Literary theory has as its subject the fundamental properties of fiction: the constants of literary creativity and writing activity, as well as the patterns of changes in literature in historical time. Literary theory is occupied both with the synchrony of literary life (on the widest, worldwide scale) and with the universal principles of diachrony. Unlike the sphere of specific literary studies, it focuses on the discussion and solution of general issues. The theory of literature includes, firstly, a set of judgments about fiction as an art form: about its general artistic properties (aesthetic, worldview, cognitive) and specific features due to the nature and possibilities of speech activity. Secondly, theoretical (general) poetics: the doctrine of the composition and structure of literary works. Theoretical poetics, the basic concepts of which are form and content, as well as style and genre, includes the theory of artistic speech (stylistics), poetry adjoining it, and the theory of imagery, which was called eidology in the 1920s, considering the objective world of a literary work. In the doctrine of artistic imagery, the concepts of character (the image of a person in literature), artistic time and space, and plot are central. The composition of theoretical poetics also includes the doctrine of composition. The theory of interpretation of literary works adjoins theoretical poetics, clarifying the prospects, possibilities and limits of comprehending their meaning. Thirdly, the theory of literature refers to the dynamic and evolutionary aspects of literary life: it considers the patterns of the genesis of literary creativity (the literary criticism of the 19th century was occupied by them), the functioning of literature (this aspect of the science of literature has sharply intensified over the last quarter of the 20th century), as well as its movements in historical time (the theory of the literary process, in which the most significant are the general questions of historical poetics). Fourthly, textology has its own theoretical aspect, which provides (together with paleography) the comprehension of verbal and artistic works as an empirical given.
Origins of literary theory
At the origins of theoretical poetics - Aristotle's work "On the Art of Poetry"(4th century BC) and the subsequent numerous treatises on poetics and rhetoric. In the 19th century, this scientific discipline was consolidated and developed thanks to the works of V. Scherer in Germany, A.A. Potebnya and A.N. Veselovsky in Russia. The intensive development of theoretical poetics in the first decades of the 20th century became a kind of revolution in literary criticism, which had previously been focused mainly on the origins and premises of writers' creativity. Theoretical and literary studios invariably rely on the data of the history of literature (both world and individual national literatures), as well as on the study of individual phenomena of literary life, be it individual works or groups of them (the work of a writer, literature of a certain era or direction, a separate literary genre and so on.). At the same time, the provisions of the theory of literature are actively used in specific literary studies, they are stimulated and directed. In the direction of creating a theoretical history of literature, following Veselovsky, historical poetics is being developed.
Comprehending first of all the unique, specific properties of its subject, At the same time, the theory of literature invariably relies on the data of scientific disciplines related to literary criticism, as well as on the principles of philosophy. Since fiction has linguistic signs as its material, being at the same time a kind of art, the closest neighbors of the theory of literature are linguistics and semiotics, art criticism, aesthetics, and axiology. Due to the fact that literary life is a component of the historical process, data on civil history, cultural studies, sociology, the history of social thought and religious consciousness turn out to be necessary for the science of it. Being involved in the constants of human existence, fiction encourages its analysts to turn to the provisions of scientific psychology and anthropology, as well as personology (the doctrine of personality), the theory of interpersonal communication and hermeneutics.
As part of the theory of literature, concepts that clarify one of the facets of literary life are very significant and almost dominate. It is right to call them local theories. Such concepts are essentially complementary, although sometimes they argue with one another. Among them are the teachings about the three factors of I. Ten's literary work (race, environment, moment); about the subconscious as the fundamental principle of artistic creativity (psychoanalytic criticism and literary criticism, following the paths of Z. Freud and C. Jung); about the reader with his "horizon of expectations" as the central figure of literary life (receptive aesthetics of the 1970s in Germany); about intertextuality as the most important attribute of any text, incl. and artistic (originally - Y. Kristeva and R. Bart). In Russian literary criticism of the 20th century, theoretical ideas about the psychology of a social group as a decisive stimulus for writing activity were formed and proved to be influential (the school of V.F. Pereverzev); about artistic technique as the essence of art and poetry (V. B. Shklovsky); about symbolism in literature as its dominant property (Tartu-Moscow semiotic school headed by Yu. M. Lotman); about carnival as a phenomenon outside the genre and above the era (M.M. Bakhtin); about the rhythmic alternation of primary and secondary artistic styles (Dm. Chizhevsky, D. S. Likhachev); about the three stages of the literary process on a worldwide scale (S.S. Averintsev). Along with the concepts devoted to one of the aspects of fiction, the theory of literature includes final works, which are experiments on the summarizing and systematic consideration of verbal art as a whole. These are the very diverse works of B.V. Tomashevsky, G.N. literary theories or "Introductions to Literary Studies".
The multidirectionality and mutual inconsistency of theoretical and literary constructions are natural and, apparently, cannot be eliminated. The understanding of the essence of literary creativity largely depends on the cultural and historical situation in which it arose and received justification, and, of course, on the philosophical position of literary critics (this includes pragmatism, and the philosophy of life gravitating towards aestheticism, and the atheistic branch of existentialism, and the moral philosophy that inherited Christianity, coupled with personalism). Scientists, further, are divided by the orientation towards various related scientific disciplines: psychology (Freudian and Jungian literary criticism), sociology (Marxist literary criticism), semiotics (literary structuralism). The multidirectional nature of theoretical constructions is also due to the fact that literary theory often acts as a software justification for the practice of a particular literary school (trend), defending and manifesting some kind of creative innovation. Such are the connections of the formal school in its early stages with futurism, a number of works of the 1930-50s with socialist realism, French structuralism (partly post-structuralism) with the “new company”, postmodernism. The name literary concepts are directional in nature and are predominantly monistic, because tend to focus on some bottom aspect of literary creativity. They constitute an integral facet of the science of literature and have undoubted merits (an in-depth examination of a certain facet of literature, the boldness of hypotheses, the pathos of updating literary thought). At the same time, when developing monistic concepts, the tendency of scientists to exorbitantly rigid schemes, inattention to the diversity and "multi-color" of verbal art make themselves felt. Here often there is an overestimation of one's own scientific method, a sectarian idea of it as the only fruitful and correct one. Management literary criticism often neglects scientific (sometimes general cultural) traditions. In some cases, modern scientists, who do not accept traditions, come to the rejection of the theory as such. I.P. Smirnov, pushing post-modernist attitudes to the extreme, argues that we are now living after the end of theory” (News from the Theoretical Front, 1997, No23).
Theoretical literary criticism also has a different, “supra-directional” tradition, which is alien to monistic rigidity and is now very relevant. In domestic science, it is clearly represented by the works of Veselovsky. Rejecting all dogmatism, the scientist persistently refused to proclaim any scientific method as the only acceptable one. He spoke within the limits of the use of each of them. The theoretical and methodological impartiality, non-dogmatism and breadth of Veselovsky's thinking are valuable and vital today as a counterbalance to theoretical apriorism. The unobtrusive, cautious tonality of the scientist's works, which is optimal for literary criticism, is far from accidental. Veselovsky did not like harsh declarations and harshly proclaimed theses. Perhaps the main form of his generalizing thought is a hypothetical narrowing, often formulated in the form of a question. What was characteristic of the “non-directional” works of A.N. Veselovsky is in many respects akin to the theoretical works of scientists of the 20th century - V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.P. as well as modern. The domestic science of literature has now freed itself from the coercive pressure of Marxist sociology and the concept of socialist realism as the highest stage of literature, from the methodological rigidity that was decreed from above. But it faced the danger of falling into a different kind of monistic constructions, whether it be a cult of pure form, faceless structure, post-Freudian "pansexualism", the absolutization of mythopoetics and Jungian archetypes, or the reduction of literature and its comprehension (in the spirit of postmodernism) to ironic games. This danger is overcome by inheriting the traditions of "non-directional" literary criticism.
The methodology of literary criticism comes into contact with the theory of literature , the subject of which studies the ways and means (methods) of cognition of fiction. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, literary critics called the scientific method the principles and attitudes associated with the study of a certain area of literary life and verbal and artistic creativity. So, V.N. Peretz counted 11 equal literary methods (aesthetic, ethical, historical, evolutionary, philological, etc.): “There is no universal method, there are various methods by which we study, explore the material, in accordance with its qualities and tasks "(Peretz V.N. Brief essay on the methodology of the history of Russian literature. 1922). Throughout the 20th century, experiments were repeatedly undertaken to substantiate the advantages of any one scientific method, which, however, were not crowned with long-term success: as a rule, “single-saving” installations in the scientific mind did not stay for a long time. And over time (in domestic literary criticism - thanks to Skaftymov, Bakhtin, Likhachev, Averintsev, A.V. Mikhailov, S.G. Bocharov) a new, broader, free from directional dogmatism understanding of the methodology of literary criticism as focused primarily on the specifics of humanitarian knowledge. General scientific principles, vividly represented in mathematical and natural science disciplines, literary criticism combines with specific features of humanitarian knowledge: orientation towards comprehension of the individual-personal sphere; wide involvement in the cognitive activity of its subject: the value orientations of the scientist himself. Even in such a "strict" area of the science of literature as versification, the data of the analyst's living aesthetic sense are vital. Following V. Windelband, G. Rickert, V. Dilthey, Bakhtin wrote about a special kind of activity of scientists in the humanities. According to him, the humanities do not deal with "silent things" (this is the area of natural science), but with "talking being" and personal meanings that are revealed and enriched in the processes of dialogical communication with works and their authors. The fate of the humanist is, first of all, understanding how the transformation of the alien into "one's own-them". The humanitarian specificity of literary criticism is most clearly manifested in the field of interpretations by scientists of individual works and their groups. A number of theoretical concepts emphasize the originality of the science of literature to the detriment of its general scientific aspects. Significant are E. Steiger's characterization of literary criticism as an "enjoying science" and Barth's judgment about the philologist's consideration of a literary work as a free "walk through the text". In such cases, there is a danger of substitution of proper scientific knowledge by essayistic arbitrariness. There is another orientation, also fraught with extremes: attempts are being made to build literary criticism along the lines of the non-humanities. This is the structuralist methodology. Here the orientation towards the radical elimination of the subjectivity of the scientist from his activity, towards the unconditional and absolute objectivity of the acquired knowledge dominates.
An essential facet of the theory of literature is the discussion of the problems of the language of the science of literature.. Literary criticism in its dominant branches (especially when referring to specific works) resorts primarily to "ordinary", non-terminological language, living and figurative. At the same time, like any other science, literary criticism needs its own conceptual and terminological apparatus, which is distinct and rigorous. Serious problems arise here, which have not yet found an unambiguous solution. And there are also undesirable extremes. On the one hand, these are programs for the unification and sometimes even decreeing of terms, building their system on the model of mathematical, natural and technical sciences, where key words are strictly unambiguous, as well as setting the development of unprecedentedly new terminological complexes. To this kind of terminological hyperbolism, "directional" literary criticism often shows a tendency. On the other hand, semantic incomprehensibility in the experiments of theorizing and an apology for the concepts of "vague" ones that cannot have a definition (definition) are far from optimal for literary criticism. The “basic”, “key” words of the science of literature (A.V. Mikhailov’s expressions) are not terms, but at the same time (within the framework of a particular cultural tradition, artistic direction, scientific school) they have more or less semantic certainty, which and is called upon to strengthen the theory of literature, bringing clarity to the phenomena it comprehends.
ANTITHESIS - opposition of characters, events, actions, words. It can be used at the level of details, particulars (“Black evening, white snow” - A. Blok), or it can serve as a technique for creating the entire work as a whole. Such is the contrast between the two parts of A. Pushkin's poem "The Village" (1819), where in the first part pictures of beautiful nature, peaceful and happy, are drawn, and in the second - in contrast - episodes from the life of a disenfranchised and cruelly oppressed Russian peasant.
ARCHITECTONICS - the relationship and proportionality of the main parts and elements that make up a literary work.
DIALOGUE - a conversation, conversation, dispute between two or more characters in a work.
STAGE - an element of the plot, meaning the moment of the conflict, the beginning of the events depicted in the work.
INTERIOR - a compositional tool that recreates the atmosphere in the room where the action takes place.
INTRIGA - the movement of the soul and the actions of the character, aimed at searching for the meaning of life, truth, etc. - a kind of "spring" that drives the action in a dramatic or epic work and makes it entertaining.
COLLISION - a clash of opposing views, aspirations, interests of the characters of a work of art.
COMPOSITION - the construction of a work of art, a certain system in the arrangement of its parts. Differ composite means(portraits of actors, interior, landscape, dialogue, monologue, including internal) and compositional techniques(montage, symbol, stream of consciousness, self-disclosure of the character, mutual disclosure, image of the character of the hero in dynamics or in statics). The composition is determined by the peculiarities of the writer's talent, genre, content and purpose of the work.
COMPONENT - an integral part of the work: in its analysis, for example, we can talk about components of content and components of form, sometimes interpenetrating.
CONFLICT - a clash of opinions, positions, characters in a work, driving, like intrigue and conflict, its action.
CULMINATION - an element of the plot: the moment of the highest tension in the development of the action of the work.
Keynote - the main idea of the work, repeatedly repeated and emphasized.
MONOLOGUE - a lengthy speech of a character in a literary work, addressed, in contrast to the internal monologue, to others. An example of an internal monologue is the first stanza of A. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin": "My uncle has the most honest rules ...", etc.
INSTALLATION is a compositional technique: composing a work or its section into one whole from separate parts, excerpts, quotations. An example is the book of Evg. Popov "The beauty of life".
MOTIVE - one of the components of a literary text, part of the theme of the work, more often than others acquiring a symbolic meaning. Motif of the road, motif of the house, etc.
OPPOSITION - a variant of antithesis: opposition, opposition of views, behavior of characters at the level of characters (Onegin - Lensky, Oblomov - Stolz) and at the level of concepts ("wreath - crown" in M. Lermontov's poem "The Death of a Poet"; "it seemed - it turned out" in A. Chekhov's story "The Lady with the Dog").
LANDSCAPE - a compositional means: the image in the work of pictures of nature.
PORTRAIT - 1. Compositional means: image of the character's appearance - face, clothes, figure, demeanor, etc.; 2. A literary portrait is one of the prose genres.
STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS is a compositional technique used mainly in modernist literature. The scope of its application is the analysis of complex crisis states of the human spirit. F. Kafka, J. Joyce, M. Proust and others are recognized as masters of the "stream of consciousness". In some episodes, this technique can also be used in realistic works - Artem Vesely, V. Aksenov and others.
PROLOGUE - an extra-plot element that describes the events or persons involved before the start of the action in the work ("The Snow Maiden" by A. N. Ostrovsky, "Faust" by I. V. Goethe, etc.).
DENOUGH - an element of the plot that fixes the moment of resolution of the conflict in the work, the result of the development of events in it.
RETARDATION - a compositional technique that delays, stops or reverses the development of action in a work. It is carried out by including in the text various digressions of a lyrical and journalistic nature (“The Tale of Captain Kopeikin” in N. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”, autobiographical digressions in A. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”, etc.).
PLOT - a system, the order of development of events in a work. Its main elements are: prologue, exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement; in some cases, an epilogue is possible. The plot reveals causal relationships in the relationship between characters, facts and events in the work. To evaluate various kinds of plots, such concepts as the intensity of the plot, "wandering" plots can be used.
