Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning. Combinatorial sense increments

Speech. Analysis of expressive means.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Usually, in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets, either in one word or in a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

Trails.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.

Types of trails and examples for them in the table:

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates that agree with omissions, etc.

It will facilitate the task and the division of the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Parsing the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it is constantly self-renewing and thus keeps billions of passengers traveling for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the oceans. (5) If on a small spacecraft astronauts fussily start cutting wires, unscrewing screws, drilling holes in the skin, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) Wound up, multiply, swarm microscopic, on a planetary, and even more so on a universal, scale of being. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot is spreading from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their work, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations.

(13) Unfortunately, just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress, are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a person, twitched by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, crowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this outside world itself has been brought to such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual fellowship with him.

(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use a trope like _______. This image of the "cosmic body" and "cosmonauts" is the key to understanding the author's position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ ("scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous departures") convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said by the author is far from being indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the argument a sad ending, which ends with a question.

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and interstitial constructions
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parceling
7. question-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members of a sentence

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first - epithet, litote, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parcelling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start the task with passes that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission #2. Since the whole sentence is given as an example, some syntactic means is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous departures” rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the place of the gap should be a plural word. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous member sentences. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately “discarded”, since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute the masculine term, since the adjective “used” must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms - epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here, the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet in front of us.

It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, people, as an image of a cosmic body and astronauts is rethought. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, chirped on his accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher strictly told him: “Valery Petrovich, higher!” (Z) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose always had a beet red color, like that of a clown. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And at first in kindergarten, and then at school, I carried the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who has any fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid harmonica. (8) I would play at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often straying, he sighed thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink into the ground with shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in the third grade when I had a bad cold. (12) I have otitis media. (13) In pain, I screamed and pounded my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver shrillly, like a woman, began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) The father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, repeated: “What a fool I am!” (19) The father thought and quietly said to his mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a snowflake blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, with a clanging jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow was falling on the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomed into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was lit up with bright headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and through my eyelashes I saw my father. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time later he was ill with bilateral pneumonia.

(32) ... My children are perplexed why, when decorating a Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, a father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if stealthily wants to see his daughter among the dressed up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.

The sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture an expressive power, and such tropes as _____ ("pain circled me" in sentence 20) and _____ ("the driver began to scream shrillly, like a woman" in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.

What you need to know about Speech

Speech:

monologue and dialogic

Oral and written

Styles:

Question: what subject?

description of a place - characterization of a place by indicating what

Objects and how they are located on it.

Question: where is what?

state of the environment - the state of nature.

Question: what is it like here?

human condition - the physical or mental state of a person.

Question: what is it like?

main question: which one?

reasoning

reasoning - proof - substantiation of the truth of one or another

Judgments (thesis).

Question: why so, and not otherwise? what follows from this?

reasoning - explanation - interpretation of the concept, explanation of the essence of some

Or phenomena.

Question: what is it?

reasoning- reflection: reflections on various life

situations. question: how to be? what to do?

main question: why?

photography reception

It is possible to distinguish speech types from each other by applying the photographic technique. Reasoning is our thoughts about the world around us, not the world itself. You can only photograph what is stated in the description and narration. Thoughts, i.e. reasoning, you can not photograph

Text and its structure

^ A text is a combination of sentences related in meaning and grammatically.

1. the text consists of several sentences - this sign of the text

It is called articulation (the text is divided into sentences)

1. 
   sentences of the text are interconnected in meaning, i.e. united by a common theme and main idea

3 in the text of the sentence are arranged in a certain order

4 text has a beginning and an end.

subject: what (about whom) the text is talking about. Often the theme of the text is reflected in the title.

main idea (idea)- why the text was written, what the author wanted to convey to us. This is what the author calls for, what he teaches.

lexical means of connecting sentences in the text

The main means of grammatical connection of sentences in the text are the order of sentences, the order of words in a sentence, intonation.

1) Sentences in the text can be linked using repeated or single-root words (labor - without labor, a book - she, a person - he) and other linguistic means. Such means of communication in the text are called

lexical repetition.

a) sentences can be linked using synonymous in (elk - elk, break - steep). synonyms avoid inappropriate repetition of words

b) sentences in the text can be linked using antonyms:

For example: “Nature has many friends. She has fewer enemies."

Linking words here: friends-foes

c) sentences in the text can be linked using descriptive phrases(for example: “They built a highway. A noisy, fast-moving river of life connected the region with the capital”

2) Sentences in the text can be linked without linking words. while all sentences, starting with the second, are both semantically and grammatically related to the first. They sort of expand, concretize its meaning. the order of the main members in them is usually the same as in the first sentence. Such a connection of sentences in the text is called Parallel.

parallel connection example:

“Short men lived in one city. They were called shorties because they were very small. Each shorty was as tall as a small cucumber"

3) morphological means of communication of sentences in the text. Pronouns

A) pronouns 3 persons singular. and many others. numbers often act as hook words

(for example: “The call for the protection of forests should be addressed primarily to young people. She should live and manage on this land, and decorate it”

b) demonstrative pronouns, acting as definitions for linking words, strengthen the connection of sentences in the text.

(eg: “I saw a rainbow after the rain. It was beautiful”)

V) ^ Morphological means of connection of parts and sentences in the text. Union.

Unions can connect sentences in the text, as well as semantic parts of the text (for example: “In early February, spring made its first raid. Rain washed away the snow from the firs and pines, and they turned green again. And there was a joyful and exciting smell of thawed cedar.”)

d) composite joint- this is the repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of the words from the previous sentence, usually ending it.

bless mother,

Call spring.

