outstanding examples of sewing came from the workshop of the princes Staritsky ( "The Shroud", “The Appearance of the Mother of God to Sergius of Radonezh”). Ksenia Godunova, daughter of Tsar Boris, skillfully embroidered on Spanish and Venetian velvet.

All these products were prepared for wealthy people who had considerable funds and extensive premises for housing or church services.

Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with various outbuildings, residential and household, for themselves, yard servants, livestock and poultry. The houses are mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with crockery, silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). Clocks sometimes hung on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, jewelry, dishes, clothes; oriental shoes, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

The nobles already then began, in the Western manner, to cut their hair short, shave or pluck their mustaches and beards.

The meals were plentiful and varied. Spices were used for seasonings: pepper and saffron, cinnamon and cloves. We were familiar with lemons, raisins, almonds, rice and sugar.

Noble people had fun at feasts with buffoons, playing folk instruments, dancing. No matter how the church persecuted "devil's games" it was hard to get them out. Indulged in bear baiting "horse races", dog and falconry. At home they played dice and cards, checkers and chess.

Folk songs and church music satisfied another side of spiritual needs. In the XVI century. polyphonic church chants came from Novgorod to Moscow and other regions of Russia. Russian people also loved bell ringing. New instruments (organs, harpsichords, clavichords), Western European music penetrate into the life of the nobility from abroad.

Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - peasants - lived in wooden huts, covered with straw or shingles; there were cages for property, barns for cattle, sheds. The huts were heated in black, illuminated with torches. In winter, small cattle and poultry were placed in them.

The situation in the hut was very poor: wooden, roughly made tables and benches; a dress was kept in chests and boxes (the poor people hung it on poles leaning against the wall). In summer they wore clothes made of homemade canvas, in winter - from homespun cloth and mutton fur, on their feet - bast shoes, those who are richer - boots. Crockery - wooden and earthenware: dishes and plates, ladles, ladles, bowls, cups, brothers, wooden spoons and clay pots, occasionally - boilers and pans made of iron and copper.

Bread and pies, kissels, beer and kvass were prepared from grain and flour; they ate cabbage, fresh and sauerkraut, carrots and cucumbers, beets and horseradish, radishes and turnips. Meat was on the table mainly on holidays. They ate a lot of fish, river and lake.

Similar to the peasants, but more prosperous, the townspeople lived in the cities. The yard often consisted of a chamber, which stood on the podizbitsa, a canopy in the shade, a cage on the basement, a bathhouse; it is surrounded by a fence with a gate that had a canopy. There were mica and "glassy" window. In the house, among other things, there were icons, sometimes richly decorated, a lot of dishes, including silver, and clothes, sometimes fur. The guests lived richly, large trading people - stone chambers, a large number of dishes, gold and silver, and other property.

Folk festivals with songs, dances, buffoon performances gave the working people the opportunity to take a break from work. Folk performers - singers, like all buffoons, were professionals. From them, peasants and townspeople heard historical and lyrical, satirical and ritual songs. The singing was accompanied by accompaniment on instruments: wind instruments - pipes and horns, snots and pipes, bagpipes, pipes and horns; stringed - psaltery, beeps, balalaikas; percussion - tambourines and rattles.

Elements of the theater, drama contained Christmas games, seeing off Shrovetide, winter and summer. Their participants put on masks, dressed up, mimic performances, dramatic performances, staged riddles. In round dance songs, at weddings, a kind of performance was played out with a large number of characters, certain roles, and a strict ritual (matchmaking, hand-beating, bachelorette party, wedding, bread, etc.).

Buffoons gathered in troupes, sometimes very large, up to 60-100 people. Their art is the germ of folk theatre. They - actors and musicians, singers and dancers, acrobats and conjurers - acted out comedy scenes, including with the beloved people Petrushka. His humor and ingenuity, ridicule of the rich, confidence and inexhaustibility in inventions delighted the audience.

There were also circus performances with a bear, a goat and other animals. Buffoons went all over Russia, as well as across Europe, right up to Italy. The authorities and especially the clergy persecuted buffoons. He condemns them harshly. "Domostroy": “Buffoons and their business, dancing and sniffling, demonic songs always loving ... all together I will be in hell, and damned here”. But buffoonery, like other folk entertainment, in spite of everything, continued to exist.

Theme: Russian culture IX- XVII centuries.

1. Features of the culture of Ancient Rus'.

The development of ancient Russian culture took place in direct connection with the evolution of East Slavic society, the formation of the state, and the strengthening of ties with neighboring countries. It is connected with the development of society and the state. In the pre-Mongolian period, the culture of Ancient Rus' reached a high level, created the foundations for the cultural development of subsequent eras.

Writing. Chronicles. Literature.

The origin of writing - the brothers Cyril and Methodius (IX century) - Cyrillic .

Literacy spread quite widely, as evidenced by:

Manuscripts on parchment (Ostromir Gospel, Izborniks of 1073 and 1076)

Graffiti (Vladimir Monomakh's inscription on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv)

epigraphy (inscription on the Tmutarakan stone)

birch bark letters (everyday records scratched by the so-called "writers" on pieces of birch bark)

The first book in Rus' - Ostromir Gospel (made by order of the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav the Wise).

Chronicle.

« The Tale of Bygone Years" - the first decade of the XII century - the monk Nestor of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. This is an all-Russian chronicle code, the text of which includes chronicle codes of the 11th century and other sources. The history of Rus' in the PVL is connected with world history and the history of the Slavs. PVL is the basis for most of the surviving chronicles.

Literature.

oral folk art - epics. Epics of the Kyiv cycle (about the heroes Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich, Prince Vladimir) and the Novgorod cycle (the merchant Sadko).

sermons and teachings - the first literary work - "Word and Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh

Lives of the Saints (hagiography) - "Reading about the life and death of Boris and Gleb" (Nestor)

The heroic epic "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" , written in Kyiv on the occasion of the attack of the Polovtsian Khan Konchak (1185)

journalism - "Word" and "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik (XII - beginning of XIII)

Architecture of Ancient Rus'.

The first stone church is the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv (end of the 10th century)

cross-domed church (Byzantium), in the XII century - single-dome churches

St. Sophia Cathedral (1037, in memory of the defeat of the Pechenegs, 13 domes) and the Golden Gate in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1052)

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality: XII century - Assumption Cathedral and Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir, Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165)

Art.

mosaic - an image made of colored stones (Our Lady Oranta - Praying in St. Sophia Cathedral)

fresco - painting with water colors on wet plaster (frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv)

icon painting - a work of easel painting with a cult purpose (Angel Golden Hair (Novgorod school))

Applied art.

granulation - decoration of jewelry with grains of metal

engraving - decoration of jewelry with a pattern carved on metal

filigree - jewelry in the form of a patterned mesh of thin twisted wire

2. Russian culture XIII - XV centuries.

XIV- XVcenturies.

The main events of Russian history of the XIV-XV centuries were: the process of unification of Russian lands into a single state and the struggle against the Mongol yoke. Accordingly, the key features of culture were: a) the idea of ​​national revival and state unification; b) the idea of ​​national independence.

Folklore.

· The main theme of the folklore of this period was the struggle against the Mongol invasion and the Horde yoke. In the XIII-XV centuries, genres developed historical song And legends .

· Many folklore works, based on real historical facts, transformed real events in accordance with people's desires. For example, the song about Shchelkan, based on the history of the uprising of 1327 in Tver.

· A special cycle of epics - about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev - developed in Novgorod.

Writing and Literature.

· The most important works of writing remained chronicles, containing both information about natural and historical phenomena, as well as literary works, theological reasoning. Centers of chronicle writing: Novgorod, Tver, Moscow. The Moscow chronicle began under Ivan Kalita. Examples: Trinity Chronicle (1408, Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands), Russian Chronograph - world history with brief information on the history of Rus' (mid-15th century).

· The most famous works of literature of the 13th century are “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, which included the legend of Yevpaty Kolovrat.

At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, poetic works dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo field were created "Zadonshchina" And "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" . “Zadonshchina”, the author is Sofony Ryazanets (“The Tale of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Prince Vladimir Andreevich, how they defeated the adversary of their Tsar Mamai”) and “The Tale of the Mamai Battle” are the most perfect works about the Battle of Kulikovo.

· In the XIII-XV centuries, many lives of saints were created in Rus': Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh and others.

· A common genre of medieval Russian literature was the story (“The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”, which tells about the love of a peasant woman and a prince).

· The genre of “Journeys”, that is, descriptions of travels, has also been preserved in Russian literature (“Journey beyond the three seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, the first Russian to visit India).

public thought.

· The XIV-XV centuries were a time of sharp religious disputes in Rus'. Already in the 70s of the XIV century, the heresy of the Strigolniks arose in Novgorod and Pskov.

· Non-possessors, led by Nil Sorsky, believed that it was fitting for monks to subsist on the labor of their own hands, and not on the labor of others. Therefore, they denied the church the right to own villages with peasants. Their opponents, the Josephites, supporters of hegumen Joseph Volotsky, insisted on the right of the church to own land with the peasants so that the church could conduct extensive charity work. At the same time, the non-possessors were relatively tolerant of heretics, believing that they should be admonished as erring, while the Josephites demanded the merciless execution of heretics and considered any doubt in faith unacceptable.

Architecture.

· In the Moscow principality, stone construction began in the second quarter of the 14th century. Moscow Kremlin:

construction of the white-stone Moscow Kremlin (1366 - Dmitry Donskoy, white-stone Kremlin),

· XV century, Ivan III - the construction of the modern Kremlin (of red brick, elements of Italian architecture - "dovetail").

The most famous buildings of the late 15th century were the majestic Assumption Cathedral , built in the Moscow Kremlin under the guidance of the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti and the Cathedral of the Annunciation, built by Pskov masters.

Art.

In the visual arts of the 13th-15th centuries, the work of two great artists stands out: Theophan the Greek and Andrei Rublev.

· Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod and Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotional tension and color saturation. Theophan's images are harsh, ascetic. Examples: the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka in Novgorod, the Archangel and Annunciation Cathedrals in Moscow.

· A different manner was inherent in Andrei Rublev (last third of the 14th - first third of the 15th century, monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery). Rublev's murals are preserved in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Examples: Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, Trinity Cathedral (the famous "Trinity"), "Saviour".

· Late XV - early XVI century - Dionysius (icons of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin).

3. Russian culture XVI century.

Major events and characteristic features of cultureXVIcentury.