THEME - the subject of the image in the work, its material, indicating the place and time of action. The main theme, as a rule, is specified by the theme, that is, a set of private, separate topics.
FABULA - the sequence of unfolding events of the work in time and space.
FORM - a certain system of artistic means that reveals the content of a literary work. Categories of form - plot, composition, language, genre, etc. Form as a way of existence of the content of a literary work.
CHRONOTOPE - spatio-temporal organization of material in a work of art.
Bald man with a white beard - I. Nikitin
Old Russian giant – M. Lermontov
With dogaress young – A. Pushkin
Falls on the sofa – N. Nekrasov
Used most often in postmodern works:
Under it is a stream
But not azure,
Above him ambre -
Well, no strength.
He, having given everything to literature,
Full of its fruit tasted.Drive, man, five-kopeck piece,(I. Irteniev)
And do not annoy unnecessarily.
Desert sower of freedom
Gathers a meager harvest.
EXPOSITION - an element of the plot: the situation, circumstances, positions of the characters in which they are before the start of the action in the work.
EPIGRAPH - a proverb, a quote, someone's statement, placed by the author before the work or its part, parts, designed to indicate his intention: “... So who are you finally? I am part of that power that always wants evil and always does good.” Goethe. "Faust" is an epigraph to M. Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita".
EPILOGUE - an element of the plot that describes the events that occurred after the end of the action in the work (sometimes after many years - I. Turgenev. "Fathers and Sons").
2. The language of fiction
ALLEGORY - allegory, a kind of metaphor. Allegory fixes a conditional image: in fables, a fox is cunning, a donkey is stupidity, etc. Allegory is also used in fairy tales, parables, and satire.
ALLITERATION is an expressive means of language: the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in order to create a sound image:
And he's empty(A. Pushkin)
Runs and hears behind him -
As if thunder rumbles -
Heavy-voiced galloping
On the shaken pavement...
ANAphorA is an expressive means of a language: the repetition at the beginning of poetic lines, stanzas, paragraphs of the same words, sounds, syntactic constructions.
With all my insomnia I love you
With all my insomnia, I will heed you -
About that time, as throughout the Kremlin
Ringers are waking up...But my river yes with your river,(M. Tsvetaeva)
But my hand- yes with your hand
Not converge. My joy, as long as
Not catch up with the dawn of dawn.
ANTITHESIS is an expressive means of language: opposition of sharply contrasting concepts and images: You are poor, // You are plentiful, // You are powerful, // You are powerless, // Mother Rus'! (I. Nekrasov).
ANTONYMS - words with opposite meanings; serve to create bright contrasting images:
The rich fell in love with the poor,(M. Tsvetaeva)
The scientist fell in love - stupid,
I fell in love with ruddy - pale,
Loved the good - the bad
Golden - copper half.
ARCHAISMS - obsolete words, turns of speech, grammatical forms. They serve in the work to recreate the color of a bygone era, characterize the character in a certain way. They can give solemnity to the language: “Show off, city of Petrov, and stand, unshakable, like Russia”, and in other cases - an ironic connotation: “This youth in Magnitogorsk gnawed at the granite of science in college and, with God's help, completed it successfully.”
UNION - an expressive means of language, accelerating the pace of speech in the work: “Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding; // Invisible moon // Illuminates the flying snow; // the sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy " (A. Pushkin).
BARBARISMS - words from a foreign language. With their help, the color of a particular era can be recreated (“Peter the Great” by A. N. Tolstoy), a literary character (“War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy) can be characterized. In some cases, barbarism can be the object of controversy, irony (V. Mayakovsky."About" fiascos "," apogees "and other unknown things").
RHETORICAL QUESTION - an expressive means of language: a statement in the form of a question that does not require an answer:
Why is it so painful and so difficult for me?(M. Lermontov)
Waiting for what? Do I regret anything?
Rhetorical exclamation - an expressive means of language; an appeal that serves to increase emotionality usually creates a solemn, upbeat mood:
Oh Volga! My cradle!(N. Nekrasov)
Has anyone loved you like me?
vulgarism - a vulgar, rude word or expression.
HYPERBOLE - an excessive exaggeration of the properties of an object, phenomenon, quality in order to enhance the impression.
From your love you can’t heal at all,(B. Okudzhava)
forty thousand other bridges loving.
Ah, my Arbat, Arbat,
you are my fatherland
never get past you.
GRADATION is an expressive means of language, with the help of which the depicted feelings and thoughts are gradually strengthened or weakened. For example, in the poem "Poltava" A. Pushkin characterizes Mazepa as follows: "that he does not know the shrine; // that he does not remember goodness; // that he doesn't like anything; // that he is ready to pour blood like water; // that he despises freedom; // that there is no homeland for him. Anaphora can serve as the basis for gradation.
GROTESQUE is an artistic technique of exaggerated violation of the proportions of the depicted, a bizarre combination of the fantastic and the real, the tragic and the comic, the beautiful and the ugly, etc. The grotesque can be used at the level of style, genre and image: “And I see: // Half of the people are sitting. // Oh, the devil! // Where is the other half? (V. Mayakovsky).
DIALECTISMS - words from a common national language, used mainly in a certain area and used in literary works to create local color or speech characteristics of characters: “Nagulnov let his mashtak bait and stopped him side of the mound "(M. Sholokhov).
JARGON - the conditional language of a small social group, which differs from the common language mainly in vocabulary: “The writing language was refined, but at the same time flavored with a good dose of maritime jargon ... how sailors and vagrants speak” (K. Paustovsky).
INTELLIGENT LANGUAGE is the result of an experiment that the Futurists were mainly fond of. Its goal is to find a correspondence between the sound of the word and the meaning and free the word from its usual meaning: “Bobeobi sang lips. // Veeomi gazes sang ... " (V. Khlebnikov).
INVERSION - changing the order of words in a sentence in order to highlight the meaning of a word or give an unusual sound to the phrase as a whole: “We switched from the highway to a piece of canvas // Barge haulers of these Repinsky legs” (Dm. Kedrin).
IRONY - a subtle hidden mockery: "He sang the faded color of life // Nearly eighteen years old" (A. Pushkin).
PUN - a witty joke based on homonyms or the use of different meanings of one word:
The area of rhymes is my element(D. Minaev)
And I write poetry easily.
Without hesitation, without delay
I run to line from line.
Even to the Finnish brown rocks
I'm dealing with a pun.
LITOTA - a pictorial means of language, built on a fantastic understatement of an object or its properties: “Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, / No more than a thimble” (A. Griboyedov).
METAPHOR - a word or expression used in a figurative sense. Fine language tool based on implicit comparison. The main types of metaphors are allegory, symbol, personification: "Hamlet, who thought with timid steps ..." (O. Mandelstam).
METONYMY - an artistic means of the language: replacing the name of the whole with the name of the part (or vice versa) on the basis of their similarity, proximity, adjacency, etc.: “What is the matter with you, blue sweater, // An anxious breeze in your eyes?” (A. Voznesensky).
NEOLOGISM - 1. A word or expression created by the author of a literary work: A. Blok - overhead, etc.; V. Mayakovsky - a hulk, hammery, etc .; I. Severyanin - sparkling, etc.; 2. Words that have acquired a new additional meaning over time - satellite, cart, etc.
RHETORICAL APPEAL - oratory, expressive means of language; a word or a group of words naming the person to whom the speech is addressed, and containing an appeal, demand, request: “Listen, comrade descendants, // agitator, bawler, leader” (V. Mayakovsky).
OXYMORON - an epithet used in a meaning opposite to the words being defined: “a miserly knight”, “a living corpse”, “blinding darkness”, “sad joy”, etc.
PERSONALIZATION is a technique of metaphorical transfer of the features of the living to the inanimate: “The river is playing”, “It is raining”, “The poplar is burdened by loneliness”, etc. The polysemantic nature of the personification is revealed in the system of other artistic means of the language.
HOMONYMS - words that sound the same, but have different meanings: scythe, oven, marriage, once, etc. “And I didn’t care. about // What a secret volume my daughter has // I dozed until morning under my pillow” (A. Pushkin).
ONOMATOPEIA - onomatopoeia, imitation of natural and everyday sounds:
Kulesh clucked in the cauldron.(E. Evtushenko)
Heeled under the wind
Wings of red fire.
Midnight sometimes in the swamp wilderness(K. Balmont)
Slightly audible, noiselessly rustling reeds.
PARALLELISM is a visual means of language; a similar symmetrical arrangement of speech elements, in proportion creating a harmonious artistic image. Parallelism is often found in oral folklore and in the Bible. In fiction, parallelism can be used at the verbal-sound, rhythmic, and compositional level: “Black raven in the gentle dusk, // Black velvet on swarthy shoulders” (A. Blok).
PERIPHRASE - a visual means of language; replacement of the concept with a descriptive phrase: “A sad time! Eye charm! - autumn; Foggy Albion - England; "Singer of Giaur and Juan" - Byron, etc.
PLEONASM (Greek "pleonasmos" - excess) - an expressive means of the language; repetition of words and phrases that are close in meaning: sadness, longing, once upon a time, crying - shedding tears, etc.
REPETITIONS - stylistic figures, syntactic constructions based on the repetition of words that carry a special semantic load. Types of repetitions - Anaphora, Epiphora, Refrain, Pleonasm, Tautology and etc.
REFRAIN - expressive means of language; periodic repetition of a passage that is complete in meaning, generalizing the thought expressed in it:
Mountain king on a long journey(K. Balmont )
- It's boring in a foreign country. -
Wants to find a beautiful girl.
“You won't come back to me. -
He sees the estate on a mossy mountain.
- It's boring in a foreign country. -
Little Kirsten is standing in the yard.
“You won't come back to me. -<…>
SYMBOL (one of the meanings) - a kind of metaphor, a comparison of a generalizing nature: for M. Lermontov, "sail" is a symbol of loneliness; A. Pushkin has a “star of captivating happiness” - a symbol of freedom, etc.
SYNECDOCH - a visual means of language; view metonymy, based on replacing the name of the whole with the name of its part. Sometimes synecdoche is called "quantitative" metonymy. "The bride has now gone foolish" (A. Chekhov).
COMPARISON - a visual means of language; creating an image by comparing the already known with the unknown (old with new). Comparison is created using special words (“like”, “as if”, “exactly”, “as if”), instrumental form or comparative forms of adjectives:
And she is majestic(A. Pushkin )
It floats like a pava;
And as the speech says,
Like a river murmurs.
TAUTOLOGY is an expressive means of language; repetition of single-root words.
Where is this house with a torn shutter,(D. Kedrin )
A room with a colorful carpet on the wall?
Sweet, sweet, long time ago
My childhood is remembered to me.
TROPES - words used in a figurative sense. The types of trails are Metaphor, Metonymy, Epithet and etc.
DEFAULT is an expressive means of the language. The hero's speech is interrupted in order to activate the reader's imagination, designed to fill in the gap. It is usually denoted by an ellipsis:
What's wrong with me?(A. Pushkin )
Father ... Mazepa ... execution - with a plea
Here, in this castle my mother -
EUPHEMISM is an expressive means of language; a descriptive turn that changes the assessment of an object or phenomenon.
“In private, I would call him a liar. In a newspaper note, I would use the expression - a frivolous attitude towards the truth. In Parliament, I would regret that the gentleman is ill-informed. It could be added that people get punched in the face for such information.” (D. Galsworthy"The Forsyte Saga").
EPITET - a visual means of language; a colorful definition of an object, which makes it possible to distinguish it from a number of similar ones and to discover the author's assessment of what is being described. Types of epithet - permanent, oxymoron, etc.: "The lonely sail turns white ...".
EPIPHORA - an expressive means of language; repetition of words or phrases at the end of lines of poetry. Epiphora is a rare form in Russian poetry:
Note - I love you!(V. Voznesensky )
Fuzzy - I love you!
Beast - I love you!
Separation - I love you!
3. Fundamentals of poetry
Acrostic is a poem in which the initial letters of each verse vertically form a word or phrase:
An angel lay down at the edge of the sky,
Leaning down, he marvels at the abysses.
The new world was dark and starless.
Hell was silent. Not a groan was heard.Scarlet blood timid beating,
Fragile hands fright and shudder,
The world of dreams got into possession
Angel's holy reflection.Close in the world! Let him live dreaming(N. Gumilyov)
About love, about sadness and about shadows,
Opening in the eternal darkness
ABC of their own revelations.
ALEXANDRIAN VERSE - a system of couplets; six-foot iambic with a number of paired verses according to the principle of alternating male and female pairs: aaBBwwYY…
Happened together two Astronomers in a feast(M. Lomonosov)
A
And argued very among themselves in the heat:
A
One kept repeating: the earth, spinning, the circle of the Sun walks,
B
The other is that the Sun leads all the planets with it:
B
One Copernicus was, the other was known as Ptolemy,
V
Here the cook settled the dispute with his grin.
V
The owner asked: “Do you know the course of the stars?
G
Tell me, how do you talk about this doubt?
G
He gave this answer: “That Copernicus is right,
d
I will prove the truth, I have not been to the Sun.
d
Who saw a simpleton of cooks is
E
Who would turn the hearth around Zharkov?
E
Alexandrian verse was used mainly in high classic genres - tragedies, odes, etc.
AMPHIBRACHY (Greek "amphi" - round; "bhaspu" - short; literal translation: "short on both sides") - a three-syllable size with an emphasis on the 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th, etc. d. syllables.
There lived a little / cue boy(V. A. Zhukovsky(bipedal amphibrach)
He was tall / about the size of a finger.
The face was / handsome, -
Like sparks / little eyes,
Like fluff in / calves ...
ANAPEST (Greek "anapaistos" - reflected back) - a three-syllable size with stress on the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, etc. syllables.
Neither country / nor pogos / ta(I. Brodsky(two-foot anapaest))
I don't want / choose.
On Vasily /evsky island /trov
I will come / die.
ASSONANCE - an inaccurate rhyme based on the consonance of the roots of words, not endings:
The student wants to listen to Scriabin,(E. Evtushenko)
And for half a month he lives a miser.
ASTROPHIC TEXT - the text of a poetic work, not divided into stanzas (N. A. Nekrasov"Reflections at the front door", etc.).
BANAL RHYME - a common, familiar rhyme; sound and semantic stencil. “... There are too few rhymes in the Russian language. One calls the other. The "flame" inevitably drags the "stone" behind it. Because of the “feeling”, “art” certainly peeps out. Who is not tired of "love" and "blood", "difficult" and "wonderful", "faithful" and "hypocritical" and so on. (A. Pushkin"Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg").
POOR RHYME - only stressed vowels are consonant in it: “near” - “earth”, “she” - “soul”, etc. Sometimes poor rhyme is called “sufficient” rhyme.
WHITE VERSE - verse without rhyme:
From the pleasures of life(A. Pushkin)
Music yields to love alone;
But love is a melody...
White verse appeared in Russian poetry in the 18th century. (V. Trediakovsky), in the XIX century. used by A. Pushkin (“I visited again ...”),
M. Lermontov (“Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich ...”), N. Nekrasov (“Who should live well in Rus'”), etc. In the 20th century. blank verse is represented in the works of I. Bunin, Sasha Cherny, O. Mandelstam, A. Tarkovsky, D. Samoilov and others.
BRAHIKOLON - a one-syllable verse used to convey an energetic rhythm or as a comic form.