Early, early

Call spring.

call spring,

See off the winter.

Early, early

See off the winter.

^ DP

4) Serial communication (chain)- this is a connection in which sentences are connected to each other sequentially, in a chain (the second with the first, the third with the second, the fourth with the third)

Serial communication example:

“The cherished goal that Nikolka thought about all these three days, when events fell into the family like stones, the goal associated with the mysterious last words of the prostrate in the snow, Nikolka did not achieve this goal. But for this, he had to run around the city all day before the parade and visit at least nine addresses.

^ Speech styles

Conversational style of speech

1. 
   usually used in conversations with familiar people in a relaxed ( informal) environment, as well as in friendly letters, messages
2. 
   the task of speech is to exchange impressions
3. 
   the expression is usually:

Free in the choice of words and expressions

4 Language means specific to the style:

Spoken words and expressions

(including with suffixes - points, - enk, - ik, -k, - ovate)

Verbs with prefixes -for, -po with the meaning of the beginning of the action

Motive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences

Appeals

official setting: at work, at school in a lesson, on an excursion in a museum, at a meeting.

informal setting: at home, at school at recess, for a walk in the forest, visiting friends

^ colloquial vocabulary

These are words that are used in everyday colloquial speech, for example: soda (sparkling water), forks (head of cabbage), blond (very blond hair)

^ colloquial words - characterized by simplicity, rudeness.

for example: head (head), dreary (unpleasant).

speech styles

artistic style of speech

1used in artwork

2. task of speech: to convey to the reader the feelings experienced by the author

3. the statement is usually:

Specific (it is this birch that is described, and not a birch in general)

Imaginative, lively, expressive

emotional

4 characteristic language means:

specific words

Words in a figurative sense

Emotionally evaluative words

Verbs with prefixes - for, - for with the meaning of the beginning of the action

Verbs in present tense instead of past

Motivational, interrogative, exclamatory sentences.

Sentences with homogeneous sentence members

Phrases

5. comparisons, metaphors, epithets and other means of language are characteristic

colloquial speech is widely represented in the artistic style, because dialogue is used in the works.

^ SPEECH STYLES

FORMAL BUSINESS STYLE

In various documents (certificates, receipts, decrees, orders) official business style is used

main goal: accurate communication of business information

This style is characterized by the full name of states, state bodies, institutions, enterprises, the exact designation of dates, quantities, sizes, sizes, the use of words only in their direct meaning.

formal business style vocabulary

special words and phrases are used: decree, resolution, duplicate,

plaintiff, defendant, representative, decision, hold accountable

^ SPEECH STYLES

JOURNALISTIC STYLE

journalistic style (in translation - the public is people, people) is used on radio, television, in newspaper and magazine articles, in oral speeches at rallies and meetings

main goal: to influence the reader and listener, that is, to convince them of something, to call for something.

Newspapers and magazines discuss topical social problems, so many words of socio-political vocabulary are used here, for example: state, power, code, masses, struggle, active.

Publicistic speech is characterized by such means of language that make it possible to enhance its impact on readers and listeners: appeals, incentive and exclamatory sentences, solemn vocabulary (shrine, valor), antonyms (kindness, malice), words with a figurative meaning (fiery years - war years )

in a journalistic style, words, phraseological units and descriptive phrases are widely used, denoting the phenomena of public life (forum, festival, rally, people of good will, the Olympic Games, to win)

^ Interview - a genre of journalism , a conversation of a journalist with one or more persons on any topical issues

in Interview - 3 parts:

1. introduction - the journalist introduces his interlocutor to the listeners or the interlocutor, at the request of the journalist, introduces himself to the listeners.

2. The main part is a conversation between a journalist and the person being interviewed.

3. The final part - the journalist asks the interlocutor to talk about plans for the future, expresses good wishes, thanks for the conversation.

^ SPEECH STYLES

SCIENTIFIC STYLE

The scientific style is used in textbooks, encyclopedias, scientific articles, books. Main goal: accurate transfer of scientific knowledge (scientific information).

^ Scientific style vocabulary . significant, which are used in different branches of science, for example: KATET, HYPOTENUSE, SINE, COSINE (MATHEMATICAL TERMS)

Without knowledge of the terms of special vocabulary, it is difficult to understand many scientific articles

Words are used only in their direct meaning.

^ Scheme of analysis of a lyric poem

What does the date and title say? (if any)

What issue is raised (if any)

2. Topic - what is it about?

Questions and hints:

a) What are the feelings of the poem?

b) what caused these feelings?

3 which lyric refers to:

A) philosophical

B) love

C) civil (patriotic)

D) landscape

^ 4 plot development and conflict (if any)

5 main artistic and expressive means:

Epithets, comparisons, hyperbole, antithesis, refrain, personification, metaphor, allegory, etc.

poetic phonetics: assonance, alliteration, sound writing (if any)

poetic vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, archaisms, neologisms, dialects. (if any), an explanation of incomprehensible words.

syntax and construction features: dialogue, monologue, appeals, intonation, inversion, series of homogeneous members

6Rhythm. Poetic size

(iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapaest, amphibrach)

^ RHYME(MALE, FEMALE, DACTILLIC)

(steam room, cross, ring

7 Genre originality of the poem(ode, hymn, romance, elegy, message)

8 Traits of a lyrical hero(if there is)

^ 9 My personal perception of the poem

An example of texts with reasoning.

The reasoning is built according to the scheme:

2 arguments

3 examples

“Love reading because literature gives you a vast and deep experience of life. It makes a person intelligent, develops in him not only a sense of beauty, but also understanding - an understanding of life, all its complexities, serves as a guide to other eras and to other peoples, opens people's hearts to you - in a word, makes you wise "

(D.S. Likhachev)

^ The main thesis of the text - read, because literature gives the experience of life.