The main events of Russian history of the 16th century were: the creation of a centralized state and the establishment of despotic rule. Accordingly, the key features of culture were: a) the idea of ​​national unification; b) the idea of ​​the formation of a single nation.

Folklore.

The genre flourished in the 16th century historical song . Historical legends were also widespread. Songs and legends were usually dedicated to the outstanding events of that time - the capture of Kazan, the march to Siberia, wars in the West, or outstanding personalities - Ivan the Terrible, Yermak Timofeevich.

· In the folklore of the 16th century, the plots of the Kyiv epic cycle and events of the more recent past are often mixed.

Writing and typography.

· In the middle of the 16th century, chroniclers prepared a new chronicle code, called the Nikon Chronicle (since one of the lists belonged to Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century). The Nikon chronicle absorbed all the previous chronicle material from the beginning of Rus' to the end of the 50s of the 16th century.

· 1564 - the beginning of book printing in Russia : Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets - "Apostle" (not a single typo, clear print), then "Book of Hours", the first primer (The Printing House was located not far from the Kremlin on Nikolskaya Street, fled from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).

Literature and social thought.

· At the beginning of the 16th century, Elder Philotheus put forward the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. The first Rome fell, the second Rome - Constantinople - too, the third Rome - Moscow, stands forever, and the fourth Rome will not happen.

· Heyday journalism : petitions to Ivan IV (protected the interests of the nobility, advocating the strengthening of autocratic power), correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and the escaped Prince Andrei Kurbsky (protected the interests of the aristocracy, speaking out against autocratic power). What the authors had in common was that they advocated a strong state and strong royal power. At the same time, the political ideal of Kurbsky was the activity of the Chosen Rada, and for Ivan Peresvetov it was a strong ruler who relied on the nobility.

A general guide to housekeeping, behavior in everyday life has become "Domostroy" written by Sylvester in the middle of the 16th century. "Domostroy" means "housekeeping", so you can find a variety of tips and instructions in it.

· The level of literacy among the population varied. Education was conducted in private schools, which were usually kept by people of the clergy. The first textbooks on grammar ("A Conversation on the Teaching of Literacy") and arithmetic ("Numeral Accounting Wisdom") appear.

Architecture and fine arts.

· From the end of the 15th century, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture, connected with the completion of the unification of the country. The scale of stone construction increased. A unified Russian architectural style began to take shape, dominated by features of Moscow and Pskov architecture.

Stone construction is developing: the Kremlin ensemble is finally completed (the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin is the Grand Duke's Palace, here Ivan IV celebrated the capture of Kazan, Peter I celebrated the Poltava victory), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the great princes and kings), the bell tower of Ivan the Great (82 meters, in honor of Ivan III).

· Since the 16th century, the tent style in architecture has dominated (came from wooden architecture), the best example is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (on the birth of Ivan IV) - "very wonderful in height and lordship."

· Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) - in memory of the capture of Kazan (October 2, 1552 - Protection of the Virgin), architects Postnik Yakovlev and Barma. There are eight domes around the central tent, none of which repeats the other in form and pattern. The cathedral received its modern color in the 17th century, originally it was white.

· Icon-painting develops, so-called "parsuns" appear - images of people with features of portrait resemblance.

· In the 16th century, the development of handicrafts continued. The Tsar Cannon, cast by Andrey Chokhov at the end of the 16th century, is a testament to the high art of Russian casters.

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4. Russian culture XVII century.

Features of the development of culture in the XVII century.

The 17th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transitional one from the traditional medieval culture of Moscow Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of the history of Russian culture in the 17th century. The most important feature of Russian culture of the 17th century is the widespread secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval completely religious consciousness. Secularization affected all aspects of cultural development: education, literature, architecture, and painting. This applies mainly to the urban population, while the culture of the countryside remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.

The main events of Russian history of the 17th century were: the transition from medieval history to the history of the New Age, the weakening of the influence of the church. Accordingly, the main feature of culture was the beginning of the secularization of culture, that is, the destruction of medieval religious consciousness and the penetration of secular elements into culture.

Education and writing. Literature.

· The number of literate people is increasing. The clergymen and clerks taught according to church books. But already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric, ancient languages, foreign languages ​​(German) and philosophy. Their teachers were often learned Ukrainian monks. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia was established - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (the Likhud brothers). The academy was modeled after European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin.

· Book printing is developing: the first printed primer (Karion Istomin), textbooks, liturgical books, official documents (Cathedral Code). Libraries were created, both public (of the Posolsky Prikaz) and private (Ordina-Nashchokin, Golitsyn).

Fundamentally new genres appeared in the literature of the 17th century: satire , drama , poetry . Satirical stories - about Ersh Ershovich, about Shemyakin's court, where an unjust and mercenary court was denounced. The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk (teacher of the royal children). The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum. Oral folk art - songs about Stepan Razin.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia was formed theater , in 1672. The theater was created under the influence of the young wife of the Tsar, Natalya Kirillovna. It put on plays on biblical stories, which usually lasted several hours.

Architecture.

· At the end of the 17th century, a new architectural style appeared - Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque. Its distinctive features are the picturesqueness, the complexity of the plan, the combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A characteristic example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate, Novodevichy Convent.

· Secular buildings: the wooden royal palace in Kolomenskoye, the brick Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the chambers of Averky Kirillov.

· The Moscow Kremlin ceased to be a defensive structure, in the 17th century the Kremlin towers were decorated with tents, a clock appeared on the Spasskaya Tower.

Art.

In the visual arts of the 17th century, the influence of tradition was stronger than in other areas of culture, which was explained by the control of church authorities over the observance of the icon-painting canon. And, nevertheless, it was in the 17th century that the transformation of icon painting into painting began.

· At the Armoury, a school for teaching painting was created, a painting workshop - in fact, the Academy of Arts, which was headed by Simon Ushakov.

· Simon Ushakov - the largest artist of the XVII century: "The Savior Not Made by Hands", "Trinity".

In the 17th century, the beginning of portraiture was laid - parsers . Known images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky.

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Theme: Culture of Russia XVIII century.

The development of the culture of the ruling strata of Russian society is characterized by the final triumph of the secular principle, a resolute adherence to European models, and a deep break with traditional folk culture. In the second half of the 18th century, an original national culture of the European type was formed in Russia. The successes of culture reflected the progressive development of the state and society as a whole. The atmosphere of a special noble spirituality formed at that time prepared the rise of Russian national culture in the 19th century.

Enlightenment and science.

- 1701 - School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower (later - the Naval Academy in the Kikin Chambers in St. Petersburg). Later, the Artillery School, the Medical School, and the Engineering School arose.

− For the education of the provincial nobles, 42 "digital schools" were created.

− Education took on a secular character, with mathematics, astronomy, and engineering taking the first place.

− There are new textbooks. "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" Magnitsky.

- 1700 - the chronology is not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, the beginning of the year is not September 1, but January 1.

- 1702 - the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti" (under Alexei Mikhailovich, a handwritten newspaper "Courants" was published for the needs of the court), edited by Peter I.

− 1708 - transition to civil type.

- 1755 - on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and with the support of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Moscow University was created. The charter of the university provided for teaching in Russian (in European universities, teaching was conducted in Latin). The university consisted of philosophical, legal and medical faculties. There was no theological faculty.

- Catherine II - a system of educational and educational institutions was created under the leadership of Ivan Betsky.

- 1764 - Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

- Peter I opened the first museum in Russia - the Kunstkamera, where various antiquities, anatomical collections were collected. The Kunstkamera had a rich library.

− 1741 - Vitus Bering's expedition explored the northwestern coast of America and proved that Asia was separated from America.

− A well-known inventor of the time of Peter the Great - Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov.

− 1718 - Peter decided to create the Russian Academy of Sciences, ordered to invite the largest foreign scientists. Academy opened in 1725 year, after the death of the emperor. The creation of the Academy of Sciences attracted European scientists to Russia, including such world-famous mathematicians as L. Euler and D. Bernoulli. German historians G. Bayer worked in Russia and made a significant contribution to the formation of Russian historical science. Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences was headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.

− Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov: entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in 1731, from where he was transferred to St. Petersburg University under the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to study in Germany. In 1745 he became the first Russian professor, a member of the Academy of Sciences. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Lomonosov: "He created the first university. It would be better to say that he himself was our first university."

- In the 18th century, historical science achieved significant success. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. "Russian History" in 5 volumes.

- The famous self-taught inventor - Ivan Petrovich Kulibin: projects of an elevator, a "self-running carriage", a single-arch bridge across the Neva, a telescope, a microscope, a barometer.

- Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov managed to improve the steam engine, the work of which he met in England. A similar machine was created in England by James Watt only twenty years later.

Literature. public thought.

− The most important trend in Russian and European literature of the middle of the 18th century was classicism . Classicism found expression primarily in poetry: Antioch Kantemir, Vasily Trediakovsky and especially Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov. Gavrila Derzhavin became the most outstanding Russian poet of the late 18th century who wrote in the style of classicism. Denis Fonvizin's comedies "The Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" also belong to classicism.

− In the second half of the 18th century, the style sentimentalism . The most important genres of this style were the sensitive story and the journey. Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Liza".

− Social thought developed under the influence of the Enlightenment. Nikolai Novikov was a major figure in the Enlightenment. Magazines "Truten", Painter".

− A radical form of educational ideology is represented in the work of Alexander Radishchev. "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" and the ode "Liberty". Radishchev's extreme radicalism prompted Catherine II to call him "a rebel worse than Pugachev."

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Architecture and fine arts. Sculpture. Theater.

− The predominance of civil stone construction over religious construction is characteristic of the Petrine era. The architectural style of the era was "Russian (Petrine) Baroque" with characteristic splendor, solemnity, quirkiness of forms. The largest architects of the era: Domenico Trezzini (Peter's Summer Palace, Peter and Paul Cathedral, the building of 12 colleges in St. Petersburg), Ivan Korobov (Gostiny Dvor in Moscow).

− In the middle of the 18th century, the predominant architectural style was baroque . The largest Russian architect of this time was Bartolomeo Rastrelli. He built the Winter Palace, the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace in St. Petersburg, the Great Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Great Palace in Peterhof.

− In the second half of the 18th century classicism . Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov and Ivan Starov. Bazhenov's most famous work is the Pashkov House in Moscow (the old building of the Russian State Library). He also developed the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. Matvey Kazakov: the buildings of Moscow University, the Senate in Moscow, the Noble Assembly, a number of estates and churches. Ivan Starov - the author of the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.