Forehead -(V. Khodasevich."Funeral")
Chalk.
Bel
Coffin.
sang
Pop.
Sheaf
Arrows -
Day
Holy!
Crypt
blind
Shadow -
In hell!
BURIME - 1. A poem on given rhymes; 2. The game, which consists in compiling such poems. During the game, the following conditions are met: rhymes must be unexpected and varied; they cannot be changed or rearranged.
VERLIBR - free verse. It may lack meter, rhyme. Ver libre is a verse in which the unit of rhythmic organization (line, Rhyme, stanza) intonation appears (singing in oral performance):
I lay on top of the mountain(A. Tarkovsky)
I was surrounded by earth.
Enchanted edge below
Lost all colors except for two:
Light blue,
Light brown where on the blue stone
wrote the pen of Azrael,
Dagestan lay around me.
INTERNAL RHYME - consonances, of which one (or both) are inside the verse. Internal rhyme can be constant (appears in a caesura and defines the boundary between half-verses) and irregular (breaks a verse into separate rhythmic unequal and non-permanent groups):
If the yard, disappearing,(K. Balmont)
Numb and shining
Snow flakes curl. -
If sleepy, distant
Now with reproach, then in love,
The sounds are crying tender.
FREE VERSE - multi-footed verse. The predominant size of free verse is iambic with a verse length from one to six feet. This form is convenient for the transmission of live colloquial speech and therefore is used mainly in fables, verse comedies and dramas (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov and others).
Crosses / not, you / walked out / patience / I 4-stop.(I. Krylov)
From ra / dawn / ya, 2-stop.
What speech / ki them / and ru / cells 4-stop.
When in / dopo / lie when / mending / whether, 4-stop.
Send / ask / for yourself / upra / you are at / Rivers, 6-stop.
In ko / toru / th stream / and river / ki te / fall / whether 6-stop.
EIGHT LINE - a stanza of eight verses with a specific rhyme pattern. For more details, see Octave. Triolet.
HEXAMETER - six-foot dactyl, favorite meter of ancient Greek poetry:
The son of the Thunderer and Lethe - Phoebus, angry with the king(Homer. Iliad; per. N. Gnedich)
He brought an evil plague on the army: peoples perished.
Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on the rock.(A. Pushkin)
The maiden sits sadly, idle holding a shard.
Miracle! Water will not dry up, pouring out of a broken urn,
The Virgin, above the eternal stream, sits forever sad.
HYPERDACTYLIC RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the fourth and further syllable from the end of the verse:
Goes, Balda, grunts,(A. Pushkin)
And the pope, seeing Balda, jumps up ...
Dactylic rhyme - a consonance in which the stress falls on the third syllable from the end of the verse:
I, the Mother of God, now with a prayer(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Before your image, bright radiance,
Not about salvation, not before the battle
Not with gratitude or repentance,
I do not pray for my desert soul,
For the soul of a wanderer in the light of the rootless...
DACTIL - three-syllable size with stress on the 1st, 4th, 7th, 10th, etc. syllables:
Approaching / dove-eyed for / cat(I. Annensky(3-foot dactyl))
The air was / gentle and / intoxicated,
And otu / beckoning / garden
Somehow about / especially / green.
COUPLE - 1. A stanza of two verses with a paired rhyme:
Pale blue mysterious face
On withered roses drooped.And the lamps gild the coffin(I. Bunin)
And their children are transparently flowing ...
2. Kind of lyrics; complete poem of two verses:
From others I praise - that the ashes,(A. Akhmatova)
From you and blasphemy - praise.
DOLNIK (Pauznik) - poetic size on the verge syllabo-tonic And tonic versification. Based on the rhythmic repetition of the strong (cf. Ict) and weak points, as well as variable pauses between stressed syllables. The range of inter-ict intervals ranges from 0 to 4 shockless. The length of a verse is determined by the number of shocks in a line. Dolnik came into wide use at the beginning of the 20th century:
Autumn is late. The sky is open(A. Blok(triple dolnik))
And the forests are silent.
Lay down on the blurry shore
The head of a mermaid is sick.
FEMALE RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the second syllable from the end of the verse:
These poor villages(F. I. Tyutchev)
This meager nature
The land of native long-suffering,
The land of the Russian people!
ZEVGMA (from ancient Greek literally “bundle”, “bridge”) - an indication of the commonality of various poetic forms, literary movements, art forms (see: Biryukov SE. Zeugma: Russian poetry from mannerism to postmodernism. - M., 1994).
ICT is a strong rhythm-forming syllable in verse.
KATRAIN - 1. The most common stanza in Russian poetry, consisting of four verses: “In the depths of Siberian ores” by A. Pushkin, “Sail” by M. Lermontov, “Why are you looking eagerly at the road” by N. Nekrasov, “Portrait” by N. Zabolotsky, "It's snowing" by B. Pasternak and others. The rhyming method can be paired (aabb), ring (abba) cross (abab); 2. Kind of lyrics; a poem of four lines of predominantly philosophical content, expressing a complete thought:
To persuasiveness, to(M. Tsvetaeva)
Kills are simple:
Two birds made a nest for me:
Truth - and Orphanhood.
A CLAUSE is a group of final syllables in a line of poetry.
LIMERIK - 1. The solid form of the stanza; quintuple with double consonance according to the principle of rhyming aabba. The English poet Edward Lear introduced limerick into literature as a kind of comic poem telling about an unusual incident:
There lived an old man from Morocco,
He saw surprisingly poorly.
- Is that your leg?
- I doubt a little -
An old man from Morocco answered.
2. Literary game, which consists in compiling similar comic poems; at the same time, the limerick must necessarily begin with the words: “Once upon a time ...”, “There once lived an old man ...”, etc.
A LIPOGRAM is a poem in which no specific sound is used. So, in the poem by G. R. Derzhavin “The Nightingale in a Dream” there is no sound “r”:
I slept high on the hill
I heard your voice, nightingale;
Even in the deepest sleep
He was intelligible to my soul:
It sounded, then it was given,
He groaned, then he smiled
In hearing from afar, he, -
And in the arms of Callista
Songs, sighs, clicks, whistles
Enjoyed a sweet dream.<…>
MACARONIC POETRY - poetry of a satirical or parodic orientation; the comic effect is achieved in it by mixing words from different languages and styles:
Here I am on the road:(I. Myatlev("Sensations and remarks of Mrs. Kurdyukova abroad given l "etrange"))
I dragged myself into the city of Peter
And crafted a ticket
For myself e pur Anet,
And pur Khariton le medic
Sur le pyroscaphe "Heir",
Loaded the crew
Prepared for the voyage<…>
MESOSTIKH - a poem in which the letters in the middle of the line vertically form a word.
METER - a certain rhythmic ordering of repetitions within poetic lines. Types of meter in syllabic-tonic versification are two-syllable (see. Chorey, Yamb), tripartite (cf. Dactyl, Amphibrach, Anapaest) and other poetic sizes.
METRICA is a branch of versification that studies the rhythmic organization of verse.
MONORYM - a poem using one rhyme:
When you are, children, students,(A. Apukhtin)
Don't break your head over the moments
Over Hamlets, Lyres, Kents,
Over kings and over presidents,
Over the seas and over the continents
Do not hang out with opponents there,
Be smart with your competitors
And how do you finish the course with eminents
And you will go to the service with patents -
Do not look at the service of assistant professors
And do not hesitate, children, with presents!<…>
MONOSTIKH is a poem consisting of one verse.
I(K. Balmont)
All-expressiveness is the key to worlds and mysteries.
II
Love is fire, and blood is fire, and life is fire, we are fiery.
MORA - in ancient versification, a unit of time for pronouncing one short syllable.
MALE RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the last syllable of the verse:
We are free birds; it's time, brother, it's time!(A. Pushkin)
There, where the mountain turns white behind the cloud,
There, where the sea edges turn blue,
There, where we walk only the wind ... yes, I!
ODIC STROPHE - a stanza of ten verses with a rhyming method AbAbVVgDDg:
Oh, you who are waiting(M. V. Lomonosov(“Ode on the day of the accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty the Empress Elisaveta Petrovna. 1747”))
Fatherland from its bowels
And wants to see them
Which calls from foreign countries.
Oh, your days are blessed!
Be emboldened now
Show with your care
What can own Platos
And quick-witted Newtons
Russian land to give birth.
OCTAVA - a stanza of eight verses with triple consonance due to rhyming abababwww:
Harmonies of verse divine mysteries
Do not think to unravel from the books of the sages:
By the shore of sleepy waters, wandering alone, by chance,
Listen with your soul to the whispering of the reeds,Oak forests speak: their sound is extraordinary(A. Maykov)
Feel and understand... In harmony with poetry
Involuntarily from your lips dimensional octaves
They will pour, sonorous, like the music of oak forests.
The octave is found in Byron, A. Pushkin, A. K. Tolstoy and other poets.
ONEGIN STROPHE - a stanza consisting of 14 verses (AbAbVVg-gDeeJj); created by A. Pushkin (the novel "Eugene Onegin"). A characteristic sign of the Onegin stanza is the obligatory use of iambic tetrameter.
Let me be known as an old believer,(M. Lermontov(Tambov Treasurer))
I don't care - I'm even glad:
I write Onegin in size:
I sing, friends, in the old way.
Please listen to this story!
Her unexpected denouement
Approve, maybe you
A slight bow of the head.
An ancient custom of observing
We are beneficent wine
Let's drink the rough verses,
And they will run, limping,
For a peaceful family
To the river of oblivion to rest.<…>
PALINDROME (Greek "palindromos" - running back), or Flipping - a word, phrase, verse, equally read both from left to right and from right to left. A whole poem can be built on a palindrome (V. Khlebnikov "Ustrug Razin", V. Gershuni "Tat", etc.):
The weaker the spirit - the worse dashing,(V. Palchikov)
cunning (especially quiet quarrel).
Those are in Viya's swara. Faith in the world.
PENTAMETER - pentameter dactyl. Used in combination with hexameter how elegiac distich:
I hear the silent sound of the divine Hellenic speech.(A. Pushkin)
I feel the shadow of the great old man with a confused soul.
PENTON is a five-syllable foot consisting of one stressed and four unstressed syllables. In Russian poetry, “mainly the third penton is used, bearing the stress on the third syllable:
red frying pan(A. Koltsov)
Dawn flashed;
On the face of the earth
The fog rolls in...
PEON is a four-syllable foot consisting of one stressed and three unstressed syllables. Peons differ in the place of stress - from the first to the fourth:
Sleep, half / dead y / withered flowers / you,(K. Balmont(five-foot peon first))
So do not ties / naschie races / colors are beautiful / you,
Near the paths behind / traveled grown up / schennye by the creator,
Crumpled not / who saw you / by the yellow cole / catfish ...
Flashlights - / sudariki,(I. Myatlev(two-foot peon second))
Tell me / you tell me
What they saw / what they heard
In the night you ti/tire?…
Listening to the wind, / the poplar bends, / rain from the sky oh / hay pours,(K. Balmont(four-foot peon third))
Above Me / there is a / measured knock of the cha / owls of the walls;
No one / smiles at me, / and my heart beats anxiously
And a monotonous / sad verse is not / freely torn from the mouth;
And like a quiet / distant stomp, / outside the window I / hear a murmur,
Incomprehensible / strange whisper / - whisper of drops / rain.
Let us use the third peon more in Russian poetry; peon of the fourth type is not found as an independent meter.
TRANSFER - rhythmic mismatch; the end of the sentence does not coincide with the end of the verse; serves as a means of creating conversational intonation:
Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet(A. Pushkin)
The servant who brings me a cup of tea in the morning,
Questions: is it warm? Has the blizzard subsided?
PYRRICHIUS - foot with a missed accent:
Storm / mist / sky / covers,(A. Pushkin(the third foot of the second verse is pyrrhic))
Whirlwinds / snowy / e cool / heavy ...
PENTISTIC - stanza-quatrain with double consonance:
Like a pillar of smoke brightens in the sky! -(F. Tyutchev)
How the shadow below glides elusively! ..
“This is our life,” you said to me,
Not light smoke, shining in the moonlight,
And this shadow running from the smoke ... "
The type of quintuple is Limerick.
RHYTHM - repeatability, proportionality of the same phenomena at regular intervals of time and space. In a work of art, rhythm is realized at different levels: plot, composition, language, verse.
RIFMA (Consent) - the same sounding clauses. Rhymes are characterized by location (pair, cross, ring), by stress (masculine, feminine, dactylic, hyperdactylic), by composition (simple, compound), by sound (exact, root or assonance), monorhyme, etc.
SEXTINE - a stanza of six verses (ababab). Rarely found in Russian poetry:
King-Fire with Water-Queen. -(K. Balmont)
World beauty.
The white-faced day serves them
Darkness undies at night,
Half-dark with the Moon Maiden.
Their foot is three whales.<…>
SILLABIC VERSION - A system of versification based on an equal number of syllables in alternating verses. With a large number of syllables, a caesura is introduced, which divides the line into two parts. Syllabic versification is used predominantly in languages that have constant stress. In Russian poetry was used in the XVII-XVIII centuries. S. Polotsky, A. Kantemir and others.
SYLLABO-TONIC POSTER - a system of versification based on the orderly arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse. Basic meters (dimensions) - disyllabic (Yamb, Chorey) and trisyllabic (Dactyl, Amphibrachius, Anapaest).
SONNET - 1. A stanza consisting of 14 verses with various ways of rhyming. Sonnet types: Italian (rhyming method: abab//abab//vgv//gvg)\ French (rhyming method: abba/abba//vvg//ddg)\ English (way of rhyming: abab//vgvg//dede//lj). In Russian literature, “irregular” sonnet forms with unfixed rhyming methods are also developing.
2. Kind of lyrics; a poem consisting of 14 verses, mainly philosophical, love, elegiac content - sonnets by V. Shakespeare, A. Pushkin, Vyach. Ivanova and others.
SPONDEY - foot with an additional (super-scheme) stress:
Swede, Russian / ko / let, ru / bit, re / jet.(A. Pushkin)
(iambic tetrameter - first spondei foot)
VERSE - 1. Line in a poem; 2. The totality of the features of the versification of a poet: the verse of Marina Tsvetaeva, A. Tvardovsky and others.
STOP - a repeated combination of stressed and unstressed vowels. The foot serves as a unit of verse in the syllabic-tonic system of versification: iambic three-foot, anapaest four-foot, etc.
STROE - a group of verses united by a repeating meter, rhyming method, intonation, etc.
STROFIKA - a section of versification that studies the compositional techniques of the structure of a verse.
TAKTOVIK - poetic meter on the verge of syllabo-tonic and tonic versification. Based on the rhythmic repetition of the strong (cf. Ict) and weak points, as well as variable pauses between stressed syllables. The range of inter-ict intervals ranges from 2 to 3 shockless. The length of a verse is determined by the number of shocks in a line. The tactician came into wide use at the beginning of the 20th century:
A black man was running around the city.(A. Blok(four-shot tactician))
He extinguished the lanterns, climbing the stairs.
Slow, white dawn approached,
Together with the man he climbed the stairs.