Arguments (evidence)) and examples- Literature makes a person intelligent, develops a sense of beauty, gives an understanding of life, serves as a guide to other eras, opens people's hearts.

Conclusion: literature makes a man wise.

If there are thunderstorms in the sky

If the grasses bloomed

If it grew early in the morning

Bend blades to the ground

If in the groves above the viburnum

Until the night, the rumble of bees,

If warmed by the sun

All the water in the river to the bottom, -

So it's already summer!

So spring is over!

^ Thesis to be proven summer has come

Proof: there are thunderstorms in the sky, grasses have bloomed, abundant dew, the hum of bees, warm water in the river

Conclusion: That means spring is over!

An example of texts with combined types of speech

№1

“All night the swamps breathed the smell of wet moss, bark, black snags.

By morning the rain had passed. The gray sky hung low overhead. From the fact that the clouds almost touched the tops of the birches, the earth was quiet and warm. The layer of clouds was very thin - the sun shone through it.

We rolled up the tent, put on our backpacks and went. We walked over the bumps, and between the bumps, where the red water was sour, the roots of birches stuck out, sharp as stakes. (K. Paustovsky)

^ In this text, the first paragraph is the description and the second paragraph is the narrative.

№2

“Night has come; the month rises;

Ivan goes around the field,

looking around,

and sits under a bush;

counting the stars in the sky

yes, he eats the edge.

Suddenly, about midnight, the horse neighed ...

Our guard stood up,

Looked under the mitten

And I saw a mare.

The mare was

All white as winter snow

Mane in the land of gold,

Curled in chalk rings.

^ In this text, the story goes first, and at the end - a description of the mare.

Texts for speech style analysis using the full reasoning scheme: thesis, arguments, examples, conclusion.

1. 
   Winter is running out. The sun frowns sleepily in the forest, the forest squints sleepily with eyelashes of needles. The snow turns black on the roads, and puddles glisten on them at noon. It smells of snow and birch buds. (B.Pasternak)

arguments

examples

2 – And what about Italy?

– Italy something? Italy, son, is good. It is hot there, there is a lot of sun, all kinds of fruits grow sweet and tasty. Everyone there is black from the sun walking, undressed, but there is no winter at all. (Yu. Kazakov)

Arguments

examples

3 Italy is a state in the south of Europe, on the Mediterranean Sea.

The climate is Mediterranean: hot, dry summers and rainy winters. Southern vegetation: IN THE MOUNTAINS - FORESTS, IN THE PLAINS - FIELDS, GARDENS, VINEYARDS.

(DICTIONARY- DIRECTORY)

ARGUMENTS

examples

^ Theme and microtheme.

Autumn, deep autumn! Gardens, groves and forests become naked and transparent. Everything is visible through and through in the most deaf village thicket, where in the summer the human eye did not penetrate.

The old trees have long since fallen, and only the young ones retain their withered yellowish leaves, shining with gold when the slanting rays of the autumn sun touch them. Evergreen, as if rejuvenated spruces and pines, refreshed by cold air, stand out brightly through the reddish network of birch branches.

The land is covered with dry, varied leaves: soft and puffy in wet weather, so that the rustle from the hunter's feet is not heard, and hard, fragile in frosts, so that animals and birds jump far from the rustle of human steps. (T.A. Aksakov)

^ Subject this text - deep autumn.

Main thought- show the changes in nature at this time of the year.

There are 3 paragraphs in the text, so three microthemes:

1. 
   Gardens, groves, forests are naked and transparent.
2. 
   evergreen trees
3. 
   The ground is covered with dry various leaves.

microtheme is part of the overall theme of the text.

Paragraph- part of the text connected by one micro-theme. Each paragraph begins with a red line.

^ Speech Development Task

Next to the lightning stands in the same poetic row the word "dawn" - one of the most beautiful words in the Russian language. This word is never spoken out loud. It is impossible even to imagine that it could be shouted. Because it is akin to that settled silence of the night, when a clear and faint blue is occupied over the thickets of a village garden; "unsight" as they say about this time of day among the people.

K. Paustovsky.

1) Find keywords in the text, determine its main idea

2) write 3 short essays of different genres by keywords

3) Genres: composition - reasoning

Essay - narration

Essay - description

The school curriculum necessarily has a theme: "Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning." But after a while, knowledge tends to be erased from memory, so it would be useful to fix this important issue.

What are types of speech? What functions do they perform?

Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning - this is how we talk about a subject. For example, imagine an ordinary table in the office or at home in the kitchen. If you need to describe this item, then you should tell in detail how it looks, what is on it. Such text will be descriptive, therefore, it is a description. If the narrator begins to talk about what this table is for, is it too old, is it not time to change it to a new one, then the chosen type of speech will be called reasoning. A text can be called a narrative if a person tells the story of how this table was ordered or made, brought home and other details of the appearance of the table on the territory of the apartment.

Now for some theory. Types of speech are used by the narrator (author, journalist, teacher, announcer) to convey information. Depending on how it is presented, the typology is determined.

Description is a type of speech, the purpose of which is a detailed story about a static object, image, phenomenon or person.

The narrative informs about the developing action, conveying certain information in a temporal sequence.

With the help of reasoning, the flow of thought regarding the object that caused it is transmitted.

Functional-semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

Types of speech are often called functional-semantic. What does it mean? One of the meanings of the word "function" (there are many others, including mathematical terms) is a role. That is, speech types play a certain role.