- At the beginning of the 18th century, the secular beginning finally triumphed in painting . The main genre of the era is the portrait. Major painters of the era: Ivan Nikitin (portraits of Peter I, Natalia Alekseevna), Andrey Matveev (self-portrait with his wife).

− The second half of the 18th century is the heyday of Russian painting, especially portraiture. The largest portrait painters of the 18th century were Fyodor Rokotov (portrait of Catherine II, Paul I, portrait of Struyskaya), Dmitry Levitsky (portraits of Smolyanka women) and Vladimir Borovikovsky (portrait of Lopukhina).

− Outstanding Master sculptures was Fedot Ivanovich Shubin, who created for the purpose a gallery of sculptural portraits of statesmen and generals of Russia. But the most famous sculpture in Russia was created by the Frenchman Etienne Maurice Falcone, the author of The Bronze Horseman.

− In the first quarter of the 18th century, a public Russian theater . In the second half of the 18th century, the first state theater was opened (the troupe of Fyodor Volkov from Yaroslavl) in St. Petersburg, serf theaters were created on landlord estates (actress Praskovya Zhemchugova-Kovaleva).

Theme: Culture of Russia19th century

Trends in the development of culture: full regulation by the state of the development of all areas of culture, general democratization of culture; while maintaining and deepening the gap between the elite and folk forms of culture, their synthesis was observed.

Enlightenment and science

State policy in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created. In 1858, the first women's gymnasium, the Mariinsky, was opened in St. Petersburg.

Derpt, Vilna, Kazan and Kharkov universities were opened; The main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg (since 1819 - a university); Tsarskoye Selo (Alexandrovsky) Lyceum; Demidov Lyceum in Yaroslavl. The university charter of 1804 gave autonomy to the universities: the rector was elected by the council of professors. The university charter of 1835 completely destroyed autonomy and clearly regulated all aspects of university life, to control which the post of trustee of the educational district was established; tuition fees were high.

In 1830, a circular was issued on the opening of public libraries in all provincial cities of Russia (by the middle of the century, 39 libraries had been opened).

In 1864, the Regulations on Primary Public Schools were approved, which granted public institutions and individuals the right to open primary schools.

1864 Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums. The charter proclaimed the principle of classlessness of secondary education, but established tuition fees. In accordance with the charter, seven-grade gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones (technical schools cannot be enrolled in a university). 1862 girls' grammar schools

children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers

In the years most of the higher women's courses were closed.

Approved in 1882, Provisional Rules on the press strict administrative supervision of newspapers and magazines;

- Geography. Ethnography. and () the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied. Bellingshausen and () -Antarctica. Information about the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, Alaska, Sakhalin, the coast of Korea and other territories were collected by Russian travelers,. -Maclay, -Tyan-Shansky, who explored the lands of Central and Southeast Asia, the Ussuri Territory, Australia. founded the Russian geological school.

- Mathematics. Non-Euclidean geometry discovered in 1826. He made a great contribution to the study of applied mathematics. conducted research in the field of mathematical physics, analytical and celestial mechanics. laid the foundations of electrochemistry and electrometallurgy - the foundations of metallography. (,),

- Chemistry. Zinin developed a technology for the synthesis of aniline, which was used in the textile industry as a dye fixer. , created the periodic system of chemical elements; and laid the foundations of modern organic chemistry.

- Astronomy. J. Struve created in 1839 in Pulkovo (near St. Petersburg) an exemplary astronomical observatory.

- Medicine. laid the foundations of military field surgery, applied ether anesthesia and antiseptics, introduced a fixed plaster bandage, his atlas of Topographic Anatomy gained world fame. developed the theory of blood transfusion.

- Biology. studied the phenomenon of photosynthesis and proved the applicability of the law of conservation of energy to the organic world. laid the foundations of evolutionary paleontology. The founder of the Russian physiological school made a great contribution to the development of microbiology, pathology, anatomy and surgery. founded the first bacteriological station in Russia. V.V. Dokuchaev created modern genetic soil science.

- Technique. Jacobi - electric motor; discovered galvanoplasty, Schilling created the first electromagnetic telegraph, connecting St. Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Cherepanovs built the first railway and a machine for it with steam traction. April 25, 1895 Popov demonstrated a radio. Yablochkov created an arc light bulb, and invented an incandescent lamp. The possibility of creating aircraft was investigated,.

- Humanitarian sciences. History of the State of Karamzin. - History of Russia since ancient times in 29 volumes. founded Russian medieval studies - Slavic studies. - A course of lectures on Russian history. and engaged in the study of world history.

At the beginning of the XIX century. national folklore is born. In 1804, K. Danilov published the first Russian collection of folklore, Ancient Russian Poems. The Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, established in 1811 at Moscow University. Domestic philology was developed in the works, etc.

The establishment in 1831 at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences of the Demidov Prizes, which were issued in 1832-65, became a symbol of recognition of the important social role of science. for the best published works on science, technology, art and were considered the most honorable scientific award in Russia.

Literature.

Distinctive features: high humanistic ideals, extraordinary political sharpness, citizenship, propaganda of liberation ideas and the search for social justice.

Patriotic moods and the theme of the war of 1812 were reflected in a number of fables, in poetry and prose, and by other authors.

Despite the relatively short period of time, the literature of this period differs variety of styles:

- Styles: Classicism can be traced in the odes and, in the early works of and. Sentimentalism. His characteristic features (sentimental idealization of reality, sensitivity, attention to the personality of a person, his inner world, emotional experiences) were most clearly manifested in his work. Romanticism. Passive-contemplative romanticism has become. In the work of Marlinsky, a civil, revolutionary direction of romanticism was manifested, characterized by a call to fight for the liberation of the people from serfdom. Romanticism influenced the early work of I.

- Realism. Formation and flourishing of Russian realism in the first half of the 19th century. associated with creativity (Woe from Wit), (Eugene Onegin, Captain's daughter, History of the village of Goryukhina, etc.), (On the death of a poet, Hero of our time), (Dead souls, Inspector General, collection of short stories Mirgorod). An outstanding realist poet is (Who lives well in Rus', Lament of children). In the 40-50s of the XIX century. famous writers began their careers, whose work reached its peak in the second half of the century (, -Shchedrin,).

The development of dramaturgy is connected with creativity and.

Shchedrin became one of the greatest masters satirical genre. Outstanding writers, A. Pechersky (), and others became widely known.

- Literary magazines. “Domestic Notes”, “Contemporary”, “Russian Word” (democratic ideas). A great merit in the development of the democratic trend in Russian journalism belongs to I. The magazines "Moskvityanin" and "Library for Reading", the newspaper "Northern Bee" united representatives of the conservative direction. Their publishers (and; and, as well) defended the idea of ​​the benevolence of autocracy and fought against the democratic trend in literature.

Painting. Sculpture

- Genres: Portrait. Romanticism is inherent in the portraits of artists (portrait), (Lacemaker, Portrait of a son), (Self-portrait, portrait of a poet). , and N. N. Ge. Historicalgenre. (Bronze Serpent), (Last Day of Pompeii). (Appearance of Christ to the people) works by Surikov, Repin, Ge,. household genre(genre painting) became. (Harvest, Sleeping shepherd). (Major's courtship, Fresh cavalier. Landscapes:, Repin and many other artists. Battle painting- traveller.

- Splint. They turned to the lubok. A series of lubok caricatures ridiculing Napoleon and his army became widespread.

- Sculpture. , a monument to Minin and Pozharsky, a monument to Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk; created 21 medallions depicting scenes of the Patriotic War of 1812; on the portals of the colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the sculptor installed statues of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly. sculptural groups on the Anichkov Bridge in St. Petersburg (famous horses), a monument to the fabulist in the Summer Garden and a statue of Emperor Nicholas I in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

Samples eclecticism are the temple-monument to the Heroes of Plevna, created by a Russian architect,; composition Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, erected according to the project with the participation. Opekushin also owns a monument in Moscow. , created a series of sculptures on national, historical and biblical themes (Ivan the Terrible, Yermak, Nestor the chronicler, Yaroslav the Wise, Christ before the court of the people).

IN 1856. was the beginning of the collection, which became the basis of the future Tretyakov Picture Gallery.

Realism . Wanderers. In November 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy (and others) left it and created the Artel of Artists in St. Petersburg. In 1870, on the initiative in St. Petersburg, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions was created. The partnership united N. N. Ge and others. The Wanderers sought to bring art closer to the people. To this end, they organized exhibitions in provincial towns. The partnership went:, A. M. and others.

Architecture

Creation of large architectural ensembles: ensembles of the Palace and Senate squares of the architect; Manege Square, created by architects (University building) and (Manezh building); the Exchange Ensemble on the spit of Vasilevsky Island by architect J. Thomas de Thomon; The Alexander Garden near the Kremlin Wall and the ensemble of Theater Square, created by O. and Bove, etc.

Empire. The largest masters of the Empire style in Russia were (Kazan Cathedral and the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg), (Admiralty building), (Palace and Senate Square, Mikhailovsky Palace), and.

Eclecticism. This direction is characterized by an arbitrary combination of elements of different styles (sometimes it is also called stylelessness or multi-style). St. Isaac's Cathedral architect A. Montferrand, Cathedral of Christ the Savior -. A variety of eclecticism is the pseudo-Russian style, (Old Russian architecture, carving, embroidery). The most famous buildings of this style include: Teremok in Abramtsevo near Moscow (architect); the buildings of the Historical Museum (and), the City Duma () and the Upper Trading Rows - now GUM () in Moscow.

Theater

- Smallin Moscow (1824) was the greatest master of romanticism. The actor became the founder of realism. He wrote about Herzen: He created the truth on the Russian stage, he was the first to become non-theatrical in the theater. P. Sadovsky, S. Shumsky, as well as actors M. Ermolova, A. Sumbatov-Yuzhin, who were beginning at that time, shone on the stage of the Maly Theater.

- Alexandrinskyin Petersburg (1832) realistic traditions were developed by a remarkable actor. P. Strepetova and K. Varlamov glorified the Alexandrinsky Theater with their art Until the completion of the restructuring of the Bolshoi Petrovsky Theater in 1836, operas, vaudeville and ballet performances were also staged on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.