TERCETS - a stanza of three verses (ahh, bbb, eeee etc.). Tercet is rarely used in Russian poetry:
She, like a mermaid, is airy and strangely pale,
In her eyes, escaping, a wave plays,
In her green eyes, her depth is cold.Come - and she will embrace, caress you,
Not sparing himself, tormenting, perhaps destroying,
But still she kisses you without loving.And in an instant he will turn away, and will be a soul away,(K. Balmont)
And will be silent under the moon in golden dust
Watching indifferently as the ships sink in the distance.
TERZINA - a stanza of three verses (aba, bvb, vgv etc.):
And far away we went - and fear embraced me.
Imp, tucking his hoof under him
Twisted the moneylender at the hellfire.Hot fat dripped into a smoked trough,(A. Pushkin)
And the baked usurer burst on fire
And I: “Tell me: what is hidden in this execution?
Dante's Divine Comedy was written in tercines.
TONIC VERSION - a system of versification based on the ordered arrangement of stressed syllables in a verse, while the number of unstressed syllables is not taken into account.
EXACT RHYME - a rhyme in which sounds clause match up:
Blue evening, moonlit evening(WITH. Yesenin)
I used to be handsome and young.
Unstoppable, unique
Everything flew ... far ... past ...
The heart has cooled, and the eyes have faded ...
Blue happiness! Lunar nights!
TRIOLET - a stanza of eight verses (abbaabab) with repetition of the same lines:
I'm lying in the grass on the shore(V. Bryusov)
Night river I hear splashing.
Through fields and copses,
I'm lying in the grass on the shore.
On a misty meadow
Green shimmery glitters
I'm lying in the grass on the shore
Night river and I hear splashes.
FIGURED POEMS - poems, the lines of which form the outlines of an object or geometric figure:
in vain(G. Derzhavin)
Dawn
Rays
How about things
I shine in the dark
I delight my whole soul.
But what? - from the sun in it only a lovely brilliance?
No! - Pyramid - good memories of deeds.
PHONICS is a section of versification that studies the sound organization of a verse.
CHOREA (Trocheus) - two-syllable size with stress on the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, etc. syllables:
Fields / compressed, / groves / naked,(WITH. Yesenin(four-foot trochee))
From water / dy that / man and / dampness.
Kole / catfish for / blue / mountains
The sun / quietly / e_ska / hushed.
A caesura is a pause in the middle of a line of poetry. Usually the caesura appears in verses of six feet or more:
Science is stripped, // sheathed in rags,(A. Cantemir(Satire 1. On those who blaspheme the teaching: To your own mind))
Out of almost all the houses // Shot down with a curse;
They don’t want to know her, // her friendship is running away,
As, suffering at sea, // ship service.
SIX-LINE - a six-line stanza with a triple consonance; rhyming method can be different:
This morning, this joy A(A. Fet)
This power of both day and light, A
This blue vault b
This cry and strings IN
These flocks, these birds, IN
This voice of water... b
The type of six-line is Sextina.
YaMB is the most common two-syllable size in Russian poetry with stress on the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, etc. syllables:
Girl friend / ga doo / we are celebrating / noah(A. Pushkin(iambic trimeter))
Ink / niya / mine!
My age / rdno / image / ny
You / ukra / I am strong.
4. Literary process
AVANT-GARDISM is the common name for a number of trends in the art of the 20th century, which are united by the rejection of the traditions of their predecessors, primarily realists. The principles of avant-garde as a literary and artistic movement were realized in different ways in Futurism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Expressionism, etc.
ACMEISM - a trend in Russian poetry of the 1910-1920s. Representatives: N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Kuzmin and others. In contrast to symbolism, acmeism proclaimed a return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word. va. The acmeists formed the literary group "The Workshop of Poets", published an almanac and the journal "Hyperborea" (1912-1913).
UNDERGROUND (English "undergraund" - underground) - the general name of works of Russian unofficial art of the 70-80s. 20th century
BAROQUE (Italian "Lagosso" - pretentious) - a style in the art of the 16th-18th centuries, characterized by exaggeration, pomp of forms, pathos, the desire for oppositions and contrasts.
ETERNAL IMAGES - images whose artistic significance has gone beyond the framework of a particular literary work and the historical era that gave rise to them. Hamlet (W. Shakespeare), Don Quixote (M. Cervantes), etc.
DADAISM (French "dada" - a wooden horse, a toy; in a figurative sense - "baby talk") is one of the directions of the literary avant-garde that has developed in Europe (1916-1922). Dada preceded surrealism And expressionism.
Decadence (lat. "decadentia" - decline) - the general name of the crisis phenomena in the culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by the rejection of citizenship in art, the proclamation of the cult of beauty as the highest goal. Many motives of decadence have become the property of artistic movements modernism.
IMAGENISTS (French “image” - image) - a literary group of 1919–1927, which included S. Yesenin, A. Mariengof, R. Ivnev, V. Shershenevich and others. The Imagists cultivated the image: “we who polish the image who cleans the form from the dust of content better than a street shoe shiner, we affirm that the only law of art, the only and incomparable method is to reveal life through the image and rhythm of images ... ”In literary work, the Imagists relied on complicated metaphor, the play of rhythms, etc. .
IMPRESSIONISM - a trend in art of the late XIX - early XX century. In literature, impressionism strove to convey fragmentary lyrical impressions, designed for the associative thinking of the reader, capable of ultimately recreating a complete picture. A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Fet, K. Balmont and many others resorted to the impressionistic manner. others
CLASSICISM - a literary trend of the 17th-18th centuries, arose in France and proclaimed a return to ancient art as a role model. The rationalistic poetics of classicism is set forth in the work of N. Boileau "Poetic Art". The characteristic features of classicism are the predominance of reason over feelings; the object of the image is the sublime in human life. The requirements put forward by this direction are: rigor of style; the image of the hero in the fateful moments of life; the unity of time, action and place - most clearly manifested in dramaturgy. In Russia, classicism appears in the 30-50s. 18th century in the work of A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, D. Fonvizin.
CONCEPTUALISTS - a literary association that arose at the end of the 20th century, denies the need to create artistic images: an artistic idea exists outside the material (at the level of an application, project or commentary). Conceptualists are D. A. Prigov, L. Rubinshtein, N. Iskrenko and others.
LITERARY DIRECTION - characterized by the commonality of literary phenomena over a certain period of time. The literary direction presupposes the unity of the attitude, aesthetic views of writers, ways of depicting life in a certain historical period. The literary direction is also characterized by the generality of the artistic method. Literary trends include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, etc.
LITERARY PROCESS (the evolution of literature) - reveals itself in a change in literary trends, in updating the content and form of works, in establishing new connections with other types of art, with philosophy, with science, etc. The literary process proceeds according to its own laws and is not directly connected with the development of society.
MODERNISM (French "modern" - modern) is a general definition of a number of trends in the art of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the traditions of realism. The term "modernism" is used to refer to a variety of non-realist movements in the art and literature of the 20th century. – from symbolism at its beginning to postmodernism at its end.
OBERIU (Association of Real Art) - a group of writers and artists: D. Kharms, A. Vvedensky, N. Zabolotsky, O. Malevich, K. Vaginov, N. Oleinikov and others - worked in Leningrad in 1926–1931. The Oberiuts inherited the Futurists, professing the art of the absurd, the rejection of logic, the usual time calculation, etc. The Oberiuts were especially active in the field of theater. nogo art and poetry.
POSTMODERNISM is a type of aesthetic consciousness in the art of the late 20th century. In the artistic world of a postmodernist writer, as a rule, either causes and effects are not indicated, or they are easily interchanged. Here, ideas about time and space are blurred, the relationship between the author and the hero is unusual. The essential elements of style are irony and parody. The works of postmodernism are designed for the associative nature of perception, for the active co-creation of the reader. Many of them contain a detailed critical self-assessment, that is, literature and literary criticism are combined. Postmodern creations are characterized by specific figurativeness, the so-called simulators, i.e., images-copies, images without new original content, using the already known, simulating reality and parodying it. Postmodernism destroys all sorts of hierarchies and oppositions, replacing them with allusions, reminiscences, and quotations. Unlike avant-gardism, he does not deny his predecessors, but all traditions in art are of equal value to him.
Representatives of postmodernism in Russian literature are Sasha Sokolov ("School for Fools"), A. Bitov ("Pushkin House"), Ven. Erofeev ("Moscow - Petushki") and others.
REALISM is an artistic method based on an objective depiction of reality, reproduced and typified in accordance with the author's ideals. Realism depicts the character in his interactions ("clutches") with the surrounding world and people. An important feature of realism is the desire for credibility, for authenticity. In the process of historical development, realism acquired specific forms of literary trends: ancient realism, Renaissance realism, classicism, sentimentalism, etc.
In the XIX and XX centuries. realism successfully assimilated individual artistic techniques of romantic and modernist movements.
ROMANTICISM - 1. An artistic method based on the subjective ideas of the author, based mainly on his imagination, intuition, fantasies, dreams. Like realism, romanticism appears only in the form of a specific literary movement in several varieties: civil, psychological, philosophical, etc. The hero of a romantic work is an exceptional, outstanding personality, depicted with great expression. The style of the romantic writer is emotional, rich in visual and expressive means.
2. A literary trend that arose at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, when the freedom of society and the freedom of man were proclaimed the ideal. Romanticism is characterized by an interest in the past, the development of folklore; his favorite genres are elegy, ballad, poem, etc. (“Svetlana” by V. Zhukovsky, “Mtsyri”, “Demon” by M. Lermontov, etc.).
SENTIMENTALISM (French “sentimental” - sensitive) is a literary trend of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The book of L. Stern "Sentimental Journey" (1768) became the manifesto of Western European sentimentalism. Sentimentalism proclaimed, in contrast to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the cult of natural feelings in everyday life. Sentimentalism arose in Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of N. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”), V. Zhukovsky, Radishchev poets, and others. The genres of this literary trend are epistolary, family-household novel; confessional story, elegy, travel notes, etc.
SYMBOLISM - a literary trend of the late 19th - early 20th centuries: D. Merezhkovsky, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok, I. Annensky, A. Bely, F. Sologub, etc. Based on associative thinking, on subjective reproduction reality. The system of paintings (images) offered in the work is created by means of the author's symbols and is based on the personal perception and emotional feelings of the artist. An important role in the creation and perception of works of symbolism belongs to intuition.
SOC-ART is one of the characteristic phenomena of Soviet unofficial art of the 70-80s. It arose as a reaction to the all-penetrating ideologization of Soviet society and all types of art, choosing the path of ironic confrontation. Parodying also European and American pop art, she used the techniques of the grotesque, satirical outrageousness, and caricature in literature. Sots Art achieved particular success in painting.
SOCIALIST REALISM is a trend in the art of the Soviet period. As in the system of classicism, the artist was obliged to strictly adhere to a certain set of rules governing the results of the creative process. The main ideological postulates in the field of literature were formulated at the First Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934: “Socialist realism, being the main method of Soviet fiction and literary criticism, requires from the artist a truthful, historically concrete depiction of reality in its revolutionary development. At the same time, the truthfulness and historical concreteness of the artistic image must be combined with the task of ideologically reshaping and educating working people in the spirit of socialism. In fact, socialist realism took away the writer's freedom of choice, depriving art of research functions, leaving him only the right to illustrate ideological attitudes, serving as a means of party agitation and propaganda.
STYLE - sustainable features of the use of poetic techniques and means, serving as an expression of originality, originality of the phenomenon of art. It is studied at the level of a work of art (the style of "Eugene Onegin"), at the level of the individual style of the writer (style of N. Gogol), at the level of a literary movement (classicist style), at the level of an era (baroque style).
SURREALISM is an avant-garde art movement of the 1920s. XX century, which proclaimed the source of inspiration to the human subconscious (his instincts, dreams, hallucinations). Surrealism breaks logical connections, replaces them with subjective associations, creates fantastic combinations of real and unreal objects and phenomena. Surrealism most clearly manifested itself in painting - Salvador Dali, Juan Miro and others.
FUTURISM is an avant-garde trend in art of the 10-20s. 20th century Based on the denial of established traditions, the destruction of traditional genre and language forms, on the intuitive perception of the rapid flow of time, the combination of documentary material and science fiction. Futurism is characterized by self-sufficing form-creation, the creation of an abstruse language. Futurism was most developed in Italy and Russia. Its prominent representatives in Russian poetry were V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh and others.
EXISTENTIALISM (lat. "existentia" - existence) - a trend in the art of the middle of the 20th century, consonant with the teachings of the philosophers S. Kierkegaard and M. Heidegger, partly N. Berdyaev. The personality is depicted in a closed space where anxiety, fear, loneliness reign. The character comprehends his existence in the boundary situations of struggle, catastrophe, death. Seeing the light, a person cognizes himself, becomes free. Existentialism denies determinism, asserts intuition as the main, if not the only, way of knowing a work of art. Representatives: J. - P. Sartre, A. Camus, W. Golding and others.
EXPRESSIONISM (lat. "expressio" - expression) is an avant-garde trend in art of the first quarter of the 20th century, which proclaimed the only reality of the spiritual world of the individual. The basic principle of depicting human consciousness (the main object) is the boundless emotional tension, which is achieved by violating real proportions, up to giving the depicted world a grotesque fracture, reaching abstraction. Representatives: L. Andreev, I. Becher, F. Durrenmat.
5. General literary concepts and terms
ADEQUATE - equal, identical.
ALLUSION - the use of a word (combination, phrase, quote, etc.) as a hint that activates the reader's attention and allows you to see the connection of the depicted with some known fact of literary, everyday or socio-political life.
ALMANAC is a non-periodic collection of works selected according to thematic, genre, territorial, etc. features: "Northern Flowers", "Physiology of St. Petersburg", "Day of Poetry", "Tarus Pages", "Prometheus", "Metropol", etc.
"ALTER EGO" - the second "I"; reflection in the literary hero of a part of the author's consciousness.
ANACREONTICA POETRY - poems that glorify the joy of life. Anacreon is an ancient Greek lyricist who wrote love poems, drinking songs, etc. Translations into Russian by G. Derzhavin, K. Batyushkov, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin, and others.
ABSTRACT (lat. "annotatio" - note) - a brief note explaining the content of the book. The abstract is given, as a rule, on the back of the title page of the book, after the bibliographic description of the work.
ANONYMOUS (Greek "anonymos" - nameless) - the author of a published literary work, who did not give his name and did not use a pseudonym. The first edition of Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow was published in 1790 without indicating the author's name on the title page of the book.
ANTI-UTOPIA is a genre of epic work, most often a novel, creating a picture of the life of a society deceived by utopian illusions. - J. Orwell "1984", Evg. Zamyatin "We", O. Huxley "O Brave New World", V. Voinovich "Moscow 2042", etc.
ANTHOLOGY - 1. A collection of selected works by one author or a group of poets of a certain direction and content. - Petersburg in Russian poetry (XVIII - early XX century): Poetic anthology. - L., 1988; Rainbow: Children's anthology / Comp. Sasha Black. - Berlin, 1922 and others; 2. In the XIX century. anthological verses were called poems written in the spirit of ancient lyric poetry: A. Pushkin "Tsarskoye Selo statue", A. Fet "Diana", etc.
Apocrypha (Greek "anokryhos" - secret) - 1. A work with a biblical story, the content of which does not completely coincide with the text of the holy books. For example, “Lemonar, that is, Meadow Dukhovny” by A. Remizov and others. 2. An essay attributed with a low degree of certainty to any author. In ancient Russian literature, for example, "Tales of Tsar Constantine", "Tales of Books" and some others were supposed to have been written by Ivan Peresvetov.