The function of description as a type of speech is to recreate a verbal picture, to help the reader see it with his inner vision. This is achieved through the use of adjectives in various degrees of comparison, adverbial phrases, and other speech means. This type of speech is most often found in artistic style. A description in a scientific style will differ significantly from an artistic one in the unemotional, clear course of the story, the obligatory presence of terms and

Narrative is characterized by an image of an action, a situation or a specific case. Using verbs and short, concise sentences, this type of speech is often used in news reports. Its function is notification.

Reasoning as a type of speech is characterized by a variety of styles: artistic, scientific, business and even colloquial. The pursued goal is to clarify, reveal certain features, to prove or disprove something.

Features of the structure of speech types

Each type of speech has a distinct structure. The narrative is characterized by the following classical form:

• string;
• development of events;
• climax;
• denouement.

The description does not have a clear structure, but it differs in such forms as:

• a descriptive story about a person or animal, as well as an object;
• a detailed description of the place;
• state description.

Similar examples are often found in literary texts.

Reasoning is fundamentally different from previous types of speech. Since its purpose is to convey the sequence of the human thought process, the reasoning is constructed as follows:

• thesis (statement);
• arguments, together with given examples (proof of this statement);
• final conclusion or conclusion.

Often types of speech are confused with styles. This is a gross mistake. Below we will explain how styles differ from types.

Types and styles of speech: what are the differences?

The concept of Russian language textbooks appears What is it and are there any differences between styles and types?

So, style is a complex of certain speech means used in a particular area of ​​communication. There are five main styles:

1. Colloquial.
2. Publicistic.
3. Official business (or business).
4. Scientific.
5. Art.

To see you can take any text. The type of speech which will be presented) is present both in scientific and journalistic style. we choose for daily communication. It is characterized by the presence of colloquial expressions, abbreviations and even slang words. It is appropriate at home or with friends, but upon arrival at an official institution, for example, at a school, university or ministry, the style of speech changes to business with scientific elements.

Newspapers and magazines are written in a journalistic style. Using it, broadcast news channels. The scientific style can be found in the educational literature, it is characterized by many terms and concepts.

Finally, the art style. He wrote books that we read for our own pleasure. It is characterized by comparisons (“the morning is beautiful, like the smile of a loved one”), metaphors (“the night sky pours gold on us”) and other artistic expressions. By the way, description is a type of speech that is quite common in fiction and, accordingly, in the style of the same name.

The difference is this: you can describe, reflect or narrate using different styles. For example, when talking about a flower in an artistic style, the author uses a lot of expressive epithets to convey to the listener or reader the beauty of the plant. A biologist, on the other hand, will describe a flower, from the point of view of science, using generally accepted terminology. In the same way, one can argue and narrate. For example, a publicist will write a feuilleton about a carelessly picked flower, using reasoning as a type of speech. At the same time, the girl, using a conversational style, will tell her friend how a classmate gave her a bouquet.

Using Styles

The specificity of speech styles makes their successful neighborhood possible. For example, if the type of speech is description, then it can be supplemented with reasoning. All the same flower can be described in the school wall newspaper, using both scientific or journalistic, and artistic style. It can be an article about the valuable properties of a plant and a poem praising its beauty. In a biology lesson, the teacher, using a scientific style, will offer students information about a flower, and after that he can tell a fascinating legend about it.

Type of speech description. Examples in literature

This type can be conditionally called an image. That is, when describing, the author depicts an object (for example, a table), natural phenomena (thunderstorm, rainbow), a person (a girl from a neighboring class or a favorite actor), an animal, and so on ad infinitum.

As part of the description, the following forms are distinguished:

Portrait;

Description of the state;

Examples of the landscape, you can find in the works of the classics. For example, in the story "The Fate of a Man" the author gives a brief description of the early post-war spring. The pictures recreated by him are so alive and believable that it seems that the reader sees them.

In Turgenev's story "Bezhin Meadow" landscapes also play an important role. With the help of the verbal image of the summer sky and sunset, the writer conveys the powerful beauty and strength of nature.

To remember what a description is as a type of speech, it is worth considering another example.

“We went on a picnic outside the city. But today the sky was gloomy and became more and more unfriendly towards evening. At first the clouds were of a heavy gray hue. The sky was covered with them, like a theater stage after a performance. The sun had not yet set, but it was already invisible. And now lightning appeared between the gloomy curtains of the clouds ... ".

The description is characterized by the use of adjectives. It is thanks to them that this text gives the impression of a picture, conveys color and weather gradations to us. The following questions are asked for a descriptive type story: “What does the described object (person, place) look like? What signs does he have?

Narration: an example

Discussing the previous type of speech (description), it can be noted that it is used by the author to recreate the visual effect. But the narrative conveys the plot in dynamics. This speech type describes events. The following example tells about what happened to the heroes of a short story about a thunderstorm and a picnic next.

“... The first lightning did not frighten us, but we knew that this was only the beginning. We had to collect our things and run away. As soon as a simple dinner was packed into backpacks, the first drops of rain fell on the bedspread. We rushed to the bus stop."

In the text, you need to pay attention to the number of verbs: they create the effect of action. It is the image of the situation in the time period that is the hallmark of the narrative type of speech. In addition, questions of this kind can be asked to a text of this kind: “What was first? What happened next?