In the 60-70s. private theaters and theater circles began to appear, the development of which was facilitated by the abolition in 1882 of the monopoly of state (imperial) theaters. The Society of Art and Literature, founded in 1888 in Moscow by an opera singer and artist, was very famous, mainly engaged in stage activities (staged plays by W. Shakespeare). One of its leaders was the future director. The Music and Drama School was established under the Society.

In addition to dramatic productions, ballet and opera were also very popular, in the development of which the Bolshoi and Mariininsky Theaters, as well as the Russian Private Opera, founded by a well-known businessman and patron of the arts, played an important role.

Music

In the 19th century secular professional music continued to develop. Alyabiev, - Russian urban romance. (Life for the Tsar) and fairy-tale-epic genre (Ruslan and Lyudmila) A patriotic song that became the national anthem of Russia after the collapse of the USSR.

The development of musical criticism (.) In 1859, the composer created the Russian Musical Society in St. Petersburg. 1866 the Moscow Conservatory was opened. 1862 Free music school

- mighty bunch. The Balakirev circle was formed in the late 50s and early 60s, it included wonderful composers, and -Korsakov. The composers of the Mighty Handful studied and popularized Russian folk music, encouraged the creation of national music, and made an invaluable contribution to the development of democratic and national traditions in Russian musical culture. The rebellious people became the protagonist of operas and Khovanshchina; in the operas Scheherazade by Rimsky-Korsakov and the Polovtsian Dances of Borodin, songs and melodies of different peoples of the Russian Empire are used.

Realistic and democratic tendencies in Russian music were also developed by the greatest composer of the era, who created outstanding examples of opera (Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Iolanthe), ballet (Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty), symphonic and chamber music (more than a hundred romances).

Culture of the first halfXXcentury

Education

At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX century. the literacy rate increased from 1897 (21%) to 1917 (31%) by 1.5 times. Increased number gymnasiums And real schools, whose graduates could again enter technical universities without an exam. A network has arisen higher primary schools, giving the opportunity to enter the secondary school . The system developed professional- mountain, river, railway, factory And commercial schools .

Development of teacher education. By 1914, there were 47 teachers' institutes and over 170 teachers' seminaries (schools) in Russia. In 1905, the autonomy of universities was restored, the election of rectors and deans, etc. book business. The largest publishing companies, such as the partnership of M. Wolf, publishing house and others produced folk book series.

The science

The science. Significant progress was made by the founder of aerodynamics ; mathematician ; who made the most important discoveries in the field of physics ; geochemist and biochemist who laid the foundations of modern ecology ; physiologist, Nobel laureate (1904) ; immunologist, also awarded the Nobel Prize (1908) ; father of astronautics and etc.

heyday religious and philosophical direction. In the collections Problems of Idealism (1902), Milestones (1909), works , combined the development of ideas and about the new religious consciousness.

historical science developed in the work , -Sylvansky, -Danilevsky,. Methods of historical research were improved, new topics were raised, and historiography became an independent branch of history.

Literature. Style directions.

Realism. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. preserved critical realism - , . Widely known Maxim Gorky (), Mamin-Sibiryak and etc.

Modernism. Thesis about the intrinsic value of art, combined with the ideas of Russian thinkers And D. Merezhkovsky about the religious meaning of creativity, gave rise to the proper Russian symbolism . His theorist in the mid-1890s. spoke . Bryusov, along with other symbolists ( , A. Bely (),),

Such a mythopoetic perception led to the rise of poetry, which made it possible define the beginning of the 20th century. How silver age of Russian poetry, which came after the long dominance of social prose.

Another modernist trend - acmeism was a reaction to symbolism. , M. Tsvetaeva who created a new lyric poetry returned from the world of symbols to earthly man, but not to his social problems, but to the world of human feelings.

avant-garde. In the 1910s From the idea of ​​the intrinsic value of artistic creativity, the idea of ​​its self-sufficiency has grown. The apologetics of subjectivism, the denial of traditional culture, activism were expressed in the activities of supporters of the art of the future - futurists .V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk, I. Severyanin, in 1912 made a manifesto A slap in the face of public taste, where they called on the basis of absolute freedom to create not art, to create reality.

In the Russian painting and graphics before new trends emerged in the literature.

Realism. On the one hand, at the turn of the century, the traditions of the academic school were preserved, primarily in paintings . The Association of Traveling Exhibitions continued to operate (A. M. and, and etc.).

Modernism. On the other hand, already in the 1880s. in Russian painting, new trends arose based on the appeal of artists to historical subjects. So, , KA. Korovin, founder of Russian or decorative impressionism, and who has gone from academism to modernity. In the canvases of the symbolist artist the emphasis has already been placed on fantastic fiction and innuendo.

In the late 1890s Art Nouveau in Russian fine arts openly declared its principles. In 1898, a society of artists was created World of Art published a magazine of the same name. Its members , K. Somov, to which Serov and Korovin adjoined, proclaimed the autonomy of art, the primacy for creativity of the problem of beauty. Formally, not considering themselves symbolists, they stood on the positions of transforming reality with the help of pictorial and graphic symbols and metaphors.

The creativity of artists - followers -Musatov who created the society Blue Rose (, -Vodkin) and worked on the symbolist theory of painting.

avant-garde. The emergence in 1910 of the society Jack of Diamonds (,), and then - donkey tail (, D. Burliuk) marked the transition of the renewal leadership to the Russian avant-garde, which art critics called the Russian explosion. Larionov and Goncharova developed Russian cubism - cubo-futurism.

Simultaneously developed expressionism, whose followers also made a leap into non-objectivity. Abstract art theorist ; founder Suprematism K. Malevich; creator analytical painting ; household symbolist , each in their own way asserted the dominance of creativity over forms, creating new worlds in their works.

IN architecture, where, unlike literature and painting, in the second half of the XIX century. there was no single style, in the 90s. 19th century took shape as a leading new style modern. The father of Russian modern became . Built in the same style , .Developed and neoclassicism, as in combination with modern (, ), and in pure form ( , ).

In development sculptures neoclassical style at work , combined with modernism in impressionist sculptures (monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg), (monument in Moscow). In the multifaceted work of the universalist artist antique plastic was combined with modern and folklore motifs.

In music the same trends emerged. Developed the traditions of Tchaikovsky and the Mighty Handful Rimsky-Korsakov and. Perfected the classical musical principles of the innovative composer and brilliant pianist . At the same time looking for new forms , , in whose work the phenomena of musical symbolism, impressionism and expressionism are palpable.

Theatrical art.

Drama Theater. In 1898 , creator of the new acting system, and -Danchenko founded with the help Moscow Art Theater, which became the center of innovative experiments. In 1904 created Drama Theater Petersburg, where plays by Chekhov, Gorky, Ibsen were also staged. Directors made their contribution to the development of the new Russian theater V. Meyerhold and V. Vakhtangov.

Development operatic art appeared not only in new productions Bolshoi and Mariinsky, but also in the creation of provincial and private opera houses. Operas created by entrepreneurs gained great fame. (1885) and (1904). Domestic vocal school flourished in the performing arts , .

Ballet. Along with the development of classical ballet in the work of the choreographer M. Petipa. Modern productions M. Fokina and Stravinsky's ballets were designed by world art artists Benois, Bakst, Korovin. Danced in academic and innovative performances A. Pavlova, V. Nijinsky and a whole galaxy of dancers who have gained worldwide fame.

Cinema appeared in Russia immediately after its invention and began to develop rapidly, becoming the most massive form of art. By 1914, St. 4 thousand electric theaters and illusions. Russian cinema, where he put pictures Y. Protazanov, actors played I. Mozzhukhin, V. Kholodnaya, A. Koonen has gained worldwide recognition.

Culture of the 20-30sXIXcentury

Since the mid-1920s, it has gained particular importance ideologization all areas of cultural development. intensified authoritarian-bureaucratic style leadership of science, literature, art. The bodies of sectoral management of culture were created - Soyuzkino (1930), the All-Union Committee for Radio and Broadcasting (1933), the All-Union Committee for Higher Education (1936), the All-Union Committee for Art (1936), etc.

In 1928, an all-Union cult campaign for literacy was announced (the number of the cultural army was about 1 million people). Volunteer teachers taught free literacy to more than 34 million people. Since 1930, the country has introduced universal compulsory primary education In 1939, the task of transition to universal secondary education (ten-year plan) was set. Since 1938, compulsory study of the Russian language was introduced in all national schools, and since 1940, the teaching of foreign languages ​​in secondary schools.

The science

In 1927, for this, a All-Union Association of Science and Technology Workers for the Promotion of Socialist Construction. By 1933, the Academy was subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars, its composition changed significantly, a number of its members, prominent scientists, were repressed.

Natural and technical sciences There were scientific schools of academicians (production of synthetic rubber), (geological exploration of oil). The scientific developments of V.I. Vernadsky, physiologist ; physicists And , mathematicians And , biologists And , Arctic exploration . Conducted research in the field of nuclear physics. In 1933, the Reactive Research Institute was established (in 1936, Europe's largest cyclotron was put into operation). In 1928, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. (VASKhNIL), headed by .

Humanitarian sciences were to be freed from bourgeois ideology. Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the only correct ideology.

Centralization and bureaucratization of the party-state management of artistic culture. Soviet literature and art were subordinated to the tasks of socialist construction in the USSR. In accordance with the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of 01.01.01 " On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations"All previously existing literary associations (Proletkult, RAPP, etc.) were liquidated, the creative intelligentsia united in the Unions of Soviet Architects, Composers (1932), Writers, Artists (1934).

Literature. Created in 1934, the Union of Soviet Writers became the organ for carrying out the Party's policy in literature. Formally, it was headed by M. Gorky, but the practical work was carried out by the board headed by the first secretary, a cadre party worker.

Most of the works of writers of various ranks were devoted to revolution, civil war or socialist construction. Appeal to these topics led to the creation of a number of significant works, in particular, returned in 1928 from emigration M. Gorky, M. Sholokhova(Quiet Don), N. Ostrovsky(How the steel was tempered), etc. The problems of production with varying degrees of talent were revealed M. Shaginyan, V. Kataev, F. Gladkov.

The development of the international situation, the approach of a new war, Stalin's desire to put Soviet statehood on a historical foundation, the thesis about the need to form socialist patriotism led in the second half of the 30s. to increase the value historical novel in which they worked - (Peter the First), (The cabal of saints) Y. Tynyanov(Death of Vazir-Mukhtar), V. Shishkov(Emelyan Pugachev), V. Jan(Genghis Khan).