ASSOCIATION (literary) is a psychological phenomenon when, when reading a literary work, one representation (image), by similarity or contrast, conjures up another.
ATRIBUTION (lat. "attributio" - attribution) - a textological problem: the establishment of the author of the work as a whole or its parts.
APHORISM - a laconic saying expressing a capacious generalized thought: “I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to serve” (A. S. Griboedov).
BALLAD - a lyrical-epic poem with a historical or heroic plot, with the obligatory presence of a fantastic (or mystical) element. In the 19th century the ballad was developed in the works of V. Zhukovsky ("Svetlana"), A. Pushkin ("Song of the Prophetic Oleg"), A. Tolstoy ("Vasily Shibanov"). In the XX century. the ballad was revived in the works of N. Tikhonov, A. Tvardovsky, E. Yevtushenko and others.
A FABLE is an epic work of an allegorical and moralizing nature. The narrative in the fable is colored with irony and in the conclusion contains the so-called morality - an instructive conclusion. The fable traces its history back to the legendary ancient Greek poet Aesop (VI-V centuries BC). The greatest masters of the fable were the Frenchman La Fontaine (XVII century), the German Lessing (XVIII century) and our I. Krylov (XVIII-XIX centuries). In the XX century. the fable was presented in the works of D. Bedny, S. Mikhalkov, F. Krivin and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary criticism that provides a purposeful systematic description of books and articles under various headings. Reference bibliographic manuals on fiction prepared by N. Rubakin, I. Vladislavlev, K. Muratova, N. Matsuev and others are widely known. about publications of literary texts, and about scientific and critical literature on each of the authors included in this manual. There are other types of bibliographic publications. Such, for example, are the five-volume bibliographic dictionary Russian Writers 1800–1917, The Lexicon of Russian Literature of the 20th Century, compiled by V. Kazak, or Russian Writers of the 20th Century. and etc.
Operational information about novelties is provided by a special monthly bulletin "Literary Studies", published by the Institute of Scientific Information RAI. New items in fiction, scientific and critical literature are also systematically reported by the newspaper Knizhnoye Obozreniye, the journals Voprosy Literature, Russian Literature, Literary Review, New Literary Review, and others.
BUFF (Italian “buffo” - buffoon) is a comic, mainly circus genre.
WREATH OF SONNETS - a poem of 15 sonnets, forming a kind of chain: each of the 14 sonnets begins with the last line of the previous one. The fifteenth sonnet consists of these fourteen repeated lines and is called the "key" or "pipeline." A wreath of sonnets is presented in the works of V. Bryusov (“The Lamp of Thought”), M. Voloshin (“Sogopa astralis”), Vyach. Ivanov ("A wreath of sonnets"). It also occurs in modern poetry.
VAUDEVILLE is a type of sitcom. A light entertaining play of domestic content, built on an entertaining, most often, love affair with music, songs, and dances. Vaudeville is represented in the works of D. Lensky, N. Nekrasov, V. Sologub, A. Chekhov, V. Kataev and others.
VOLYAPYUK (Volapyuk) - 1. An artificial language that was tried to be used as an international one; 2. Gibberish, meaningless set of words, abracadabra.
DEMIURG - creator, creator.
DETERMINISM is a materialistic philosophical concept about objective patterns and cause-and-effect relationships of all phenomena of nature and society.
DRAMA - 1. A kind of art that has a synthetic character (a combination of lyrical and epic principles) and belongs equally to literature and theater (cinema, television, circus, etc.); 2. Drama itself is a type of literary work depicting acutely conflicting relations between a person and society. - A. Chekhov "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya", M. Gorky "At the Bottom", "Children of the Sun", etc.
DUMA - 1. Ukrainian folk song or poem on a historical theme; 2. Genre of lyrics; poems of a meditative nature, devoted to philosophical and social problems. - See “Thoughts” by K. Ryleev, A. Koltsov, M. Lermontov.
SPIRITUAL POETRY - poetic works of various types and genres containing religious motifs: Yu. Kublanovskiy, S. Averintsev, 3. Mirkina, etc.
GENRE - a type of literary work, the features of which, although historically developed, are in the process of constant change. The concept of genre is used at three levels: generic - the genre of epic, lyric or drama; specific - the genre of the novel, elegy, comedy; genre proper - a historical novel, a philosophical elegy, a comedy of manners, etc.
idyll - a kind of lyrical or lyrical poetry. In an idyll, as a rule, a peaceful serene life of people is depicted in the bosom of beautiful nature. - Antique idylls, as well as Russian idylls of the 18th - early 19th centuries. A. Sumarokov, V. Zhukovsky, N. Gnedich and others.
HIERARCHY - the arrangement of elements or parts of the whole according to the sign from the highest to the lowest and vice versa.
INVECTIVE - An angry denunciation.
HYPOSTASIS (Greek “hipostasis” – face, essence) – 1. The name of each person of the Holy Trinity: One God appears in three hypostases – God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; 2. Two or more sides of one phenomenon or object.
HISTORIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary criticism that studies the history of its development.
HISTORY OF LITERATURE - a section of literary criticism that studies the development of the literary process and determines the place of the literary movement, writer, literary work in this process.
TRAFFIC - a copy, an exact translation from one language into another.
CANONICAL TEXT (corresponds to the Greek "kapop" - rule) - is established in the process of textual verification of publishing and manuscript versions of the work and meets the last "author's will".
CANZONA - a kind of lyrics, mainly love. The heyday of the canzona is the Middle Ages (the work of the troubadours). Rarely found in Russian poetry (V. Bryusov "To the Lady").
CATARSIS is the purification of the soul of the viewer or reader, experienced by him in the process of empathy with literary characters. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the goal of tragedy, ennobling the viewer and reader.
COMEDY is one of the types of literary creativity belonging to the dramatic genus. Action and characters In comedy, the goal is to ridicule the ugly in life. Comedy originated in ancient literature and is actively developing right up to our time. Comedies of positions and comedies of characters differ. Hence the genre diversity of comedy: social, psychological, everyday, satirical.
Theory of Literature. Reading as creativity [textbook] Krementsov Leonid Pavlovich
5. General literary concepts and terms
ADEQUATE - equal, identical.
ALLUSION - the use of a word (combination, phrase, quote, etc.) as a hint that activates the reader's attention and allows you to see the connection of the depicted with some known fact of literary, everyday or socio-political life.
ALMANAC is a non-periodic collection of works selected according to thematic, genre, territorial, etc. features: "Northern Flowers", "Physiology of St. Petersburg", "Day of Poetry", "Tarus Pages", "Prometheus", "Metropol", etc.
"ALTER EGO" - the second "I"; reflection in the literary hero of a part of the author's consciousness.
ANACREONTICA POETRY - poems that glorify the joy of life. Anacreon is an ancient Greek lyricist who wrote love poems, drinking songs, etc. Translations into Russian by G. Derzhavin, K. Batyushkov, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin, and others.
ABSTRACT (lat. "annotatio" - note) - a brief note explaining the content of the book. The abstract is given, as a rule, on the back of the title page of the book, after the bibliographic description of the work.
ANONYMOUS (Greek "anonymos" - nameless) - the author of a published literary work, who did not give his name and did not use a pseudonym. The first edition of Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow was published in 1790 without indicating the author's name on the title page of the book.
ANTI-UTOPIA is a genre of epic work, most often a novel, creating a picture of the life of a society deceived by utopian illusions. - J. Orwell "1984", Evg. Zamyatin "We", O. Huxley "O Brave New World", V. Voinovich "Moscow 2042", etc.
ANTHOLOGY - 1. A collection of selected works by one author or a group of poets of a certain direction and content. - Petersburg in Russian poetry (XVIII - early XX century): Poetic anthology. - L., 1988; Rainbow: Children's anthology / Comp. Sasha Black. - Berlin, 1922 and others; 2. In the XIX century. anthological verses were called poems written in the spirit of ancient lyric poetry: A. Pushkin "Tsarskoye Selo statue", A. Fet "Diana", etc.
Apocrypha (Greek "anokryhos" - secret) - 1. A work with a biblical story, the content of which does not completely coincide with the text of the holy books. For example, “Lemonar, that is, Meadow Dukhovny” by A. Remizov and others. 2. An essay attributed with a low degree of certainty to any author. In ancient Russian literature, for example, "Tales of Tsar Constantine", "Tales of Books" and some others were supposed to have been written by Ivan Peresvetov.
ASSOCIATION (literary) is a psychological phenomenon when, when reading a literary work, one representation (image), by similarity or contrast, conjures up another.
ATRIBUTION (lat. "attributio" - attribution) - a textological problem: the establishment of the author of the work as a whole or its parts.
APHORISM - a laconic saying expressing a capacious generalized thought: “I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to serve” (A. S. Griboedov).
BALLAD - a lyrical-epic poem with a historical or heroic plot, with the obligatory presence of a fantastic (or mystical) element. In the 19th century the ballad was developed in the works of V. Zhukovsky ("Svetlana"), A. Pushkin ("Song of the Prophetic Oleg"), A. Tolstoy ("Vasily Shibanov"). In the XX century. the ballad was revived in the works of N. Tikhonov, A. Tvardovsky, E. Yevtushenko and others.
A FABLE is an epic work of an allegorical and moralizing nature. The narrative in the fable is colored with irony and in the conclusion contains the so-called morality - an instructive conclusion. The fable traces its history back to the legendary ancient Greek poet Aesop (VI-V centuries BC). The greatest masters of the fable were the Frenchman La Fontaine (XVII century), the German Lessing (XVIII century) and our I. Krylov (XVIII-XIX centuries). In the XX century. the fable was presented in the works of D. Bedny, S. Mikhalkov, F. Krivin and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary criticism that provides a purposeful systematic description of books and articles under various headings. Reference bibliographic manuals on fiction prepared by N. Rubakin, I. Vladislavlev, K. Muratova, N. Matsuev and others are widely known. about publications of literary texts, and about scientific and critical literature on each of the authors included in this manual. There are other types of bibliographic publications. Such, for example, are the five-volume bibliographic dictionary Russian Writers 1800–1917, The Lexicon of Russian Literature of the 20th Century, compiled by V. Kazak, or Russian Writers of the 20th Century. and etc.
Operational information about novelties is provided by a special monthly bulletin "Literary Studies", published by the Institute of Scientific Information RAI. New items in fiction, scientific and critical literature are also systematically reported by the newspaper Knizhnoye Obozreniye, the journals Voprosy Literature, Russian Literature, Literary Review, New Literary Review, and others.
BUFF (Italian “buffo” - buffoon) is a comic, mainly circus genre.
WREATH OF SONNETS - a poem of 15 sonnets, forming a kind of chain: each of the 14 sonnets begins with the last line of the previous one. The fifteenth sonnet consists of these fourteen repeated lines and is called the "key" or "pipeline." A wreath of sonnets is presented in the works of V. Bryusov (“The Lamp of Thought”), M. Voloshin (“Sogopa astralis”), Vyach. Ivanov ("A wreath of sonnets"). It also occurs in modern poetry.
VAUDEVILLE is a type of sitcom. A light entertaining play of domestic content, built on an entertaining, most often, love affair with music, songs, and dances. Vaudeville is represented in the works of D. Lensky, N. Nekrasov, V. Sologub, A. Chekhov, V. Kataev and others.
VOLYAPYUK (Volapyuk) - 1. An artificial language that was tried to be used as an international one; 2. Gibberish, meaningless set of words, abracadabra.
DEMIURG - creator, creator.
DETERMINISM is a materialistic philosophical concept about objective patterns and cause-and-effect relationships of all phenomena of nature and society.
DRAMA - 1. A kind of art that has a synthetic character (a combination of lyrical and epic principles) and belongs equally to literature and theater (cinema, television, circus, etc.); 2. Drama itself is a type of literary work depicting acutely conflicting relations between a person and society. - A. Chekhov "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya", M. Gorky "At the Bottom", "Children of the Sun", etc.
DUMA - 1. Ukrainian folk song or poem on a historical theme; 2. Genre of lyrics; poems of a meditative nature, devoted to philosophical and social problems. - See “Thoughts” by K. Ryleev, A. Koltsov, M. Lermontov.
SPIRITUAL POETRY - poetic works of various types and genres containing religious motifs: Yu. Kublanovskiy, S. Averintsev, 3. Mirkina, etc.
GENRE - a type of literary work, the features of which, although historically developed, are in the process of constant change. The concept of genre is used at three levels: generic - the genre of epic, lyric or drama; specific - the genre of the novel, elegy, comedy; genre proper - a historical novel, a philosophical elegy, a comedy of manners, etc.
idyll - a kind of lyrical or lyrical poetry. In an idyll, as a rule, a peaceful serene life of people is depicted in the bosom of beautiful nature. - Antique idylls, as well as Russian idylls of the 18th - early 19th centuries. A. Sumarokov, V. Zhukovsky, N. Gnedich and others.
HIERARCHY - the arrangement of elements or parts of the whole according to the sign from the highest to the lowest and vice versa.
INVECTIVE - An angry denunciation.
HYPOSTASIS (Greek “hipostasis” – face, essence) – 1. The name of each person of the Holy Trinity: One God appears in three hypostases – God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; 2. Two or more sides of one phenomenon or object.
HISTORIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary criticism that studies the history of its development.
HISTORY OF LITERATURE - a section of literary criticism that studies the development of the literary process and determines the place of the literary movement, writer, literary work in this process.
TRAFFIC - a copy, an exact translation from one language into another.
CANONICAL TEXT (corresponds to the Greek "kapop" - rule) - is established in the process of textual verification of publishing and manuscript versions of the work and meets the last "author's will".
CANZONA - a kind of lyrics, mainly love. The heyday of the canzona is the Middle Ages (the work of the troubadours). Rarely found in Russian poetry (V. Bryusov "To the Lady").
CATARSIS is the purification of the soul of the viewer or reader, experienced by him in the process of empathy with literary characters. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the goal of tragedy, ennobling the viewer and reader.
COMEDY is one of the types of literary creativity belonging to the dramatic genus. Action and characters In comedy, the goal is to ridicule the ugly in life. Comedy originated in ancient literature and is actively developing right up to our time. Comedies of positions and comedies of characters differ. Hence the genre diversity of comedy: social, psychological, everyday, satirical.
COMMENTS - notes, interpretation; explanatory notes to the text of a work of art. Comments may be of a biographical, historical-literary, textual, etc. nature.
CONTAMINATION (lat. "contaminatio" - mixing) - 1. The formation of a word or expression by combining parts of words or expressions that are associated associatively; 2. Combining texts from different editions of one work.
CONTEXT (lat. "contextus" - connection, connection) - 1. A semantic passage of a text in which the word acquires the meaning necessary for the author. Taken out of context, it may have a different meaning; 2. The amount of information necessary to understand the meaning of the work in the historical and aesthetic circumstances of its appearance and functioning.
CONJUNCTURE (lat. "conjungere" - to connect, connect) - a set of conditions that affect the development of the situation and are considered in their relationship.
LITERARY CRITICISM is a type of fiction, the art of analyzing both individual works of art and the entire work of the Writer in order to interpret and evaluate them in connection with modern problems of life and literature. It is carried out in the process of co-creation.