Reasoning. Example

What is reasoning as a type of speech? Description and narration are already familiar to us and are easier to understand than text-reasoning. Let's go back to friends caught in the rain. One can easily imagine how they are discussing their adventure: “…Yes, we were lucky that the summer resident motorist noticed us at the bus stop. Good thing he didn't pass by. In a warm bed it is good to talk about a thunderstorm. Not so scary if we were at the same stop again. A thunderstorm is not only unpleasant, but also dangerous. You can't predict where lightning will strike. No, we will never go out of town again without knowing the exact weather forecast. A picnic is good for a sunny day, but in a thunderstorm it’s better to drink tea at home.” The text contains all the structural parts of reasoning as a type of speech. In addition, you can ask him questions that are characteristic of reasoning: “What is the reason? What follows from this?

Finally

Our article was devoted to the types of speech - description, narration and reasoning. The choice of a particular speech type depends on what we are talking about in this case and what goal we are pursuing. We also mentioned the characteristic speech styles, their features and close relationship with the types of speech.

In vocabulary, the main means of expression are trails(translated from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special figurative and expressive means of the language, based on the use of words in a figurative sense.

The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, paraphrase (periphrase), hyperbole, litote, irony.

Special lexical figurative and expressive means of language (tropes)

Epithet(translated from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks a feature that is essential for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.

From a simple definition, the epithet differs in artistic expressiveness and figurativeness. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

Epithets include all "colorful" definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives.

For example: sadly orphaned Earth(F. I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I. A. Bunin).

Epithets can also be expressed:

- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative description of the subject.

For example: sorceress - winter; mother - cheese earth; The poet is a lyre, not just the nurse of his soul(M. Gorky);

- adverbs acting as circumstances.

For example: In the wild stands alone in the north ...(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were stretched tensely in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);

- gerunds .

For example: the waves rush roaring and sparkling;

- pronouns expressing the superlative degree of this or that state of the human soul.

For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, some more!(M. Yu. Lermontov);

- participles And participle turnovers .

For example: Nightingales with rumbling words announce the forest limits(B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of ... scribblers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in the language, except for words, not remembering kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative sense.

From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word, acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:

metaphorical (They are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.

For example: golden cloud, bottomless sky, lilac fog, walking cloud and standing tree.

Metaphorical epithets- a striking sign of the author's style:

You are my cornflower blue word
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now,
Sadness straw pulling?
(S.A. Yesenin. “I haven’t seen such beautiful ones?”);

How greedily the world of the night soul
Heeds the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. “What are you howling about, night wind?”).

metonymic (They are based on a metonymic figurative meaning.

For example: suede gait(V. V. Nabokov); scratchy look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful language(S. A. Yesenin).

From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:

- general language (deathly silence, lead waves),

- folk-poetic (permanent) ( red sun, violent wind, good fellow).

In poetic folklore, the epithet, which, together with the defined word, constitutes a stable phrase, performed, in addition to the content, mnemonic function (gr. mnemo nicon- the art of memory).

Constant epithets made it easier for the singer, the narrator to perform the work. Any folklore text is saturated with such, for the most part, "decorating" epithets.

« In folklore, - writes the literary critic V.P. Anikin, - the girl is always red, well done - kind, father - dear, kids - small, youngster - remote, body - white, hands - white, tears - combustible, voice - loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - combustible, sands - loose, night - dark, forest - stagnant, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - formidable , the winds are violent, the field is clean, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is the king, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»

Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets has changed somewhat. Recreation of style, or stylization of folklore genres, involves the widespread use of constant epithets. Yes, they abound A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov» Lermontov: the sun is red, the clouds are blue, the golden crown, the formidable king, the daring fighter, the thought is strong, the thought is black, the heart is hot, the shoulders are heroic, the saber is sharp etc.

The epithet can incorporate the properties of many trails . Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can also be combined with the personification ... foggy and quiet azure over sadly orphaned earth(F. I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows what a deep and mute peace is - a harbinger of a long bad weather(I. A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.

The role of epithets in the text

All epithets as bright, "illuminating" definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of the depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.

In addition, epithets can:

Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features of objects.

For example: Wandering among the rocks, a yellow ray crept into the wild cave And illuminated the smooth skull...(M. Yu. Lermontov);

Clarify the distinguishing features of the object (shape, color, size, quality):

For example: Forest, like a painted tower, Lilac, gold, crimson, Cheerful, motley wall Stands over a bright glade(I. A. Bunin);

Create word combinations that are contrasting in meaning and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: squalid luxury(L. N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);

To convey the attitude of the author to the depicted, to express the author's assessment and the author's perception of the phenomenon: ... Dead words smell bad(N. S. Gumilyov); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word.(S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What does it mean smiling blessing heaven, this happy resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)

Figurative epithets highlight the essential aspects of the depicted without introducing a direct assessment (“ in the blue fog of the sea», « in the dead sky" and so on.).

In expressive (lyric) epithets , on the contrary, the relation to the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ flickering images of crazy people», « tedious night story»).

It should be borne in mind that this division is rather arbitrary, since pictorial epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.

Epithets are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as in colloquial and popular science styles of speech.

Comparison- This is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.

Unlike metaphor comparison is always binomial : it names both compared objects (phenomena, signs, actions).

For example: Villages are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed in various ways:

Form of the instrumental case of nouns.

For example: Nightingale stray Youth flew by, Wave in bad weather Joy subsided.(A.V. Koltsov) The moon slides like a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Leaves flew like stars.(D. Samoilov) Flying rain sparkles golden in the sun.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang like glass fringes.(I. Shmelev) A patterned clean towel A rainbow hangs from the birches.(N. Rubtsov)

The form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb.

For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and darker than our cypresses.(A. Akhmatova) Girl's eyes are brighter than roses.(A. S. Pushkin) But the eyes are blue of the day.(S. Yesenin) Bushes of mountain ash are more foggy than depth.(S. Yesenin) Freer youth.(A. S. Pushkin) The truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) Lighter than the sun is the throne room. M. Tsvetaeva)

Comparative turnovers with unions like, like, like, like and etc.