Prominent writers of that time M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov worked in the genre satire; S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, S. Mikhalkov create art for children. At the same time, even in the conditions of general ideologization, a number of writers and especially poets were outside the revolutionary pathos and production enthusiasm. These were primarily M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak and etc.

4.4. Painting and sculpture. In the visual arts, there was also a process of unification and unification under party control. In 1934 the Union of Soviet Artists was created. In painting during the years of the first five-year plans, the revolutionary theme remained the main one: -Vodkin Death of the Commissioner A. Deineka Defense of Petrograd B. Ioganson Interrogation of a communist, etc. In these works, as well as in the works I. Grabar, I. Grekov, P. Korin the pathos of the era, historical and patriotic motives were realized in a highly artistic form.

In 1932, the last exhibition of avant-garde artists was held, headed by Malevich and Filonov, later their works disappeared from museum expositions for a long time. In sculpture, monumentalism is relevant - V. Mukhina Worker and collective farmer

Architecture and urban planning. In 1932, the Union of Soviet Architects arose. Vesnin brothers(Palace of Culture ZIL, Dneproges) , and others continued to develop the ideas of constructivism and functionalism. In the years construction of the Mausoleum building (architect A. Shchusev), dome of the Moscow Planetarium (1928, span height 28 m). The House of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Moscow Hotel, the Moscow-Volga Canal, the Moscow Metro was being built (the first stage was launched in 1935).

Music. In 1932 was founded Union of Soviet Composers. During these years, Soviet composers created works of various genres - the opera Quiet Don I. Dzerzhinsky, ballets Flames of Paris and the Fountain of Bakhchisarai B. Astafieva, ballet Romeo and Juliet and cantata Alexander Nevsky S. Prokofieva. During these years composers worked A. Khachaturian, D. Shostakovich. Among the authors of mass song, operetta and film music - V. Lebedev-Kumach, T. Khrennikov, I. Dunaevsky and etc.

Theater The theater also saw the establishment of the principles of socialist realism. In accordance with them, Soviet dramaturgy presented performances about revolutionary events, about the life and everyday life of a Soviet person (plays Sun. Vishnevsky An optimistic tragedy; A. Korneychuk Platon Krechet; N. Pogodina Man with a gun, etc.). A rarity was such productions as the Days of the Turbins based on the play . However, the classical repertoire was preserved and developed. The works of W. Shakespeare were widely staged at the Moscow Maly Theater, the Moscow Art Theater, and others.

Actors of the older generation worked in the theater ( I. Moskvin, A. Yablochkina, V. Kachalov, O. Knipper-Chekhova), as well as a new one, formed in the post-October period ( V. Schukin, A. Tarasova, N. Mordvinov and others).

Cinema. In the 30s. cinematography has undergone significant changes, including the advent of sound films. Directors S. Yutkevich(Counter), S. Gerasimova(Seven brave, Komsomolsk), Vasiliev brothers(Chapaev), I. Kheifits and L. Zarkhi Member of the Baltic). G. Aleksandrova (Volga-Volga, Circus, Funny guys); historical films S. Eisenstein(Alexander Nevskiy), V. Petrova(Peter the First), V. Pudovkin and M. Doller(Suvorov), as well as films G. Kozintseva and etc.

5.1. The struggle against formalism in art. The ideas of class art led to the struggle against the so-called formalism in the work of some writers, artists, composers. Everything that did not fit into the narrow framework of socialist realism was declared formalism. The struggle was reduced to the persecution of cultural and art workers, during which D. Shostakovich(for the opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District and the ballet The Bright Stream), film directors S. Eisenstein And A. Dovzhenko, writers B. Pasternak, N. Zabolotsky, Yu. Olesha, N. Aseev, I. Babel, academician , artists A. Deineka, V. Favorsky, A. Lentulov. Creativity was condemned for formalism and naturalism V. Meyerhold(in 1938 his theater was closed, and the director was repressed) and A. Tairova.

Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries, although it was not alien to borrowings from the West and the East, basically developed its own traditions of the previous period. Pay attention to the fact that Soviet historiography did a lot, looking for analogues of such epoch-making phenomena in Europe as the Renaissance and the Reformation. However, the premise behind such searches, which treats the absence of these phenomena as a sign of cultural backwardness, is doubtful. Russian medieval culture, in a number of features of its formation, was not just a regional version of European culture - it was a different culture based on Orthodoxy.

Determining the main content and direction of the historical and cultural process of medieval Rus', it should be noted that culture was rooted in folk art and had in it the main nutrient medium of its development. The formation of Russian culture of the Middle Ages reflected the peculiarities and contradictions characteristic of this era.

In the historical and cultural process of the XIII-XV centuries. two periods are distinguished. The first (from 1240 to the middle of the 14th century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture (due to the Mongol-Tatar conquest and simultaneous expansion by German, Danish, Swedish, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords); the second period (the second half of the 14th-15th centuries) was marked by the rise of national self-consciousness, the revival of Russian culture. It was the Moscow principality that was destined, overcoming the feudal fragmentation of Rus', to lead the struggle against the Golden Horde and by the end of the 15th century. complete both processes with the creation of a single and independent state.

After the historic victory at the Kulikovo field (1380), the leading role of Moscow in the development of Russian art becomes more and more undeniable. In an atmosphere of national upsurge, the art of Rus' is experiencing the heyday of the Pre-Renaissance. Moscow becomes the artistic center of Rus'.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. The destruction of cities, the loss of traditions, the disappearance of artistic trends, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, architecture - a blow, from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century. In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. the mood of the era was reflected - the time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.

From the 10th century almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal Old Russian state, where an original artistic culture developed with a number of local schools (southwestern, western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal), which gained experience in building and beautifying cities, created wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, frescoes, mosaics, icons. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led Ancient Rus' to economic and cultural decline and to the isolation of the southwestern lands that became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state. After a period of stagnation in the Old Russian lands located on the territory of Russia from the end of the 13th century. Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to take shape. In its development, more tangibly than in the art of Ancient Rus', the influence of the urban lower classes, which became an important social force in the struggle to get rid of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and unite Russian lands, manifested itself. Leading already in the XIV century. this struggle grand-ducal Moscow synthesizes the achievements of local schools and from the 15th century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where the art of Andrei Rublev, imbued with a deep faith in the beauty of a moral feat, and the architecture of the Kremlin proportionate to man in its grandeur are formed. The apotheosis of the ideas of unification and strengthening of the Russian state was embodied in the temples-monuments of the 16th century. With the development of economic and social relations in the XVII century. the isolation of individual regions is finally liquidated, and international relations are expanding, secular features are growing in art.

Without going out as a whole almost until the end of the 17th century. outside the framework of religious forms, art reflected the crisis of the official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the worldview: direct life observations destroyed the conditional system of church iconography, and the details borrowed from Western European architecture came into conflict with the traditional composition of the Russian church. But this partly prepared the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, which took place by the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicles for a long time only mention the construction of wooden structures that have not survived to us. From the end of the XIII century. in North-Western Rus', which had escaped ruin, stone architecture, primarily military architecture, was also being revived. Stone city fortifications of Novgorod and Pskov, fortresses on riverine capes (Koporye) or on islands are erected, sometimes with an additional wall at the entrance, forming together with the main protective corridor - “zahab” (Izborsk, Porkhov). From the middle of the XIV century. the walls are strengthened by mighty towers, at the beginning above the gates, and then along the entire perimeter of the fortifications, which in the 15th century received a layout close to regular. The uneven masonry of rough-hewn limestone and boulders endowed the structure with painting and enhanced their plastic expressiveness.

The masonry of the walls of small single-dome four-pillar churches of the late 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries was the same, to which the plastering of the facades gave a monolithic appearance. The temples were built at the expense of the boyars, wealthy merchants. Becoming the architectural dominants of certain districts of the city, they enriched its silhouette and created a gradual transition of a representative stone kremlin to an irregular wooden residential building, following the natural relief. It was dominated by 1-2 storey houses on basements, sometimes three-part, with a passage in the middle.

With the beginning of the revival of Moscow in it in the 1320-1330s. the first white-stone temples appear. The not preserved Cathedral of the Assumption and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor with belts of carved ornament on the facades ascended in type to the four-pillared with three apses Vladimir temple until the Mongolian period. In the second half of the XIV century. the first stone walls of the Kremlin are being built on a triangular hill at the confluence of the Neglinnaya with the Moscow River. To the east of the Kremlin there was a settlement with a main street parallel to the Moscow River. Similar in plan to earlier ones, temples of the late XIV - early XV centuries. thanks to the use of additional kokoshniks at the base of the drum, raised on spring arches, a tiered top composition was obtained. This gave the buildings a picturesque and festive character, enhanced by the keeled outlines of the zakomar and the tops of the portals, carved belts and thin semi-columns on the facades. In the cathedral of the Moscow Andronikov Monastery, the corner parts of the main volume are greatly reduced, and the composition of the top is especially dynamic. In the pillarless churches of the Moscow school of the XIV-beginning

15th century each facade was sometimes crowned with three kokoshniks.

The turning point for the historical and cultural development of the Russian lands was the end of the 15th-16th centuries. The formation of a unified Russian state was completed, extensive urban planning was launched, and international trade relations were being established. The country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The formation of the Russian nationality was completed. This significantly affected the formation of cultural processes.

The formation of a centralized state headed by Moscow princes, the elimination of feudal fragmentation revived the economic, political and cultural life of the country. Russian culture of this period develops in close connection with the tasks of the state unification of the country, in the struggle against the remnants of the Golden Horde and Western neighbors.

At the end of the XV - XVI centuries, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people was completed. As a result of complex ethnic and linguistic processes, the Russian language developed, which differed significantly not only from Ukrainian and Belarusian, but also from Church Slavonic, which was preserved in book writing. In colloquial and close to it, the so-called command, business language, the dominant influence was exerted by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, in it - the Moscow dialect. Many words that originally appeared in Moscow writing have gained general Russian distribution, and among them are such as “khrestianin” (peasant), “money”, “village”, etc. The ancient types of past times have been lost, and the form of the verb has received a new development. The system of declensions and conjugations began to approach the modern one. In the spoken language, the old “vocative” (Ivan, father, wife, etc.) form of nouns has died out.