LYRICS is a kind of literature that recreates the subjective experiences of the author and character, their relationship to the depicted. The speech form of lyrics is usually an internal monologue, mainly in verse. The types of lyrics are sonnet, ode, elegy, song, epigram, etc., genres - civil, love, landscape, philosophical, etc.
LYRICAL-EPIC TYPES - a ballad, a poem, a novel in verse combine the features of the image of reality inherent in the epic and lyrics, and represent their organic, qualitatively new unity:
LITERARY STUDIES - a cycle of scientific disciplines that study the essence, specifics, functions of fiction, features of literary works; regularities of the literary process, etc.
MADRIGAL - a kind of lyrics; a small poem of complimentary content, usually addressed to a woman. Being a kind of salon, album poetry, the madrigal has not been widely used lately.
MEDITATIVE LYRICS is a genre containing philosophical reflections on the main problems of being:
We can't predict
How our word will respond
And sympathy is given to us,
How grace is given to us.
F. Tyutchev
MELODRAMA - a genre of drama, devoted mainly to love themes and characterized by intense intrigue, sentimentality, and instructive intonation.
MEMOIRS (Memoirs) - autobiographical works about persons and events in which the author was a participant or witness. - “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself”, “People, Years, Life” by I. Ehrenburg, “Epilogue” by V. Kaverin, etc.
METHOD (Greek "meta" - through; "hodos" - the path; literally "the path through the material") - 1. A way of knowing, researching, depicting life; 2. Reception, principle.
METHODOLOGY OF LITERATURE - studies a set of methods and techniques for the most appropriate teaching of literature at school, gymnasium, lyceum, university, etc.
METHODOLOGY - a set of research methods and techniques.
MYTH (Greek "mithos" - word, legend) - legends about the structure of the world, natural phenomena, about gods and heroes. Such, for example, are the myths of Ancient Greece. Myths can be reinterpreted in a peculiar way in literary creativity, performing various functions at different stages of the literary process.
NOVELLA (Italian “novella” - news) is a prose (less often poetic) epic genre with a sharp plot, concise narration and an unexpected ending. - Novels by Maupassant, O. Henry, A. Chekhov, L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Shukshin, Yu. Kazakov and others.
ODA - a kind of lyrics; a work of a solemn, pathetic nature, containing praise to a person or event. The subject of the image of the ode is the sublime in human life. In Russian literature, the ode appeared in XVIII V. (In: Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, V. Maikov, G. Derzhavin and others), in the 19th century. the ode acquires a civil character (A. Pushkin "Liberty").
ESSAY - a type of epic work, belonging mainly to journalism. The essay is distinguished by the reliability of the depiction of real life facts and mainly touches on topical social problems. – Essays G. Uspensky, V. Ovechkin, Yu. Chernichenko and others.
PAMFLET - a genre of journalism, a revealing polemical work of socio-political content: M. Gorky "City of the Yellow Devil", "Beautiful France", etc.
PARODY - a comic reproduction of the features of the content and form of the work or the work of the artist as a whole. Parody can be an independent work or part of a major work - "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by F. Rabelais, "History of a City" by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, "New Moscow Philosophy" by V. Pietsukh, etc. The goals of parody are different. It can act as a form of criticism, ridicule of some stylistic or thematic predilections of the author, inconsistency between content and form - burlesque, travesty - use the comic effect that arises from moving the hero of some famous literary work to other spatio-temporal coordinates. Such is the parody of E. Khazin:
Our Eugene gets on the tram.
Oh poor dear man!
I did not know such movements
His unenlightened age.
The fate of Eugene kept,
He only crushed his leg,
And only once, pushing in the stomach,
They told him: "Idiot!"
He, remembering the ancient orders,
I decided to end the dispute with a duel,
I reached into my pocket ... But someone stole
It has long been his gloves.
In the absence of such
Onegin was silent and fell silent.
High examples of various parodies can be found in the book Parnassus on End (M., 1990).
PAPHOS (Greek "pathos" - feeling, passion) - the emotional coloring of a literary work, its spiritual content, purposefulness. Types of pathos: heroic, tragic, romantic, etc.
CHARACTER (lat. "persona" - personality) - a character in a work of art.
PERSONIFICATION - the attribution of thoughts, feelings of a character or author to another person.
SONG - 1. Type of lyrical kind; a short poem, usually with a quatrain stanza and refrain; 2. A special kind of creativity created by the efforts of a poet, composer, singer. Type of song - author's song: V. Vysotsky, A. Galich, Yu. Vizbor, etc.
Plagiarism is literary theft.
STORY - a type of epic work in which the narrative principle prevails. The story reveals the life of the protagonist within a few episodes. The author of the story values the authenticity of what is described and inspires the reader with the idea of its reality. (A. Pushkin "Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", I. Turgenev "Spring Waters", A. Chekhov "The Steppe", etc.).
SUBTEXT - the inner, not verbally expressed meaning of the text. The subtext is hidden and can be restored by the reader, taking into account the specific historical situation. Most often present in psychological genres.
MESSAGE - a kind of lyrics; a poem in the form of a letter or an appeal to some person or group of people: A. Pushkin “In the depths of Siberian ores”, F. Tyutchev “K.B. (“I met you ...”)”, S. Yesenin “Letter to mother”, etc.
POETRY -1. Art of the word; 2. Fiction in poetic form.
A POEM is a kind of lyrical-epic work, “grasping life in the highest moments” (V. G. Belinsky) with a laconic plot. The genres of the poem are heroic and satirical, romantic and realistic, etc. In the XX century. in Russian literature, poems of an unusual, non-traditional form appear - A. Akhmatova "A Poem without a Hero".
POETICS - 1. The general name of aesthetic treatises devoted to the study of the specifics of literary creativity ("Poetics" by Aristotle, "Poetic Art" by Boileau, etc.) and serving as an instruction for beginning writers; 2. The system of artistic means or techniques (artistic method, genres, plot, composition, verse, language, etc.) used by the writer to create the artistic world in a single work or creativity in general.
PRETENTION - mannerism, deliberateness; desire to impress.
A PARABLE (one of the meanings) is a genre of a story containing teaching in an allegorical, allegorical form. Parables are possible in verse (parables by A. Sumarokov and others).
PSEUDONYM - a fictitious signature hiding the name of the writer: Sasha Cherny - A. M. Glikberg; Maxim Gorky - A. M. Peshkov, etc.; or a group of writers, such is the collective pseudonym Kozma Prutkov, under which A.K. Tolstoy and the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers - Alexei, Vladimir and Alexander Mikhailovich were hiding.
PUBLICITY (lat. "publicus" - public) - a type of literature; a journalistic work is created at the intersection of fiction and journalism and considers the current problems of society - political, economic, etc. In a journalistic work, the artistic image performs an auxiliary illustrative function and serves to clarify the reader's main idea of the author: L. N. Tolstoy “I can’t be silent ”, M. Gorky “Untimely thoughts”, etc.
PIESA is the general name of dramatic works.
STORY - a type of epic; a work of small volume, containing a description of some brief episode from the personal life of the hero (or narrator), which, as a rule, has universal significance. The story is characterized by the presence of one storyline and a small number of characters. A variation is a mood story that conveys a certain state of mind (in this case, events do not play a significant role).
REMINISCENCE - a special kind of association that arises from the reader's personal feelings, forcing him to remember a similar image or picture.
RECIPIENT (lat. "recipientis" - receiving) - a person who perceives art.
GENUS LITERARY - a type of literary works. The division of works by genre is based on the purpose and method of their creation: an objective narration of events (see. epic); a subjective story about the inner world of a person (cf. Lyrics); a way that combines the objective and subjective display of Reality, the dialogical depiction of events (see. Drama).
ROMAN - a type of epic; a work based on a comprehensive analysis of a person's private life throughout its entire length and in numerous connections with the surrounding reality. Mandatory features of the novel are the presence of several parallel storylines and polyphony. The genres of the novel are - social, philosophical, psychological, fantastic, detective, etc.
NOVEL IN POETRY - a lyrical-epic type of literary creativity; a form that combines the epic scale of the depiction of reality with the lyrical self-expression of the author. - A. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", B. Pasternak "Spektorsky".
ROMANCE - a short lyrical poem, either set to music, or designed for such an arrangement. Romance has a long history. Its history goes back to the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Time of greatest popularity: the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century. Among the masters of the romance are V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, Evg. Baratynsky and others:
Don't say love will pass
Your friend wants to forget about that;
In her he hopes for eternity,
He sacrifices happiness to her.
Why extinguish my soul
Barely flashed desires?
For a moment, let me without grumbling
Surrender to your tenderness.
Why suffer? What's in my love
Inherited from the cruel skies
Without bitter tears, without deep wounds,
Without tiring melancholy?
Love's days are short,
But I do not see her cold;
I will die with her, like a sad sound
A suddenly broken string.
A. Delvig
SAGA - 1. View of the Old Irish and Old Norse epic; 2. Narrative epic - "The Forsyte Saga" by D. Galsworthy.
SATIRE - 1. A peculiar way of depicting reality, with the goal of discovering, punishing and ridiculing the vices, shortcomings, flaws of society and the individual. This goal is achieved, as a rule, by exaggeration, grotesque, caricature, absurdity. Genres of satire - fable, comedy, satirical novel, epigram, pamphlet, etc.; 2. Genre of lyrics; a work containing a denunciation of some person or vice. - K. Ryleev "To the temporary worker."
Servile - obsequious, obsequious.
SKAZ - a way of narration, focused on the monologue of the character-narrator. It is mostly conducted in the first person. The work can either be built entirely on a tale (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. Gogol, some stories by N. Leskov, M. Zoshchenko), or include it as a separate part of it.
STANCES - in Russian poetry of the XVIII-XIX centuries. a short meditative poem. The stanza is usually a quatrain, the size is most often iambic tetrameter (A. Pushkin. Stanzas (“In the hope of glory and goodness ...”); M. Lermontov. Stanzas (“Instantly running through the mind ...”), etc.).
A TAUTOGRAM is a poem in which all words begin with the same sound. The tautogram is sometimes called poetry "with alliteration taken to the extreme" (N. Shulgovsky):
Lazy years are easy to caress
I love purple meadows
I love left-handed jubilation
I catch fragile legends.
Radiant flax lovingly sculpts
Azure caressing forests.
I love crafty lily babble,
Flying incense petals.
V. Smirensky
TANKA is a genre of Japanese poetry; a five line stanza of a meditative nature using blank verse:
Oh don't forget
Like in my garden
You broke a white azalea branch...
A little light
Thin crescent moon.
TEXTOLOGY - a section of literary criticism; a scientific discipline that deals with the study of a literary text by comparing different versions of a work.
THEORY OF LITERATURE - a branch of literary criticism that studies the types, forms and laws of artistic creation, its social functions. The theory of literature has three main objects of study: the nature of fiction, the literary work, and the literary process. Literary theory defines the methodology and methodology for the analysis of literary works.
LITERARY TYPE - an artistic embodiment of the characteristic stable features of a person at a specific historical stage in the development of society. The literary type is psychologically motivated and conditioned by the socio-historical situation. V. Belinsky called the literary type "a familiar stranger", meaning the embodiment of the general in the individual.
TRAGEDY is a type of drama. The tragedy is based on an unresolvable conflict, ending in the death of the hero. The main goal of the tragedy is, according to Aristotle, in catharsis, in the purification of the soul of the spectator-reader through compassion for the hero, who is a toy in the hands of Fate. - Ancient tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; tragedies by W. Shakespeare, P. Corneille, J.-B. Racine, F. Schiller, etc. In Russian literature, tragedy is a rare genre that existed mainly in the 18th century. in the work of M. Kheraskov, A. Sumarokov and others.
UNIQUE - unique, one of a kind, exceptional.
UTOPIA is a genre of fantasy containing a description of an ideal social structure: "City of the Sun" by T. Campanella, "Red Star" by A. Bogdanov, etc.
FARS is a light comedy, a vaudeville of rough content.
FEULETON - journalistic genre; a small work on a current topic, usually of a satirical nature, usually published in newspapers and magazines.
PHILOLOGY (Greek "phileo" - love; "logos" - word) - a set of humanities that study written texts and, based on their analysis, the history and essence of the spiritual culture of society. Philology includes literary criticism and linguistics in their modern and historical aspects.
FANTASY is a genre of non-science fiction, leading its lineage from various types of myth-making, legends, fairy tales, utopias. Fantasy, as a rule, is built on antithesis: good and evil, order and chaos, harmony and dissonance; the hero embarks on a journey, fighting for truth and justice. JRR Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954) is recognized as a fantasy classic. Such masters of fantasy as Ursula K. Le Guin, M. Moorcock, R. Zelazny are widely known. In Russian literature, the genre is represented in the works of M. Semenova, N. Perumov.
HOKKU is a genre of Japanese poetry; a lyrical poem of one three lines (17 syllables) without rhyme.
From branch to branch
Quietly run drops ...
Spring rain.
On a bare branch
Raven sits alone.
Autumn evening.
ARTISTIC METHOD - 1. The general principles of working on the text, based on which the writer organizes his creative process. The constituent elements of the artistic method are: the writer's worldview; depicted reality; writer's talent 2. The principle of artistic representation of reality in art. At a specific historical stage, the artistic method appears as a literary trend and can represent the features of three different options: realistic, romantic and modernist.
AESOP LANGUAGE is a way of expressing thoughts through allegories, allusions, omissions. The traditions of the Aesopian language were laid down in the work of the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop. In literature, it was most often used during the years of censorship persecution.
ELEGY - a short poem, colored with sad reflections, longing, sorrow:
The storm of the people is still silent,
The Russian mind is still bound.
And oppressed freedom
Conceals impulses of bold thoughts.
Oh, long age-old chains
They will not fall from the ramen of the homeland,
Centuries pass ominously, -
And Russia will not wake up!
N. Languages
EPATAGE is a scandalous trick, a challenge to generally accepted norms.
EPIGON - a follower of any direction, devoid of originality, the ability to think and write independently, in an original way; imitator, rehashing the motives of the master.
EPIGRAM (literally from Greek "inscription") - a small poem of ironic content. E. Baratynsky wrote:
finished flyer,
Epigram - laughter
Egoza epigram,
Rubs, winds among the people,
And envy only a freak,
Together, grab your eyes.
A characteristic feature of the epigram should be brevity, accuracy, wit:
Viktor Shklovsky about Tolstoy
Wrote a solid volume.
It's good that this volume
Not published under Tolstoy.
A. Ivanov
EPISTOLAR FORM OF LITERATURE (Greek "epistola" - letter, message) - is used both in documentary and journalistic and artistic genres (A. Pushkin "The Novel in Letters"; N. Gogol "Selected passages from correspondence with friends"; F Dostoevsky "Poor people", I. Bunin "Unknown friend", V. Kaverin "In front of the mirror", etc.).
EPITALAM - a genre of ancient lyrics; wedding song with wishes for the newlyweds. It is rare in the poetry of modern times - V. Trediakovsky, I. Severyanin.
EPITAPHI - a tombstone inscription, sometimes in verse:
EPIC - a type of epic; a work of great volume, reflecting the central problems of the life of the people, depicting the main strata of society in detail, down to the details of everyday life. The epic describes both the turning points in the life of the nation, and the little things of the daily existence of the characters. - O. Balzac "The Human Comedy", L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", etc.