For example: Like a predatory animal, into a humble abode The winner bursts with bayonets ...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at a bird's flight With eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Here every village is so loving, As if in it the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And stand behind the oak nets Like the evil spirits of the forest, stumps.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, The heart jumps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) my verses, like precious wines, It will be your turn.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's close to noon. The fire is burning. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (A. S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, Spreads like a pattern in the distance.(V. Bryusov)

Beyond the river in restlessness
cherry blossomed,
Like snow across the river
Filled the stitch.
Like light blizzards
Rushed with all their might
Like swans were flying
Dropped fluff.(A. Prokofiev)

With the help of words similar, like this.

For example: Your eyes look like the eyes of a cautious cat(A. Akhmatova);

With the help of comparative clauses.

For example: Golden foliage swirled in pinkish water on the pond, Like butterflies, a light flock With fading flies to the star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, It has been drizzling since midnight, Like a muslin curtain Hanging behind the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless heights, As if hundreds of white wings flew silently. (V. Tushnova) Like a tree shedding its leaves So I drop sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)

Comparisons can be direct Andnegative

Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way to stylize the text.

For example: It's not a horse top, not human talk... (A. S. Pushkin)

A special type of comparison is extended comparisons, with the help of which entire texts can be built.

For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev " Like hot ashes...»:
Like hot ashes
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and deaf
Words and lines devour -

So sadly my life is smoldering
And every day the smoke goes away
So gradually I go out
In unbearable monotony! ..

Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, without languishing, without tormenting the share,
I would shine - and went out!

The role of comparisons in the text

Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text in order to enhance its figurativeness and figurativeness, create more vivid, expressive images and highlight, emphasize any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as to express the author's assessments and emotions.

For example:
I like it my friend
When the word melts
And when it sings
Heat pours over the line,
So that words blush from words,
So that they, going in flight,
Curled, fought to sing,
To eat like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);

In every soul it seems to live, burn, glow, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, it goes out when it, having completed its life path, flies from our lips ... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years. (M. M. Prishvin)

Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, scientific ones.

Metaphor(translated from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena on some basis. It is sometimes said that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.

For example, a metaphor Red rowan bonfire burns in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.

Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, have lost imagery in our perception.

For example: bank burst, dollar circulation, dizzy and etc.

In contrast to comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, the metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness of the use of the word.

The metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.

For example: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language ("erased")

For example: golden hands, a storm in a teacup, move mountains, strings of the soul, love faded ;

2) artistic (individual-author's, poetic)

For example: And the stars fade diamond thrill in the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty skies clear glass(A. Akhmatova); AND blue eyes, bottomless bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: bonfire of red mountain ash, birch cheerful tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky; or September's bloody tears, overgrowth of raindrops, lantern buns and roof tops at Boris Pasternak
The metaphor is paraphrased into a comparison using auxiliary words. like, like, like, like and so on.

There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.

Erased - a common metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.

For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand and so on.

A whole work or a large excerpt from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called "unfolded", in which the image "unfolds", that is, it is revealed in detail.

So, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet"is an example of an extended metaphor. The transformation of the lyrical hero into the herald of the will of the Lord - the poet-prophet, his quenching " spiritual thirst", that is, the desire to know the meaning of being and find one's vocation, is depicted by the poet gradually: " six-winged seraph", the messenger of God, transformed the hero of his" right hand"- the right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received a different vision, a different hearing, other mental and spiritual abilities. He could " heed”, that is, to comprehend the sublime, heavenly values ​​\u200b\u200band earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. Pushkin depicts this beautiful and painful process, “ stringing"one metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire eagle vigilance, his ears fill" noise and ringing"of life, the language ceases to be "idle and crafty", passing on the wisdom received as a gift, " quivering heart" turns into " coal burning with fire". The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of ​​the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted to see him, should be a forerunner of the future and an exposer of human vices, inspire people with his word, encourage goodness and truth.

Examples of an extended metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is marked in italics, its “deployment” is underlined):
... let's say goodbye together,
O my light youth!
Thanks for the pleasure
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For noise, for storms, for feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"

We drink from the cup of life
With closed eyes...
Lermontov "Cup of Life"

…boy caught by love
To a girl wrapped in silks...
N. Gumilyov " Eagle of Sinbad"

The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
S. Yesenin " The golden grove dissuaded…"

Sad, and crying, and laughing,
The streams of my poems are ringing
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living ligature,
Their not knowing the shores.
A. Blok " Sad, and crying, and laughing..."

Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke ...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"

... seethed, washing away the kings,
July Curve Street...
O. Mandelstam " I pray like pity and mercy..."

Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the rocks, breaking the emerald bulks into dust and spray.
M. Gorky " Song of the Petrel"

The sea has woken up. It played in small waves, giving birth to them, decorating with fringed foam, pushing against each other and breaking them into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"

Realized - metaphor , which again acquires a direct meaning. The result of this process at the everyday level is often comical:

For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus

The exam will not take place: all tickets are sold.

If you've gone into yourself, don't come back empty-handed and so on.

The simple-hearted joker-gravedigger in the tragedy of W. Shakespeare " Hamlet”to the question of the protagonist about,“ on what ground"lost his mind" the young prince, replies: " In our Danish". He understands the word the soil"literally - the top layer of the earth, the territory, while Hamlet means figuratively - for what reason, as a result of which.

« Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat! "- the tsar complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin" Boris Godunov". The crown of Russian tsars since the time of Vladimir Monomakh has been in the form of a hat. It was adorned with precious stones, so it was "heavy" in the literal sense of the word. In a figurative way - Monomakh's hat» personified « heaviness”, the responsibility of the royal power, the heavy duties of the autocrat.

In the novel by A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin» An important role is played by the image of the Muse, which since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression "the muse visited the poet" has a figurative meaning. But Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student cell» Precisely Muse « opened a feast of young inventions- pranks and serious disputes about life. It is she who " sang"Everything that the young poet aspired to - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a cheerful feast, thoughtless joy -" children's fun". Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", and the poet was proud of his" windy girlfriend».

During the southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her pernicious passions, resolute, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:

How often l asce Muse
I delighted the dumb way
By the magic of a secret story!..

At the turning point of the author's creative quest, it was she who
She appeared as a county lady,
With sad thoughts in my eyes...

Throughout the entire work affectionate Muse"was correct" girlfriend» poet.

The realization of a metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem A cloud in pants" it implements the running expression " nerves went wild" or " nerves are naughty»:
Hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed
nerve jumped.
Here, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about in a desperate tap dance ...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many -
jumping mad,
and already
the nerves give way to the legs!

It should be remembered that the boundary between different types of metaphor is very conditional, unsteady, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.

The role of metaphors in the text

Metaphor is one of the brightest and most powerful means of creating expressiveness and figurativeness of a text.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and visibility of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness, individuality of objects or phenomena, while showing the depth and nature of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, the measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be adopted from another - this is a sign of talent "(Aristotle).

Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.

For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)

In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of colloquial and even scientific style (" the ozone hole », « electron cloud " and etc.).

personification- this is a kind of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.

More often personifications are used in describing nature.

For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys
Sleepy mists lay down,
And only the stomp of a horse,
Sounding, is lost in the distance.
Extinguished, turning pale, the day autumn,
Rolling fragrant leaves,
Eating dreamless sleep
Semi-withered flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.

For example:
Isn't it true, never again
We won't break up? Enough?..
AND the violin answered Yes,
But the heart of the violin was in pain.
The bow understood everything, it calmed down,
And in the violin, the echo kept everything ...
And it was a pain for them
What people thought was music.
(I. F. Annensky);

There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in face of this house. (D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak)

Avatars- the paths are very old, with their roots in pagan antiquity and therefore occupy such an important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Poganoe Idolishche - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters of fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.

One of the literary genres closest to folklore, the fable, is based on personification.

Even today, without personification, it is unthinkable to imagine works of art; without them, our everyday speech is unthinkable.

Figurative speech not only visually represents thought. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing the subject in detail, we can compare it with an already known subject.

It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with mist
Whirlwinds of snow twisting,
Like a beast, she will howl,
He will cry like a child."(A.S. Pushkin)

The role of personifications in the text

Personifications serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, to enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings.

Personification as an expressive means is used not only in the artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific.

For example: X-ray shows, the device speaks, the air heals, something stirred in the economy.

The most common metaphors are formed on the principle of personification, when an inanimate object acquires the properties of an animate one, as it were, acquires a face.

1. Usually, the two components of a metaphor-personification are the subject and the predicate: the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud spent the night», « waves are playing».

« get angry", that is, only a person can experience irritation, but" snowstorm", a blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings" evil". « spend the night", sleep peacefully at night, only living beings are capable," cloud"But personifies a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine « waves"in the imagination of the poet" play', like children.

We often find examples of metaphors of this type in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly raptures will leave us ...
A death dream flies over him ...
My days are gone...
The spirit of life woke up in him...
Fatherland caressed you ...
Poetry awakens in me...

2. Many metaphors-personifications are built according to the method of management: “ lyre singing», « the voice of the waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.

A musical instrument is like a human voice, and it too " sings”, and the splashing of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " favorite», « minion"are not only in people, but also in the wayward" fashion"or changeable" happiness».

For example: "Winters of threat", "Abyss voice", "joy of sadness", "day of despondency", "son of laziness", "threads ... of fun", "brother by muse, by fate", "victim of slander", "cathedral wax faces ”, “Joy language”, “mourn the burden”, “hope of young days”, “pages of malice and vice”, “holy voice”, “by the will of passions”.

But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animation and inanimateness. An inanimate object does NOT gain the properties of an animate object.

1). Subject and predicate: “ Desire is seething”, “Eyes are burning”, “Heart is empty”.

Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and " boil". Eyes, betraying excitement, shine and " are burning". Heart, soul, not warmed by feeling, can become " empty».

For example: “I learned grief early, I was comprehended by persecution”, “our youth will not suddenly fade”, “noon ... burned”, “the moon floats”, “conversations flow”, “stories spread out”, “love ... faded away”, “I call the shadow "," life fell.

2). Phrases built according to the method of management can also, being metaphors, NOT be personification: “ dagger of treachery», « glory tomb», « chain of clouds" and etc.

Steel arms - " dagger" - kills a person, but " treason"is like a dagger and can also destroy, break life. " Tomb"- this is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain" consists of metal links, but " clouds”, whimsically intertwining, form a semblance of a chain in the sky.

For example: “flattering necklaces”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest ... voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “poems incandescence”, “fire ... black eyes”, “salt of solemn insults”, “ the science of parting”, “the flame of southern blood” .

Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the word being defined receives the properties of some substance, material: "windows crystal", "gold hair" .

On a sunny day, the window seems to sparkle like " crystal", and the hair takes on the color" gold". Here, the hidden comparison embedded in the metaphor is especially noticeable.