Dwellings and settlements

The formation of the Great Russian nationality was also reflected in the features of everyday life and material culture characteristic of the 16th and subsequent centuries. At this time, a type of residential building was formed, consisting of three rooms - a hut, a cage (or a room) and a vestibule connecting them. The house was covered with a gable roof. Such a "three-chamber" building became dominant in Russian villages for a long time. In addition to the hut in the peasant yard, there was a granary for storing grain, one or two barns (“palaces”) for cattle, a sennik, a soap house (bath), sometimes rigs, barns, sheds, although the latter were most often placed outside the yards, on the field. In cities since the end of the 15th century. stone dwellings of the boyars, the higher clergy, and large merchants began to appear.
Villages of the 16th century usually consisted of 10 - 15 households, the larger settlements were villages. Cities developed according to the traditional radial-ring system: the radii were formed along the roads leading to other cities, the rings along the lines of wood-earth and stone fortifications that covered the growing parts of the cities. By the end of the XVI century. Moscow had three rings of stone fortifications - the Kremlin, adjoining it from the east and enclosing the shopping center of Kitai-Gorod, Bely Gorod (along the line of the modern Boulevard Ring) and one ring of wood-and-earth fortifications - Zemlyanoy Gorod, the fortifications of which were located along the modern Garden Ring . City estates usually went out onto the streets with fences, residential buildings and utility rooms were hidden inside. In rare cases, the streets were paved with wood; in the summer, during the rains, the streets were almost impassable. Each street had one or more churches.
Since many townspeople had their own livestock, the city had pastures, runs to water and pastures, as well as vegetable gardens, orchards, sometimes even plots of arable land. In the XV century. city ​​streets began to be locked with bars at night. In the cities, "going heads" from petty nobles appeared - the embryo of the urban police service. The "circling heads" were supposed to monitor not only the appearance of "thieves' people", but also the safety in the city. For these purposes, it was forbidden to burn stoves in houses in the summer. Cooking was carried out in the yards. Blacksmiths and other craftsmen, whose work was connected with the use of fire, set their workshops away from residential buildings, closer to the water. Despite all these precautions, cities were often destroyed by fires, which caused great damage and often claimed a lot of human casualties. But the cities also recovered quickly: from the surrounding area they brought ready-made log cabins in disassembled form, sold them at auction, and city streets were rebuilt.

Clothes and food

In the XVI century. a peculiar costume of peasants and townspeople developed - poneva, sundress, kokoshnik for women, a blouse with a slit on the left side and felt boots (headdress) for men. The social elites began to stand out even more significantly in their appearance - rich fur coats, throaty hats in winter, elegant caftans - in the summer people saw the boyars and wealthy merchants.
Common foods were cabbage soup, buckwheat, oatmeal, pea porridge, baked and steamed turnips, onions, garlic, fish, oatmeal jelly; on holidays they ate stuffed pies, pancakes, eggs, caviar, imported fish, drank beer and honey. In the 50s of the XVI century. tsar's taverns were opened, selling vodka. Rich people had a different table - here and on weekdays there were always caviar and sturgeon, meat (except for fasting days), expensive overseas wines.

Religion

Despite the active actions of the church and the secular authorities that supported it in terms of planting the Christian dogma, the last in the 16th century. penetrated deeply only into the milieu of the ruling class. Sources testify that the mass of the working population in the city and the countryside performed church rituals far from accurately and reluctantly, that pagan folk festivals and rituals were still very strong and widespread, such as those associated with the celebration of Kupala and which the churchmen could not succeed in any way. reinterpret in the Orthodox rite in memory of John the Baptist.
The Church tried to attract the people with magnificent rites and ceremonies, especially on the days of great religious holidays, when solemn prayers, religious processions, and so on were held. Churchmen in every way spread rumors about all kinds of "miracles" at the icons, the relics of "saints", prophetic "visions". In search of healing from ailments or deliverance from troubles, many people flocked to worship "miraculous" icons and relics, overflowing large monasteries for holidays.

Folk art

Folk songs, glorifying the heroes of the capture of Kazan, also reflected the controversial personality of Ivan the Terrible, who appears either as a “fair” tsar, taking under the protection of good fellows from the people and cracking down on the hated boyars, or as the patron of “Malyuta of the villain Skuratovich”. The theme of the fight against external enemies gave rise to a kind of reworking of the ancient Kyiv cycle of epics and new legends. Stories about the fight against the Polovtsians and Tatars merged together, Ilya Muromets turns out to be the winner of the Tatar hero, and Ermak Timofeevich helps in the capture of Kazan. Moreover, the Polish king Stefan Batory appears as a servant of the Tatar "king". So folk art concentrated its heroes - positive and negative - around the capture of Kazan, thereby emphasizing what great significance this event had for contemporaries. In this regard, we recall the words of Academician B. D. Grekov that “epics are a story told by the people themselves. There may be inaccuracies in chronology, in terms, there may be factual errors ... but the assessment of events here is always correct and cannot be otherwise, since the people were not a simple witness to events, but the subject of history, directly creating these events.

Literacy and writing

The formation of a unified state increased the need for literate people needed for the developing apparatus of power. At the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551, it was decided “in the reigning city of Moscow and in all cities ... among priests, deacons and deacons, in the houses of the school, so that the priests and deacons in each city give them their children for teaching.” In addition to the clergy, there were also secular "masters" of literacy, who taught literacy for two years, and for this it was supposed to "bring porridge and a hryvnia of money to the master." At first, the students completely memorized the texts of church books, then they sorted them out by syllables and letters. Then they taught writing, as well as addition and subtraction, and by heart they learned numbers up to a thousand with their letter designation. In the second half of the century, grammar manuals appeared (“A conversation about the teaching of literacy, what is literacy and what is its structure, and why such a doctrine was compiled, and what is the acquisition from it, and what is the first thing to learn”) and arithmetic (“Book , the recommendation in Greek is arithmetic, and in German is algorism, and in Russian is tsifir counting wisdom").
Handwritten books were distributed, which were still of great value. In 1600, one small book on 135 sheets was exchanged "for a homemade gun, and for a saber, and for black cloth, and for a simple curtain." Along with parchment, which was in short supply, imported paper appeared - from Italy, France, the German states, with specific watermarks indicating the time and place of paper production. Huge long ribbons were glued from paper sheets in government offices - the so-called "pillars" (the bottom sheet of each sheet was fastened to the top sheet of the next sheet in the case, and so on until the end of the whole case).

Typography

In the middle of the XVI century. the largest event in the history of Russian education took place - the foundation of book printing in Moscow. The initiative in this matter belonged to Ivan I V and Metropolitan Macarius, and the original purpose of book printing was to distribute uniform church books in order to strengthen the authority of religion and church organization in general. Printing began in 1553, and in 1563 Ivan Fedorov, a former deacon of one of the Kremlin churches, and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets became the head of the government printing house. In 1564 was
published "Apostle" - an outstanding work of medieval printing in its technical and artistic qualities. In 1568, printers were already working in Lithuania, where, according to some scholars, they moved on the orders of the tsar in order to promote the success of Russia's active actions in the Baltic states by distributing church books among the Orthodox population of Lithuania. However, after the Union of Lublin in 1569, the activities of Russian printers in Lithuania ceased. Ivan Fedorov moved to Lviv, where he worked until the end of his life (1583). In Lvov in 1574, he printed the first Russian primer, which, along with the alphabet, contained elements of grammar and some reading materials.
In Moscow, after the departure of Fedorov and Mstislavets, book printing continued in other printing houses.

Socio-political thought

The complexity of the socio-political conditions for the formation of a unified Russian state gave rise in the spiritual life of society to an intense search for solutions to big problems - about the nature of state power, about law and "truth", about the place of the church in the state, about land ownership, about the position of the peasants. To this we must add the further spread of heretical teachings, doubts about the validity of religious dogmas, the first glimpses of scientific knowledge.
As elsewhere in the European countries of the period of their unification, Russian social thought associated hopes for the establishment of an ideal government and the elimination of strife and civil strife with a single power. However, the specific ideas of the ideal state were far from the same among publicists who expressed the moods of different groups - Peresvet's ideal of a strong sovereign, relying on the nobility, did not at all resemble Maxim Grek's dreams of a wise ruler, deciding state affairs together with advisers, and the ascetic refusal of "non-possessors ” from wealth caused furious indignation of the ideologists of a strong church - the “Osiflyans”. The acute political sound of social thought was characteristic of all its forms and manifestations. Chronicles from their very origin had the character of political documents, but now their purpose has increased even more. Going on a campaign to Novgorod, Ivan III specially took with him the deacon Stepan the Bearded, who "knew how to speak" according to the "Russian chroniclers" "Novgorod wines." In the XVI century. a huge amount of work was undertaken to compile new chronicles, which included appropriately selected and interpreted news from the local annals. This is how the huge Nikon and Resurrection chronicles appeared. A notable feature was the widespread use of government materials in the annals - discharge records, embassy books, contractual and spiritual letters, article lists about embassies, etc. At the same time, church influence on annals increased. This is especially noticeable in the so-called Chronograph of 1512, a work devoted to the history of Orthodox countries, which substantiated the idea of ​​the leading position of Orthodox Russia in the Christian world.
One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle was made in the form of a luxuriously illustrated Facial Code, containing up to 16 thousand illustrations. This copy, apparently intended for the education and upbringing of the young members of the royal family, was subsequently subjected to repeated editing; according to scientists, it was done by Ivan the Terrible, who retroactively introduced into history the denunciation of past "betrayals" of his opponents, who were executed during the years of the oprichnina.