EPOS - 1. Type of art; a way of depicting reality is an objective display by the artist of the surrounding world and the people in it. The epic presupposes the presence of a narrative beginning; 2. Type of folk art; a large-scale work containing myths, legends, tales: the ancient Indian epic Ramayana, the Finnish Kalevala, the Indian Song of Hiawatha, etc.
From the book General Sociology author Gorbunova Marina Yurievna32. System approach: general provisions. Systemological concepts The word "system" comes from the Greek "systema", which means "a whole made up of parts." Thus, a system is any set of elements connected in some way to each other and
From the book Theory of Culture author author unknown1. The concepts of "culture", "civilization" and concepts directly related to them Culture (from the Latin cultura - processing, cultivation, refining and cultus - veneration) and civilization (from the Latin civis - citizen). There are many definitions of culture and various interpretations
From the book Japan: Language and Culture author Alpatov Vladimir Mikhailovich2. Concepts and terms of the theory of culture Adaptation (from lat. adaptare - adaptation) cultural.1. Adaptation of a person and human communities to life in the world around them by creating and using culture as an artificial (not natural) education through
From the book Nature of the Film. Rehabilitation of physical reality author Krakauer Siegfried From the book Jewish World author Telushkin JosephSynchronization methods*. Concepts and terms Synchronicity-asynchrony. The sound can be synchronized with the image of its natural source or with other frames. An example of the first possibility: 1. We listen to a speaking person and at the same time see him. Examples of the second
From the book Culturology. Crib author Barysheva Anna DmitrievnaChapter 335 Terms used in the synagogue Bima (in Hebrew - "platform") - the place where the cantor stands, leading a service or reading a Torah scroll. A person who is honored to bless the Torah may be told: “Go to the bimah, ascend to the Torah.” Mizrah in Hebrew means “east”. From the ancients
From the book Tale of Prose. Reflections and analysis author Shklovsky Viktor Borisovich28 CONCEPTS "TYPE", "TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES"
From the book Language in Revolutionary Times author Harshav Benjamin49 DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT "CIVILIZATION" In the system of humanitarian knowledge, along with the concept of "culture", the term "civilization" is widely used. The concept of "civilization" has a fairly large number of meanings. Up to the present time, there is no unambiguous interpretation of it in any
From the book Life and customs of tsarist Russia author Anishkin V. G.Concept update
From the book People of Muhammad. An Anthology of Spiritual Treasures of Islamic Civilization author Schroeder Eric From the book France and the French. What guidebooks are silent about by Clark StefanGeneric concepts in Muscovite Rus' in the 17th century. the concepts of the unity of the genus were preserved and there was a strong tribal union. For example, if one of the members of the clan had to pay someone a large amount of money, all other members were obliged to take part in the payment. senior members
From the book Anthropology of Sex author Butovskaya Marina Lvovna From the author's book From the author's book1.1. Basic concepts First of all, let's define the semantic component of the concepts "sex" (sex) and "gender" (gender) and the terms directly related to them. In English literature, the concepts of "sex" and "sex" are defined by one word "sex". In Russian, the word "sex" means
Literary theory
Literary theory
THEORY OF LITERATURE - the theoretical part of literary criticism, which is included in literary criticism along with the history of literature and literary criticism, based on these areas of literary criticism and at the same time giving them a fundamental justification. On the other hand, T. l. closely connected with philosophy and aesthetics (see). T. l. closely related to the named disciplines. T. l. studies the nature of poetic knowledge of reality and the principles of its study (methodology), as well as its historical forms (poetics). The main problems of T. l. - methodological: the specifics of literature, literature and reality, the genesis and function of literature, the class nature of literature, the partisanship of literature, the content and form in literature, the criterion of artistry, the literary process, the literary style, the artistic method in literature, socialist realism; problems of poetics in literary language: image, idea, theme, poetic genre, genre, composition, poetic language, rhythm, verse, phonics in their stylistic meaning. For Marxist-Leninist literary criticism, it is essential to resolutely emphasize the unity of questions of methodology and poetics, to consider the latter on the basis of the former, and to clearly link with methodology when considering the entire range of problems of poetics. Because of this, the division of problems T. l. on the problems of methodology and poetics, to a certain extent, conditionally, since any question of the form, structure of a literary work can also be raised purely methodologically (for example, the general formulation of the question of the function of rhythm, verse, phonics, etc. in a literary work, etc.) and in the plane of poetics (certain historical and, consequently, stylistic features of certain rhythmic, linguistic, etc. categories). On the other hand, naturally, methodological questions can be raised only if the historical development of literary forms is taken into account. The assertion of the close unity of the main sections of literary literature, which is characteristic of Marxism-Leninism, distinguishes its literary theory from the old “theories of literature” and formalist “theories of literature”, where questions of poetics were supposedly considered outside certain methodological premises, purely descriptively, but where in reality these prerequisites were only hidden and were invariably idealistic.
Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction
. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .Theory of literature
One of the main sections of the science of literature, studying the nature of artistic creation and determining the methodology for its analysis. There are various definitions of the theory of literature and its boundaries, mainly three systems of ideas are distinguished: 1) the sociological theory of literature - the doctrine of the features of the figurative reflection of reality; 2) formalist - the doctrine of the structure (methods of construction) of literary works; 3) historical - the doctrine of the literary process. The first approach brings abstract categories to the fore: figurativeness, artistry, party spirit, nationality, class, worldview, method. The second updates the concepts ideas, themes, plot, composition, style And versification. The third approach gravitates towards the history of literature, considers the problems of literary childbirth And genres, literary movements and general principles of the literary process. All these questions in the works of literary theorists receive the most diverse coverage, often overlapping, but the general methodological preferences are almost always obvious.
Literary theory as an analytical discipline is inextricably linked with aesthetics and with the philosophical systems that underlie aesthetic teachings. Literary theories based on various philosophical doctrines are fundamentally different. These may be ideological differences: the Marxist (positivist) theory of literature is based on the categories of ideological struggle, which has no meaning for those theorists who gravitate towards idealistic philosophical systems. Rejecting conditional categories, following the creators of the philosophy of language, theorists (primarily formalists) consider literature as a specifically linguistic phenomenon, ignoring all other components of the formal-content unity of the literary process. It does not follow from this that in the interpretation of the essential features of literary creativity and the laws of its development, the possibility of interaction between fundamentally different theories of literature is excluded. The Soviet Marxist theory of literature actively used the ideas of G. V. F. Hegel, the materials of A. N. Veselovsky and others. fundamental philosophical questions.
The inclination towards unity (monism) of the theory of literature was inherent in all stages of the existence of the science of literature and is not a product of Marxist philosophy. The point is not in the study of the ideological essence of art, and not even in the unity of form and content. The theory of literature is consistently monistic, its terms must represent a strictly organized system, must be closely connected, since they create a scheme that complements (and links) large concrete material and historical-literary concepts. However, unity terminology and strict consistency in literary theory have not been fully achieved, many terms are interpreted in different ways (but this unity, as experience shows, cannot be achieved in principle).
Since the theory of literature deals with a variety of historical material, its terminology acquires a general character, is abstracted from the specific features and properties of the defined phenomena of literary creativity, which, in their historical diversity, are richer than any general definition. For example, a literary hero in the era classicism, in the literature of the 19th century. and in modern literature - concepts that differ significantly from each other. This every time requires specific historical clarifications and additions in the interpretation of the term - in relation to a given range of historical and cultural conditions. The terms of the theory of literature are functional, i.e., they do not so much characterize the specific features of a given concept as reveal the function that it performs, its relationship with other concepts. For example, describing plot, the theory of literature does not reveal its specific properties (fantastic, psychological, adventurous, conditional, etc.), but points to its function, and having established this function, correlates the plot with other components of the work. The theoretical concept of plot can be compared to a noun that requires an adjective to understand. And such an adjective can only be given by a literary historian who studies the specific features that are expressed in the plot.
The disunity between the theoretical and historical principles in the theory of literature and the desire to bring them closer led to the creation of historical poetics (or the historical theory of literature) in the works of A. N. Veselovsky (second half of the 19th century). Works close to his ideas appeared at the end of the 19th century. and abroad (Ch. Letourneau, G. M. Poznett). Veselovsky set before historical poetics the task of defining the laws of poetic creativity and formulating a criterion for evaluating it, relying on an analysis of the historical evolution of poetry, and not on the definitions that prevailed until then, taken from speculative constructions (however, as already mentioned, these speculative constructions guide a significant part of philologists and still). Under such grounds, the historical theory of literature faces the task of studying the formation and development of the main features and properties of literary and artistic creativity, taking into account its historical diversity and versatility. At the same time, in this situation, there is a danger of identifying theory with the history of literature. The fact is that different ways of literary creativity in specific countries in certain periods of development should have led to the emergence of parallel national historical poetics, each of which would be associated with a kind of artistic and historical experience that leaves a mark on the laws of poetic creativity and the criteria for its evaluation. All of the above made the task of constructing historical poetics extraordinary complexity.
In the 20th century Attempts were made to build a theory of literature on the basis of a historical and logical path of research that combines the range of basic theoretical definitions with a description of their historical diversity. The desire to trace in historical terms the development of real categories that are the subject of the historical theory of literature (primarily literary types and genres) turned out to be quite productive. But it was not possible to give an exhaustive description of the historical development of the conditional categories of the sociological theory of literature (imagery, artistry, method) - apparently, this is impossible. Everything was limited to collecting material that gives an idea of the real diversity of the history of literature. This experience demonstrated the secondary nature of the theory of literature, its dependence on the actual implementation of theoretical concepts in the historical and literary process.
The development of the theory of literature began in antiquity. It received a peculiar development in India, China, Japan and other countries: every time its own national literary material was comprehended, a special national terminology was created. In Europe, literary theory begins with a treatise Aristotle"On the Art of Poetry" ("Poetics"), referring to the 4th century. BC e. It already posed a number of basic theoretical questions that are also important for modern science: the nature of literary creativity, the relationship between literature and reality, types of literary creativity, genres and genres, features of poetic language and versification. In the process of the historical development of literature, the change of various literary movements and the comprehension of the originality of their artistic experience, the content of the theory of literature was formed, reflecting various historical systems of views - in the works of N. bualo, G. E. Lessing, G. V. F. Hegel, V. Hugo, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky and many others. In various eras, literary theory has been influenced (sometimes overwhelmingly) by the prevailing philosophical and aesthetic currents.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. there is a growing tendency to separate literary theory from poetics. This idea goes back to the desire to consider poetry as “language in its aesthetic function” (R. O. Jacobson), which leads to the transformation of poetics into a purely linguistic discipline and strengthens formalist tendencies in it. In a less consistent form, poetics is considered in isolation from the theory of literature, limiting it to the study of the verbal embodiment of the idea and including literary types and genres in its subject matter. However, such a restriction cannot be recognized as justified: the theory of literature is impoverished, genres, stylistics and versification are torn off from it, which are an integral part of the integral part of the science of literature, and poetics, in turn, cannot comprehend its limited content without connection with those that determine it. more general aspects of a literary work (the language in a literary work is motivated primarily by the character and that state of it, which is due to plot situations; characters and plot are determined by the aspects of life depicted by writers depending on their worldview and aesthetic position, etc.). Without an understanding of these connections, consideration of the expressive and compositional means that serve to reveal them turns out to be incomplete and inaccurate.
Domestic and foreign theories of literature do not support the separation of literary theory and poetics. The classic "Theory of Literature" by R. Welleck and O. Warren (1956) considers these concepts as synonyms. They are also synonymous in the title of B. V. Tomashevsky's book Theory of Literature (Poetics) (1924). Tomashevsky, in the terms of reference of poetics, includes the concepts of theme, hero, etc. V.V. Vinogradov specifically pointed out that it is necessary "to fit into the sphere of poetics the issues of subject matter, plot construction, composition and characterology." In his research, he combined poetics and literary theory, including in poetics the problem of the hero, personality and character, the image of the author, the figurative structure. At the same time, the generality of the theory of literature and poetics does not limit the possibility and even the need for an independent consideration of particular issues of the theory of literature and their inherent historical features, the originality of development (plot structure, stylistics, versification, etc.). However, it is necessary to take into account their place in the holistic process of literary creativity.
The modern development of the humanities as interdisciplinary research in the field of culture studies (cultures studies) poses new challenges for the theory of literature, associated with the emerging possibility of a comprehensive study of literature based on the interaction of literary theory with a number of related disciplines and drawing on the experience of the exact sciences. For the modern theory of literature, psychology (especially the psychology of creativity), the study of the laws that govern the processes of creation and perception of literary creativity, and the study of the readership (the sociology of the literary process and perception) are of particular importance. The shift of research attention from the highest achievements of artistic creativity to mass verbal phenomena, the study of literature as such actualizes the involvement of linguistic and ethnographic techniques in the study of a literary text. The realization that the subject of artistic creativity is a person in all the diversity of his natural and social roles leads to the fact that in the postmodern theory of literature the use of natural scientific and sociological knowledge about a person (physiology, ecology; the theory of small social groups, local theories) is intensified . All this makes it possible to overcome the one-sidedness of quantitative (mathematical) methods of studying the verbal structure of a work, the relationship between image and sign, which prevailed during the period of interest in structural semiotic analysis. In this regard, modern literary theory is characterized by the search for new approaches to the study of literature and the consequent variegation of terminology, the emergence of new, not fully defined schools. In modern Russia, this is due to the fall of the "Marxist" theory of literature and the acquisition of a natural freedom of thought.
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman
. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .See what "Theory of Literature" is in other dictionaries:
THEORY OF LITERATURE- THEORY OF LITERATURE, one of the main sections of the science of literature, which studies the nature and social function of literary creativity and determines the methodology and methodology for its analysis. The questions studied by T. l. are mainly three cycles: ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary
literary theory- a science that studies: 1) the originality of literature as a special form of spiritual and artistic activity; 2) the structure of a literary text; 3) factors and components of the literary process and creative method. Heading: Literature and science Whole: ... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
literary theory Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
literary theory- Private theory of literary text, according to N.S. Bolotnova, who considers the essence of fiction as a special kind of art, creative methods and features of literary trends ... Methods of research and text analysis. Dictionary-reference
According to M.A. Palkin, "the theory of literature is the most important part of literary criticism (the science of literature), which gives knowledge about the most general properties of literary works and characterizes the essence, social purpose, features of the content and form of fiction as the art of the word." Literary theory is an open scientific discipline(has a debatable character).
"Literary theory", "literary criticism" and "poetics" are in the most general sense synonymous. But each has its own narrow focus. "Literary studies" refers to the theory and history of literature and literary criticism. The concept of "poetics" is often used as a synonym for style, the writer's artistic world, and visual means. In recent years, the term "literary theory" has been increasingly replaced by the term "poetics". V.M. Zhirmunsky, Ya. Mukarzhovsky, R. Yakobson and others, the doctrine and science are called poetics “about the essence, genres and forms of poetry - about their content, technique, structures and visual means ...”. B.V. Tomashevsky called poetics the theory of literature. “The task of poetics (in other words, the theory of literature or literature) is to study the ways of constructing literary works. The object of study in poetics is fiction. The method of study is the description and classification of phenomena and their interpretation. MM. Bakhtin considered poetics primarily "the aesthetics of verbal artistic creativity." In the 19th century, this term was not the main one, but the term "poetry" was used, despite the genera and types of works. Famous scientists Khalizev, Bakhtin, Gasparov, Epstein, Mann, etc. TL - theoretical part of literary criticism
, which is included in literary criticism along with the history of literature and literary criticism, based on these areas of literary criticism and at the same time giving them a fundamental justification. This is a young science (about the 2nd century: originated in the 19th century), developing a methodology for the analysis of works of art and the evolution of the literary and artistic process as a whole. Main The problem is the problem of systematization. The course of TL has a general character, i.e. we turn to everything that has already been learned. TL has a discus character (there is no generally accepted textbook), because science is young. There are several equivalents. literary schools: Tarturskaya (Lotman), Moscow, St. Petersburg, Leiderman school (Ekater-g).