For example: "in the black velvet of the Soviet night, In the velvet of the world's emptiness", "poems ... grape meat", "crystal of high notes", "poems with rattling pearls".

When we talk about art, literary creativity, we are focused on the impressions that are created when reading. They are largely determined by the imagery of the work. In fiction and poetry, there are special techniques for enhancing expressiveness. Competent presentation, public speaking - they also need ways to build expressive speech.

For the first time, the concept of rhetorical figures, figures of speech, appeared among the speakers of ancient Greece. In particular, Aristotle and his followers were engaged in their research and classification. Going into details, scientists identified up to 200 varieties that enrich the language.

The means of expressiveness of speech are divided by language level into:

• phonetic;
• lexical;
• syntactic.

The use of phonetics is traditional for poetry. The poem is often dominated by musical sounds that give poetic speech a special melodiousness. In the drawing of a verse, stress, rhythm and rhyme, and combinations of sounds are used for amplification.

Anaphora- repetition of sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. “The golden stars dozed off ...” - a repetition of the initial sounds, Yesenin used a phonetic anaphora.

And here is an example of a lexical anaphora in Pushkin's poems:

Alone you rush through the clear azure,
You alone cast a sad shadow,
You alone grieve the jubilant day.

Epiphora- a similar technique, but much less common, with words or phrases repeated at the end of lines or sentences.

The use of lexical devices associated with a word, lexeme, as well as phrases and sentences, syntax, is considered as a tradition of literary creativity, although it is also widely found in poetry.

Conventionally, all means of expressiveness of the Russian language can be divided into tropes and stylistic figures.

trails

Tropes are the use of words and phrases in a figurative sense. Tropes make speech more figurative, enliven and enrich it. Some tropes and their examples in literary work are listed below.

Epithet- artistic definition. Using it, the author gives the word an additional emotional coloring, its own assessment. To understand how an epithet differs from an ordinary definition, you need to catch when reading, does the definition give a new connotation to the word? Here is an easy test. Compare: late autumn - golden autumn, early spring - young spring, a quiet breeze - a gentle breeze.

personification- transferring the signs of living beings to inanimate objects, nature: "The gloomy rocks looked sternly ...".

Comparison- direct comparison of one object, phenomenon with another. “The night is gloomy, like a beast ...” (Tyutchev).

Metaphor- transferring the meaning of one word, object, phenomenon to another. Similarity detection, implicit comparison.

“A fire of red mountain ash is burning in the garden ...” (Yesenin). The rowan brushes remind the poet of the flames of a fire.

Metonymy- renaming. Transfer of property, value from one object to another according to the principle of adjacency. “Which is in felt, let's bet” (Vysotsky). In felts (material) - in a felt hat.

Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy. Transferring the meaning of one word to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship: singular - plural, part - whole. “We all look at the Napoleons” (Pushkin).

Irony- the use of a word or expression in an inverted sense, mocking. For example, an appeal to the Donkey in Krylov’s fable: “From where, smart, are you wandering, head?”

Hyperbola- a figurative expression containing exorbitant exaggeration. It can relate to size, value, strength, other qualities. Litota, on the contrary, is an exorbitant understatement. Hyperbole is often used by writers, journalists, and litotes are much less common. Examples. Hyperbole: “In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned” (V.V. Mayakovsky). Litota: "a man with a fingernail."

Allegory- a specific image, scene, image, object that visually represents an abstract idea. The role of the allegory is to point to the subtext, to force you to look for hidden meaning when reading. Widely used in fable.

Alogism- deliberate violation of logical connections for the purposes of irony. “That landowner was stupid, he read the Vesti newspaper and his body was soft, white and crumbly.” (Saltykov-Shchedrin). The author deliberately mixes logically heterogeneous concepts in the enumeration.

Grotesque- a special technique, a combination of hyperbole and metaphor, a fantastic surrealistic description. An outstanding master of the Russian grotesque was N. Gogol. On the use of this technique, his story "The Nose" is built. The combination of the absurd with the ordinary makes a special impression when reading this work.

Figures of speech

Stylistic figures are also used in literature. Their main types are displayed in the table:

Test "Means of artistic expression"

To test yourself on the assimilation of the material, take a short test.

Read the following passage:

“There, the war smelled of gasoline and soot, burnt iron and gunpowder, it gnashed its caterpillars, scribbled from machine guns and fell into the snow, and rose again under fire ...”

What means of artistic expression are used in an excerpt from the novel by K. Simonov?

Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts.

Drum beat, clicks, rattle,

The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan,

And death and hell on all sides.

A. Pushkin

The answer to the test is given at the end of the article.

Expressive language is, first of all, an internal image that arises when reading a book, listening to an oral presentation, presentation. Image management requires pictorial techniques. There are enough of them in the great and mighty Russian. Use them, and the listener or reader will find their image in your speech pattern.

Study expressive language, its laws. Determine for yourself what is missing in your performances, in your drawing. Think, write, experiment, and your language will become an obedient tool and your weapon.

Answer to the test

K. Simonov. The personification of war in a passage. Metonymy: howling soldiers, equipment, battlefield - the author ideologically combines them into a generalized image of war. The used methods of expressive language are polyunion, syntactic repetition, parallelism. Through this combination of stylistic devices, when reading, a revived, rich image of the war is created.

A. Pushkin. There are no conjunctions in the first lines of the poem. In this way, the tension, the saturation of the battle is conveyed. In the phonetic pattern of the scene, the sound "p" in various combinations plays a special role. When reading, a roaring, growling background appears, ideologically conveying the noise of battle.

If answering the test, you could not give the correct answers, do not worry. Just re-read the article.