Historical stories appeared dedicated to the events of the recent past - the Kazan "capture", the defense of Pskov, also sustained in the spirit of a militant church ideology and exalted Ivan the Terrible.
The “Book of Powers” ​​became a new historical work in terms of presentation, where the material is distributed not by years, but by seventeen “degrees” - by the periods of reign of the great princes and metropolitans from the “beginning of Rus'”, which was considered the reign of the first Christian princes Olga and Vladimir, to Ivan the Terrible. The compiler - Metropolitan Athanasius - by the selection and arrangement of material emphasized the exceptional importance of the church in the history of the country, the close alliance between secular and spiritual rulers in the past.
The question of the position of the church in a single state occupied the main place in the ongoing in the first half of the 16th century. disputes between "non-possessors" and "Osiflyans". The ideas of Nil Sorsky were developed in his works by Vassian Patrikeev, who in 1499, together with his father, Prince Yu.
forcibly tonsured a monk and exiled to the distant Kirillovo-Belozersky monastery, but already in 1508 he was returned from exile and even approached at one time by Vasily III. Vassian criticized contemporary monasticism, the inconsistency of his life with Christian ideals, and saw this inconsistency primarily in the fact that the monks cling tenaciously to earthly blessings.
The views of Vassian Patrikeev were largely shared by the well-educated translator and publicist Maxim Grek (Mikhail Trivolis), who was invited to Russia in 1518 to translate and correct liturgical books. In his works (there are more than a hundred of them), Maxim the Greek proved the illegality of the churchmen's references to the writings of the "holy fathers" regarding the right to own land (in the heroic texts it was about vineyards), he denounced the plight of the peasants who lived on the monastic lands. From the pages of the writings of Maxim the Greek, an unattractive picture of the Russian church appears. The monks quarrel, lead lengthy litigations over villages and lands, get drunk, indulge in a luxurious life, treat the peasants living on their lands in a completely un-Christian way, entangle them with heavy usurious debts, spend the wealth of the church for their own pleasure, with lush rites of sanctimonious cover their deeply unrighteous life.
Maxim Grek's like-minded boyar F. I. Karpov, who was also very concerned about the state of the Russian church, even put forward the idea of ​​the need to unite the Orthodox Church with the Catholic as a means of overcoming existing vices.
Metropolitan-Osiphian Daniel waged an energetic struggle against all "freethinkers". Not only heretics and nonpossessors were severely condemned by Daniel, but also all those who indulged in worldly entertainment. Playing the harp and domra, singing "demonic songs" and even playing chess and checkers were declared as vicious as foul language and drunkenness; in the same way, beautiful clothes and barbering were condemned. At the insistence of Daniel, in 1531 another Church Council was held against Maxim the Greek and Vassian Patrikeev. The latter died in the monastery, and Maxim the Greek was released only after the death of Vasily II.
Daniel's successor, Metropolitan Macarius, organized a great literary work aimed at strengthening the religious influence on the spiritual culture of the country. The largest undertaking in this regard was the creation of a grandiose set of "Lives of the Saints" - "Great Cheti-Menay" for daily reading. By creating this book, the clergy wanted to practically absorb all the books “that were in Rus'”, to give all book writing a strictly sustained religious character. The church, supported by the state, continued its offensive against dissidents. In 1553, the former abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Artemy, a follower of the teachings of Nil Sorsky, was put on trial for his statements condemning the official church, its money-grubbing and intolerance towards the erring. The following year, in 1554, another church trial took place over the nobleman Matvey Bashkin, who rejected icon veneration, was critical of the writings of the "holy fathers", and was indignant at the fact that among Christians the transformation of people into slaves had spread. In the same year, the Belozersky monk Theodosius Kosoy was arrested and brought to Moscow for a church trial. A former serf, Theodosius Kosoy was one of the most radical heretics of the 16th century. He did not recognize the trinity of the deity (a similar trend of the so-called anti-trinitarians was also widespread in the countries of Western Europe in connection with the then developing reform movement), saw in Christ not God, but an ordinary preacher, rejected a significant part of dogmatic literature, considered it contrary to common sense. meaning, did not recognize rituals, icon veneration, or the dignity of priests. Theodosius did not believe in "miracles" and "prophecies", he condemned the persecution of dissidents, and opposed the church's acquisitiveness. In a positive sense, the dreams of Theodosius did not go beyond the vague ideals of early Christianity, from the position of which Theodosius spoke of the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility, therefore, of the dependence of some people on others, and even the need for equal treatment of all peoples and faiths. Opponents of Theodosius called his preaching "slave teaching." There is some information that makes it possible to judge the presence of communities of followers of Theodosius Kosoy. The trial of Theodosius Kosy did not take place, because he managed to escape to Lithuania, but the persecution of heretics continued.

The rudiments of scientific knowledge and the church's struggle with them

With the activities of heretics at the end of the XV - XVI centuries. were connected, albeit in a very narrow circle, the first attempts to go beyond the canonical ideas about the world around. Contrary to the widely spread idea, which even entered the church "Easter" (indicators of the days of Easter in future years), that in 7000 (according to the then chronology "from the creation of the world", according to the modern - 1492) the "end of the world" will come ”, heretics did not believe in the onset of the “end of the world”. They did a lot of astronomy and had conversion tables for calculating lunar phases and eclipses.
The clergy were hostile to all these activities, considering them "black books" and "sorcery". The monk Philotheus, who wrote to Vasily III about Moscow - the “Third Rome”, admitted that it is possible, of course, to calculate the time of the future eclipse, but this is useless, “the pandering is much, but the feat is small”, “it is not fitting for the Orthodox to experience such a thing.” Hostility towards secular, non-religious knowledge and towards ancient culture was especially frankly manifested in the arrogant confession of the philosopher that he was “a rural man and ignorant in wisdom, was not born in Athens, neither studied with wise philosophers, nor with wise philosophers in conversation have not been." This was the attitude of Russian churchmen towards ancient culture just at the time when Western European culture was rising during the Renaissance, marked by a lively and strong interest in the ancient heritage. It was these clergymen who developed the political theory of the Russian state, they prepared for it the path of isolation from advanced culture, stagnating in ancient orders and customs - for the glory of "true", Orthodox Christianity. The bolder thought of Russian heretics and other “freethinkers” of the late 15th-16th centuries looks all the brighter. Heretics of the late 15th century were familiar with the works of medieval and ancient philosophy, they knew the basic concepts of logic and some issues of theoretical mathematics (the concepts of plane, line, indivisible numbers, infinity). The head of the Moscow heretics, Fyodor Kuritsyn, thought about the question - is the will of a person free or are his actions predetermined by God? He came to the conclusion that free will (“autocracy of the soul”) exists, that it is the greater, the more literate and educated a person is.
The beginnings of scientific knowledge existed in the 16th century. in the form of purely practical information on various daily affairs. The age-old practice of peasant farmers has long developed criteria for assessing soils - now they have been applied to assess the solvency of lands of "good", "average", "bad". State needs have caused the need to measure land areas. In 1556, a manual was compiled for the scribes who described the allotted lands, with the addition of survey marks. In the second half of the century, a manual “On earthly layout, how to layout the earth” appeared, which explained how to calculate the area of ​​a square, rectangle, trapezoid, parallelogram, and the corresponding drawings were attached.
The development of trade and money circulation led to the development of practical knowledge in the field of arithmetic. It is no coincidence that the terminology connects arithmetic operations with trading operations: the term was called in the 16th century. “list”, reduced - “business list”. In the XVI century. knew how to perform operations on numbers with fractions, used the signs + and -. However, mathematical and other concrete knowledge in the conditions of the Middle Ages was very often clothed in a mystical-religious shell. The triangular figure, for example, was interpreted as a symbolic embodiment of the movement of the "holy spirit" following within the "holy trinity" from the "god-father" located at the top of the triangle.
Fantastic ideas about the Earth were quite widespread. In the popular translated book "Christian Topography" by an Alexandrian merchant of the 6th century. Kosma Indikoplova said that the sky is round, the Earth is quadrangular, stands on endless water, beyond the ocean there is a land with paradise, in the ocean there is a pillar to heaven and the devil himself is tied to this pillar, who is angry, and all sorts of disasters occur from this.
The mystical interpretation of natural phenomena was very common, there were special books - “astrology”, “lunar”, “lightning”, “trembling”, “spade”, which contained countless signs and divination. Although the church formally condemned everything that went beyond the scope of religious worldviews, nevertheless, a rare secular feudal lord did not keep domestic "soothsayers" and "healers" at his court. Ivan the Terrible was not devoid of superstitious feelings, who often feverishly sought solace for his anxieties in various fortune-telling.
But along with this, concrete practical knowledge was accumulated and developed.
In 1534 Vertograd was translated from German and contained a lot of medical information. When translating, "Vertograd" was supplemented with some Russian information. In this, very common in the XVI century. The handwritten book contained the rules of personal hygiene, patient care (special attention was paid to preventing drafts, as well as “so as not to get pissed off, and the brain would not dry up in the head”), numerous information about medicinal plants, their properties and places of distribution. There are special instructions on the treatment of a beaten person "from a whip", and it is precisely "from a Moscow whip, and not a rural one" - feudal reality was reflected here in all its cruelty. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Moscow was set up to serve the royal family, in which the Englishman James French, invited by Ivan the Terrible, worked.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the growth of its ties with foreign countries advanced the development of geographical knowledge. Along with naive ideas about the "four-cornered Earth", specific information about the location of various parts of the Earth began to appear.
In 1496, the Moscow ambassador Grigory Istomin traveled on sailboats from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Bergen and Copenhagen, opening up the possibility of Russia's relations with Western Europe by the Northern Sea Route. In 1525, one of the most educated people of that time, diplomat Dmitry Gerasimov, went abroad. He suggested that India, which attracted Europeans with its riches, as well as China, could be reached through the Arctic Ocean. In accordance with this assumption, the English expedition of Willoughby and Chancellor was later equipped, which in the 50s of the 16th century. arrived in Kholmogory and opened the Northern sea route with England.
The Trade Book, compiled in the second half of the 16th century, contained information about other countries necessary for foreign trade. In the XVI century. Pomors made voyages to Novaya Zemlya and Grumant (Svalbard).