T. l. studies the nature of poetic knowledge of reality and the principles of its study (methodology), as well as its historical forms (poetics). The main problems of T. l. - methodological: specificity of literature, literature and reality, genesis and function of literature, class nature of literature, partisanship of literature, content and form in literature, criterion of artistry, literary process, literary style, artistic method in literature, socialist realism; problems of poetics in T. l .: image, idea, theme, poetic gender, genre, composition, poetic language, rhythm, verse, phonics in their stylistic meaning. The terms of the theory of literature are functional, i.e., they do not so much characterize the specific features of a given concept as reveal the function that it performs, its relationship with other concepts. The theory of literature is one of the three main components: theory of literature, history of literature, criticism of literature. Course composition: 1. a block of general aesthetic questions (image, convention, fiction, form and content). 2 block. Theoretical poetics - addressed to the work (artistic speech, rhythm, space, temporal organization, narrative level, motive, tragic and comic). 3 block. Problems of the literary process. (literary process, development trends, literary trends, innovation, succession, etc.). Block 4. Literary Methods (History of Literary Studies). The second feature is openly debatable. The presence of many literary forms is explained by a verbal artistic image. The most important task of literary criticism is the task of systematization.
2. Artistic image as a form of poetic thinking.
Hood.O- a method or way of mastering activities, inherent only in art. XO-dialectical unity of a number of opposite beginnings: the image of a tale-th-express. sub-mind, object-semantic, objective-subject., real-ideal, etc. XO is two-layer: said and implied, or in another way objectively cognizable. And a creative subject. start. He conditional, but this is not inferiority. One of the important functions of CW is to convey in words what things possess, overcoming convention = Epstein: "the word reveals unconditionality on the other side of convention." The originality of literature is due to the fact that it is a verbal art. A classic work that reveals the originality of verbal images is Lessing's Laocoön, or On the Limits of Living Poetry. Lessing showed the dynamic nature of verbal images. He pointed out the relationship between the subject of the image and the artistic means of this or that art: not every object can be reproduced by means of painting and through words. The material of the image must correspond to the objects depicted (in painting and sculpture, these are static bodies, in literature, these are movements, processes). Otherwise: the writer, through verbal images, conjures up in the audience's imagination both the external world surrounding the characters and their inner world. About dynamic, its org-I is temporary (in epic and drama - plot (dissimilarity of O), in lyrics - metaphor (contraction O)).
An image is a concrete and at the same time a generalized picture of human life, created with the help of fiction and having aesthetic value. Note qualitative characteristics of the artistic image: 1. The unity of the individual (concrete) and typical (generalized) in the artistic image. 2. Fiction as a means of creating an image. 3. Aesthetic value (emotional impact on the reader). 4. "Insubstantiality".
Types of images: I. By production levels: sound images (sound images, rhythm images); word images (separate words, phrases, details, neologisms); subject O (portraits, objects); About people, their mutual; About the world, created in production; II. Epstein: 1 in subject matter (I); 2. Within the meaning of: a) by content: ind.O-inherent in one author; characteristic O-intrinsic def. Period of development, nationality, historical era; typical.O-inherent.to humanity at all times (“eternal.O”). b) by semantic generalization: * motives- repeat. in one work of a writer or in TV-ve of a group of letters of the same type (Dost. corners, rapids; Tsvetaeva: mountain ash, Akhm: willow, non-meeting; Okudzhava: Arbat; groups of motives: sea, steppe, mountains, sky .* topos-repeat-Xia O in def. period of some national culture. Examples: the image of the earth, the road, an extra person, a small person. * archetype(introduced by Jung) - inherent. National liter, but is a world heritage, often giving. To know about oneself subconsciously, goes back to prototypes, to mythology. Examples: a wise old man, duality, love, fathers and children, the search for the meaning of life (Shagreen leather - Balzac, Danko, Larra. 3. According to the correspondence of the subject and the meaning of the th: autological balance of object and meaning. (realistic images); Metological-meaning. prevails over subject. (unrealistic. for example: romantic, modernist.); superlogical-high degree of dispersion, i.e. correlation with different lives. sit-mi. Vyd-Xia allegory and symbol. According to the levels of the text: a) phonetic and rhythmic It's time, the pen asks for rest. b) lexical word images (Dost "suddenly"), c) subject images, details, portraits, landscapes (crystal ball - Pierre Bezukhov, oak - Bolkonsky, Plyushkin's gingerbread), d) images of characters, the relationship between them (Margarita. Rostova, Bolkonsky ), e) the image of the world created in the work.
In the literature of modern times, imagery has developed 4 trends: 1) baroque: a sharp disproportion of the semantic over the subject, asymmetry, quirkiness, emblem: "Life is a dream" Calderon - clarifying the relationship between dream and reality); 2) Classicist: orientation to classical images, order, symmetry, thoughtfulness (Molière, Corneille, Rossin, Fonvizin, Lomonosov), trinity; 3) Romantic: in the foreground the image of "I", the actualization of the seas, steppes, mountains, dual worlds; 4) Realistic: relying on the common man, a typical character in typical circumstances.
The image-allegory and the image-symbol: difference: allegories are unambiguous, the symbol is polysemantic. Allegories: fables, parables. Symbol: blue cloak (About valor, about feat. About glory), white dress (The girl sang in the church choir).
The main types of classification of artistic images (according to M. Epstein):
By subject matter;
By semantic generalization;
Structural (the ratio of subject and semantic plans).
Details are the smallest units of a subject image in a literary work. They are necessary not only for description, but can perform a psychological function, even being filled with symbolic meaning;
Object images - organize the artistic space, concretize the semantic and material existence of the characters. Subject details are things that are inextricably linked with a person. The closer an object is to a person, the more properties it takes on;
Patterns of thought and experience. They have a material-sensory embodiment;
Sound images (sonosphere) - images of nature, sounds generated by human life, musical images. In a satirical work, they are used to belittle a person, but they can also cause compassion. They can take on a symbolic meaning. There is a sound issue. Sound images can have a comic effect. A pause is a sound image that allows you to reveal the depth of subtext;
Visual images - color images, contour (the illusion of spatial volume). Synesthesia - the ratio of certain colors with associations caused by certain sensations;
Taste images are images of food. Daily bread is opposed to spiritual bread. Reduced topics of physical saturation;
Smells - natural and artificial. The smells of nature are different than in the city, but do not always serve an aesthetic function;
Tactile images - inform the artistic world of the characteristic material and bodily sensations, convey the texture;
Images-events, actions - constitute the plot-plot level of the structure of a literary text;
Images-characters, circumstances - are associated with the image of a person in literature. These can be humanized images of animals, birds, fantastic creatures filled with human meaning. Circumstances determine the interaction of a person with the outside world;
The image of the world reveals the writer's holistic view of reality and man.
Individual - original and unique. They are the product of the writer's imagination. Most often found among romantics and science fiction writers (demon, Woland, Quasimodo);
Characteristic - are generalized, contain common features of mores inherent in many people of a certain era;
Typical - the highest degree of specificity, the main goal of realistic literature of the 19th century (Platon Karataev, Pechorin, Anna Karenina). In these images, not only historical, but also universal features can be captured;
Images-motifs are images that are consistently repeated in the work of a writer or a group of writers, expressed in various aspects by varying the most significant elements (blizzard, Beautiful Lady). They carry a symbolic and semantic load.
Topoi images - denote common and typical images characteristic of the literature of an entire era, a nation (the world is a theater);
Images-archetypes are prototypes that contain the most stable forms of human imagination and consciousness. Introduced by Carl Jung, who believed that these are universal images endowed with the property of omnipresence. They transmit the unconscious from generation to generation, permeate the entire human culture from myths to the present (mythological images). Brilliant writers are able to reproduce these images, filling them with new content.
Structural classification of images:
Autological - subject and semantic plans coincide;
Metalogical - figurative meaning (paths);
Allegorical (symbolic) - mismatch of subject and semantic plans. They contain the universal, many-valued, abstract and significantly exceed the subject plan.
3. The problem of fiction.
Fiction- activity imaginary, leading to the creation of thin. Oh, having no analogues either in previous art or in reality - the fruit of imagination, the result of activity. Artistic fiction at the early stages of the formation of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales, which never pretend to be a mirror of reality, conscious fiction is quite clearly expressed. We find a judgment about fiction in Aristotle's Poetics (ch. 9 - the historian talks about what happened, the poet - about the possible, about what could happen), as well as in the works of the philosophers of the Hellenistic era. For a number of centuries, fiction appeared in literary works as a common property, as inherited by writers from their predecessors. Most often, these were traditional characters and plots, which were somehow transformed each time (this was the case, in particular, in the dramaturgy of the Renaissance and classicism, which widely used ancient and medieval plots). Much more than before, fiction manifested itself as an individual property of the author in the era of romanticism, when imagination and fantasy were recognized as the most important facet of human existence. In the post-romantic era, fiction narrowed its scope somewhat. The flight of imagination writers of the XIX century. often preferred direct observation of life: characters and plots were close to their prototypes. At the beginning of the XX century. fiction was sometimes regarded as something outdated, rejected in the name of recreating a real fact, documented. The literature of our century - as before - widely relies both on fiction and on non-fictional events and persons. Without relying on fictional images, art and, in particular, literature are unimaginable. Through fiction, the author summarizes the facts of reality, embodies his view of the world, and demonstrates his creative energy. Z. Freud argued that fiction is associated with unsatisfied inclinations and suppressed desires of the creator of the work and expresses them involuntarily. Functions of fiction: * the art of the word summarizes the facts of reality; * the function of knowledge - the writer summarizes the facts of reality in order to know the world; * fiction by definition is a lie, but this lie turns out to be true; * didactic function. Convention is synonymous with fiction. Fiction is immonenten (organic for claims). Reception exposure: the term was introduced by Shklovsky V.B. "And now the frosts are cracking
And they are silvering among the fields ... (The reader is already waiting for a rhyme roses: Here, take it quickly.
Secondary convention- conscious conditionality that has come to the surface, undisguised. The writer directly introduces the reader - the technique of "exposure of the technique." Role lyrics- one of the forms of lyrical expression, when an inanimate object / dead person, person has the right to vote. Other nationality, other sex. Types of binary conventions: fantasy, hyperbole, litotes, grotesque (transformation of reality, in which the ugly is connected with the tragic / comic (Gulliver's Travels, Nose, Portrait, Heart of a Dog, Sitting). Forms of binary convention
: role-playing (character) lyrics - st-e is written from a different gender, age, faith, a dead person, on behalf of objects; allegory, parable.
4. Literary work as an artistic unity.
The meaning of the term "literary work", central to the science of literature, seems self-evident. However, it is not easy to define it clearly. A work of art is an original, finished piece of art work, the result of an aesthetic development of action; this refers to the final image of the world .. The starting point for the analysis of a work of art is the position of the unity of form and content in a work. Content and form are correlative concepts, passing into each other. But at the heart of this "mutual transition" of the form and content of the work is still the content, because it is looking for a form for itself in which the most complete expression of the ideological and philosophical essence of the content is possible. The text is a complex of words. signs, cat. For every reader are the same. The text becomes a work when it enters the context: history, the context of reading perception. The concepts of text and work are related when we are dealing with plot and plot (text = plot, plot = production). The text can be divided, the product is impossible, since it exists in the ind. consciousness. The form is disposable, i.e. inseparable from content (content can be expressed only in this form or vice versa). Informativeness of external form is its content. rhythmic form. org-ii (poetry and prose) is also informative. Semantic halo (Gasparov) of the meter-def. semantic content of this or that meter.
Loop and Fragment- polar phenomena, cat. Sub-t integrity of production. Cycle- a group of productions, united by one hero, problem, place and t action, double authorship (Pushkin's Little Tragedies, Notes of the Hunter Turgenev, Dark Alleys). Fragment- part of the work, which received the status of independent work, completed work, existence (At Lukomorye, "Childhood of Bagrov-grandson - Scarlet Flower").
Frame component of the work - strong positions of the text, which are deeply contained: the title reflects the writer's aesthetic view, the epigraph is the author's position, dedication, prologues, epilogue, author's commentary, note, the first line of the verse. Any literary work consists of 3 structural levels: 1. level of external form = style: speech org, rhythmic-melodic org; 2. The level of internal form (Potebnya) = genre: space-time org-I, subjective org-I, motivic org-I, subject org-I, type of pathos. 3. Conceptual level = meter: topics, problems, artistic idea.
Structural model of works: Level 1 of external form (words and rhythm, artistic speech, rhythmic organization). Level 2 of the internal form of the word: air defense, character system; 3rd level conceptual - topics, probleatics. artistic ideal.
content- the essence of any phenomenon; form is the expression of that essence. Ancient philosophers (Plato, Aristotle) spoke about content and form. The allocation of a reasonable category of content and form occurred in the XVIII - early XIX centuries. It was carried out by German classical aesthetics. Content in literature - statements of the writer about the world; form is a system of sensually perceived signs with the help of which the writer's word finds its expression. It is the art form that harmonizes the disordered material of life and transforms it into a picture of the world.
Art form functions:
Inner: carry and reveal artistic content;
External: the form is created according to the laws of beauty and aesthetics, it affects the reader.
Aspects of artistic form and content:
Ontological- formless content is impossible, just like a formless form;
Axiological- the ratio of content and form is the criterion of artistry.
5. Artistic speech, its differences from ordinary speech.
Artistic speech (XP). Its differences from everyday speech (OR)
XP is studied by both literary sciences and linguistics. In literature, XP is studied as an external form of a work, connected with other levels. In linguistics, XP is studied in a number of other forms of language (scientific, official and business).
Ordinary and XP differ in dominant functions. F-I OR - the transfer of information, informative and communicative. F-I XP - aesthetic. The word serves to create an artistic image. Speech is figurative both in XP and in OR, because the word is figurative. OR does not create aesthetic content. The word as the language of literature is fundamentally different from other types of art. The word before pr-I, before its creation has a certain meaning. The artist uses ready-made images, the image is contained in the word from the very beginning. Use of dialectisms, barbarisms, archaisms. Ordinary words in an unusual order, with the help of which an image is born.
Literary language - a normalized, common denominator for native speakers, despite dialect differences. Thanks to him, we understand each other. Language of fiction- dialects, barbarisms (Gallicisms, Turkisms, Germanisms, Greekisms, Latinisms, Polonisms), archaisms, professionalisms, forbidden vocabulary. The artist can use all this.
XP specific. The word in the work is always associated with rhythm, it makes up a certain rhythmic pattern in prose and poetry. The poet voluntarily or involuntarily puts key words in strong positions, rhymes words, refers to the word again. PR: “All happy families look alike” - you can’t “all happy families look alike” (“Anna Karenina”), “Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers ...” - you can’t “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers”. The order of the author is violated, the meaning is destroyed.