Architecture

The rise of Russian culture manifested itself in many ways. Significant changes have taken place in building technology and the art of architecture closely related to it.
Strengthening of Russian statehood already at the end of the 15th century. stimulated the restoration of the ancient and the construction of new buildings of the Moscow Kremlin, the cathedral of the early XIII century. in Yuryev Polsky and some others. Stone construction, although still to a small extent, began to be used for the construction of residential buildings. The use of bricks opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects: In the course of the unification of the Russian lands, an all-Russian architectural style began to take shape. The leading role in it belonged to Moscow, but with the active influence of local schools and traditions. Thus, the Spiritual Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, built in 1476, combined the techniques of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
The restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture. In 1471, after the victory over Novgorod, Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip decided to build a new Assumption Cathedral, which was supposed to surpass the ancient Novgorod Sofia in its grandeur and reflect the power of the Russian state united by Moscow. At first, the cathedral was built by Russian masters, but the building collapsed. The masters had no experience in building large buildings for a long time. Then Ivan I I I ordered to find a master in Italy. In 1475, the famous engineer and architect Aristotle Fioravanti arrived in Moscow. The Italian master got acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture and by 1479 built a new Assumption Cathedral - an outstanding work of Russian architecture, enriched with elements of Italian construction technology and architecture of the Renaissance. Solemnly majestic, embodied in its forms the power of the young Russian state, the building of the cathedral became the main religious and political building of grand-ducal Moscow, a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 15th century.
For the reconstruction of the Kremlin, masters Pietro Antonio Sola-ri, Marco Rufsro, Aleviz Milanets and others were invited from Italy. In 1485-1516. under their leadership, new walls and towers (surviving to this day) of the Kremlin were erected, which expanded its territory to 26.5 hectares. At the same time, its internal layout was formed. In the center was Cathedral Square with the monumental building of the Assumption Cathedral and the high bell tower of Ivan the Great (architect Bon Fryazin, 1505-1508), completed at the beginning of the 17th century. On the southwestern side of the square, the Annunciation Cathedral appeared, which was part of the grand ducal palace ensemble. This cathedral was built by Pskov masters in 1484-1489. The techniques of its external decoration are borrowed from the Vladimir-Moscow traditions (arcature belts) and from Pskov (patterns of the upper part of the domes). In 1487 - 1491. Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari built the Chamber of Facets to receive foreign ambassadors. It was the largest hall of that time. The vaults of the hall rest on a massive pillar in the middle - no other methods of erecting large interiors were known at that time. The chamber got its name from the “facets” of the external processing of the facade. In 1505-1509. Aleviz built the tomb of the Grand Dukes and members of their families - the Cathedral of Michael the Archangel, which combines the traditions of Moscow architecture (a cube topped with five domes) with elegant Italian decor. The zakomar (“shells”) finishing technique used by the architect later became a favorite in Moscow architecture.
The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was a unique work of architecture at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, embodying the grandeur, beauty, strength of the people liberated from the foreign yoke, who entered the common path of political and cultural progress with the advanced countries of Europe.
In the XVI century. already built stone churches with tent completion - "for wooden work," as one of the annals says, that is, on the model of numerous wooden tented buildings. The material itself - wood - dictated this form of completion of buildings in the form of a tent going up with even edges. In contrast to the Byzantine examples of cross-domed churches with domes, not only wooden, but also stone hipped churches without domes, without pillars inside, with a single, albeit small, interior space appeared in Russia.
In 1532, in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir of Vasily III - Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Terrible, the tented Church of the Ascension was erected, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. Soaring up to the sky on a coastal hill near the Moskva River, the temple embodied the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bmoving upwards with amazing power.
The crown of Russian architectural culture of the XVI century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - the temple of "Basil the Blessed" - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded bright, peculiar in shape domes of side chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the forms of the cathedral gave it a fabulous look and made it a real gem of Moscow architecture. This great monument of Russian architecture of the XVI century. reflected the wealth of national talent, the great spiritual upsurge that the country was then experiencing, getting rid of the threat of attacks by the most dangerous enemy and going through a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.
Things were more complicated in the second half of the 16th century. The strict regulation of architecture on the part of the Osiflyan churchmen and Ivan the Terrible, who was under their influence in this respect, led partly to a reduction in new construction, partly to the erection of heavy imitations of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral, such as, for example, the cathedrals built in the late 60s and 80s in Trinity-Sergius Monastery and Vologda. Only at the very end of the century did the festive decorative principle in Russian architecture revive and begin to develop, which found its manifestation in the church in Vyazemy near Moscow, the Nativity Cathedral of the Pafnutiev Borovsky Monastery, the so-called “small” cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow.

Painting

Approximately similar was the process of development of painting in Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of pictorial art, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutiev and Ferapontov monasteries. Fulfilling the orders of the Metropolitan and the Grand Duke, Dionysius managed to make his painting very elegant, beautiful, festive, despite the static nature of the figures, the repetition of compositional techniques, and the complete absence of perspective.
The workshop of Dionysius made the so-called “hagiographic” icons, which, in addition to the image of the “saint”, also contained small “brands” on the sides with images of individual episodes strictly according to the text of the “life” of this saint. Icons were dedicated to Moscow "saints" who played a significant role in the rise of Moscow.
The more the dominance of the Osifian church in the spiritual life of the country in the first half and the middle of the 16th century strengthened, the more the creativity of painters was hampered. Increasingly stringent demands were placed on them regarding the exact and unconditional adherence to the texts of the "Holy Scriptures", "Lives" and other church literature. Although the cathedral of 1551 pointed out Andrei Rublev's icon painting as a model, the mere repetition of even works of genius doomed pictorial art to the impoverishment of creativity.
Painting more and more turned into a simple illustration of this or that text. By means of painting on the walls of the temple, they tried to "retell" the content of the "Holy Scripture" and "lives" as accurately as possible. Therefore, the images were overloaded with details, the compositions became fractional, the laconism of artistic means was lost, which was so characteristic of the artists of the previous time and created a huge effect on the viewer. Special elders appointed by the church made sure that the painters did not deviate from the patterns and rules. The slightest independence in the artistic solution of images caused severe persecution.
The frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral reflected the official idea of ​​the origin and succession of the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes from Byzantium. On the walls and pillars of the cathedral, Byzantine emperors and Moscow princes are depicted in magnificent clothes. There are also images of ancient thinkers - Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Plutarch and others, but, firstly, they are not drawn in ancient, but in Byzantine and even Russian robes, and secondly, scrolls with sayings are put into their hands, as if predicting the appearance of Christ. Thus, the church tried, by falsifying ancient culture, to counteract its influence and even use it in its own interests.
Official church ideas were embodied in a large beautiful icon "The Militant Church", painted in the middle of the 16th century. in commemoration of the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of "true Christianity" over the "infidels", "infidels". The warriors are led by "saints", they are overshadowed by the Mother of God and angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and the empty reservoir is other religions and deviations from Christianity.
In the conditions of strict regulation of pictorial art, by the end of the century, a special direction developed among artists, concentrating efforts on the actual pictorial technique. It was the so-called "Stroganov school" - named after the wealthy merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who patronized this direction with their orders. The Stroganov school valued the technique of writing, the ability to convey details in a very limited area, external picturesqueness, beauty, and meticulous execution. Not without reason the works of artists began to be signed for the first time, so we know the names of the major masters of the Stroganov school - Prokopiy Chirin, Nikifor, Istoma, Nazariy, Fedor Savina. The Stroganov school satisfied the aesthetic needs of a relatively narrow circle of connoisseurs of art. The works of the Stroganov school distracted the audience from the actual religious theme and focused their attention on the purely aesthetic side of the work of art. And at Nikifor Savin, the viewer also met with a subtly poeticized Russian landscape.
Democratic tendencies manifested themselves among painters associated with the township circles of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, and Nizhny Novgorod. On the icons painted by them, sometimes instead of “biblical” objects and characters appeared that were well known to the viewer and the artist from the surrounding life. Here you can find an image of the Mother of God, similar to a Russian peasant woman, a fairly real image of the log walls and towers of Russian monasteries.
Accuracy in the transmission of the details of the texts of the chronicles and the various stories and legends included in them determined the development of the art of book miniatures. The front chronicles, numbering thousands of miniatures on their pages, conveyed real pictures of historical events with great detail. The art of book design, inherited from ancient Russian scribes, continued to develop successfully in the 16th century. Artistic sewing reached great development, especially in the workshop of the princes Staritsky. Skillfully created compositions, color selection, fine work made the works of these masters outstanding monuments of artistic creativity of the 16th century. At the end of the century, sewing began to be decorated with precious stones.

Music and theater

Church singing of the 16th century characterized by the approval of the "znamenny" - single-voiced choral singing. But at the same time, the church could not ignore folk musical culture. Therefore, in the XVI century. and many-voiced singing with its brightness and richness of shades began to spread in the church.
Polyphonic singing came, apparently, from Novgorod. Novgorodian Ivan Shai-durov came up with special "banners" - signs for recording a melody with "chants", "divorces" and "translations".
In view of the church's stubborn opposition to instrumental music, Western European organs, harpsichords and clavichords, which appeared at the end of the 15th century, did not receive any wide distribution. Only among the people, despite all the obstacles, they played wind instruments everywhere - bagpipes, snots, horns, pipes, pipes; stringed - beeps, psaltery, domra, balalaika; percussion - tambourines and rattles. In the army, pipes and horns were also used to transmit combat signals.
In the folk environment, rich traditions of theatrical art were widespread. The Church tried to oppose them with some elements of theatrical “action” in divine services, when separate scenes from the so-called “sacred history” were presented, such as the “stove action” - the martyrdom of three youths at the hands of the unrighteous “Chaldean king”.

B.A. Rybakov - "History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century." - M., "Higher School", 1975.

Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries.

2. Folklore.

The theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies continued to be the leading theme of UNT. In this regard, the epics of the Kyiv cycle were reworked and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

One of the most common genres of oral folk art in the 16th century was historical songs. Songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

One of the heroes of UNT was Ivan the Terrible. His image in folk art is very controversial. There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character were noted. Malyuta Skuratov became the negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by a cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore an active active mass of the people is depicted. Ermak became the embodiment of the people's ideal of fighting the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a realistically achievable ideal.

3. Education and printing.

With the development of the feudal economy, handicrafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased. The church also needed them. Education was limited to the acquisition of elementary literacy. A great achievement of Russian culture in the middle of the 16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered science under the name anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown. The quality of the print impresses with its strict artistic design and the absence of typographical errors.

In total, about 20 books were published until the end of the 16th century, all of church and religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries did the printed book replace the handwritten one. Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real journalistic works appeared in the form of messages and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. Chronicle writing continued to develop in the 16th century. The writings of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle collection - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the annals, further development was given to historical stories that told about the events of that time - “Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov”, “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”.

The most striking example of the everyday genre of the 16th century was Domostroy, that is, home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, and raising children. Its author was supposedly the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation Sylvester.

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4.Architecture and painting.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, a new stage in the development of Russian architecture begins. The innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects invented a new system of brick ceilings - a cross vault, based not on internal pillars, but on external walls. Such small churches were built in suburbs (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

The painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-church topics from world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, the allegorical nature of the plots is a distinctive feature of the fine arts of the 16th century.

With the growing interest in historical topics, the development of the genre of historical portraits is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the "Stroganov school" appeared. She focused on the actual painting technique. Distinctive features were: the mastery of external performance (the desire to portray the special refined beauty of figures, clothes), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters for the first time begin to sign their works.