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In addition to agriculture, in his study of the structure of society, Montchretien also turned to the study of industry and trade. Since exchange became the basis of most productive labor, sellers and "merchants" began to play a central coordinating role. Profit, being their main incentive, was to be encouraged and protected (by the state):

merchants are more than helpful, and their concern for income, which is carried out in work and industry, creates / is the cause of much of the public wealth. For this reason, they must forgive the love of profit and the desire for it.

From this naturally follows the statement of the mercantilists on the need for government assistance in improving the well-being of nations. First emphasizing the close relationship between politics and economics, it was Montchretien who dubbed political economy a work that included simple proofs about how the wealth of a nation is produced, distributed and exchanged, and which were systematically studied only a century and a half later.

The economic ideas of Thomas Man

One of the ideologists of developed mercantilism was Thomas Man. In 1621 he issued "Discourses on Trade with the East Indies", the purpose of which was to justify the activities of the East India Company. The company was created not only as an enterprise that brings profit to its owners (shareholders), but also as an instrument of state policy. Mun argued that the company was right to take money out of England, because in the end it turns into the importation of even more money into the country. It is impossible to take only one stage of the trade turnover to assess the final results of the activity of some business entity. To explain his position, Mun uses the "farmer's metaphor": the farmer, scattering grains (read "money"), counts on a harvest that will not only cover the cost of grain, but also pay for them a hundredfold. In other words, in order to increase the flow of precious metals into the country, you must first spend some of them. In 1664 his second book was published. "The wealth of England in the outer trade". The main idea of ​​this work is that the consumption of foreign goods should be less than the export of domestic goods.

Man was also one of those who developed the concept trade balance. Balance of trade - the final summary of all transactions of the country in foreign trade for a certain period (for example, for a year). It lists all payments made by a given country for goods and services purchased from other countries, and all receipts of "specie" in this country for goods and services supplied by it. (Annex 1).

The difference between exports (receipt of money from abroad) and imports (payments abroad), or the balance of trade, was, according to mercantilists, the most important source of accumulation of the country's wealth. Therefore, the main means of increasing national wealth is the creation of a favorable trade balance for the country, maximizing the positive balance of trade. The policy of the state is to minimize the import of foreign goods and increase the export of domestic goods abroad. For this, a protectionist policy is applied, which includes the following elements:

1. Foreign trade policy. The import of many foreign goods into the country is prohibited, protective and prohibitive duties are introduced, export premiums are established; the creation of trade monopolies is encouraged.

2. Industrial policy. Manufacture industries are planted and developed, since industrial products are of greater value than primary goods and are easier to transport. In the field of industrial policy, the mercantilists sought to maximize value added. This task can be achieved, on the one hand, by increasing the degree of processing of goods, and on the other hand, by reducing the cost of their production. To reduce labor costs, the following measures were taken: the adoption of laws establishing a ceiling (maximum value) of wages, restricting the movement of labor (an example is the ban on emigration in France); restricting food exports to lower the cost of living; attraction of foreign specialists. To reduce the cost of raw materials, colonies were seized in order to turn them into sources of cheap raw materials and, at the same time, markets for finished products.

Thomas Mun, in his Discourse on the Trade of England with the East Indies in Reply to the Various Objections Usually Made Against It, wrote: “The trade in commodities is not only a commendable practice which so worthily brings about communication between; peoples, but also, as I would say, truly the touchstone of the prosperity of the state, if only certain rules are carefully observed.

Considering the economy of private individuals, we can consider that only that person prospers and grows rich, who, having a greater or lesser income, proportions his expenses accordingly; he can then save annually for his offspring.

The same happens in those states which, with great care and thrift, try to sell more of their own domestic goods than they import and consume foreign goods; for as a result, the remainder undoubtedly returns to them in the form of money. But if, due to frivolity and extravagance, they act differently, they spend their own and foreign goods excessively, then it is necessary to export money as a means of paying for these excesses; and so, because of the licentious way of life, many rich countries have become extremely impoverished.

Therefore, diligence, which increases wealth, and thrift, which preserves it, are truly faithful guardians of the wealth of the state, even in cases where the strength and fear of royal prohibitions are not able to keep it. It is quite clear that a certain proportionality must always be observed in the importation of foreign goods, in the same way it is necessary to take into account their quality and purpose.

According to I. Plotnikov, Thomas Mun (1571-1641) in his pamphlet Discourse on the Trade of England with the East Indies (1621) for the first time formulates the basic principles of mercantilism in England. Marx wrote about Manet in ch. 10 of the second part of Anti-Dühring: “This work (Discourse on the Trade of England with the East Indies.) Already in the first edition has the specific meaning that it is directed against the original, then defended as state practice, monetary system, therefore it is conscious separation of mercantilism from the mother system.Already in its original form, this work has withstood many editions and had a direct impact on legislation.In a completely revised edition of 1664 by the author and which appeared only after his death, under the title England's wealth in foreign trade ("England" s treasure by forreign trade"), it remained for the next century the gospel of mercantilism. If mercantilism can be found creating an era, then this work undoubtedly is." Mun was a member of the board of the famous East India Company and the government trade committee (Commission of trade). to "England's treasure by forreign trade" John Mun wrote about him: "In his time he enjoyed great fame among merchants and was well known to most business people, thanks to his great experience in business and a deep understanding of trade." His main work is "The Wealth of England in Foreign Trade" (6 editions in the 17th and 18th centuries). A. Smith mentions in the Wealth of Nations, where he writes: "The very name of Man's book. became the main position of political economy not only in England, but also in all other trading countries." In addition to the two works of Mann named by us and placed in the collection, he also owns the Petition of London merchants trading with the East Indies, containing the same basic ideas, presented to the House of Commons in October 1628. Between two works of Mann: Discourse on the trade of England with the East Indies and The wealth of England in foreign trade is a great difference, not only external, but also internal. The first work is mainly an apology and defense of the East Indian trade against attacks on it from different sides (supporters of the monetary system and defenders of trade with the Levant). The main provisions of mercantilism are expressed only in passing. On the contrary, in the second pamphlet the author does not deal directly with the East Indian trade, but systematically expounds the mercantilist credo, criticizing the supporters of the monetary system. The first pamphlet is also of interest in the sense that it gives a fairly clear picture of the first two decades of English trade with the East Indies (the first trip to the East Indies was organized in 1600; Man's comparison of two routes for Indian goods to Europe (overland from the Persian Gulf to the shores of Asia Minor through Turkish possessions and the sea route around Africa from the Persian Gulf) clearly shows the revolution in trade routes that led to the decline of Italian cities (and at the same time the Levantine Company in England) and to the economic rise of European states adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean.Information about the size of this trade, its content, prices, etc. is also interesting.

Introduction

Starting from the XIV century. in the economies of some Western European countries, the feudal mode of production is entering the stage of decomposition. Subsistence economy is gradually being replaced by commodity-money relations. Commodity exchange is increasingly becoming a condition of economic life. In the XV-XVII centuries. Europe is undergoing major changes. Centralized national states are being formed, cities are actively growing and strengthening, trade, material production, and navigation are booming, great geographical discoveries and colonial conquests are being made, and the era of primitive capital accumulation is underway. During this period, banking activity was widely developed, trading houses and monopoly associations of merchants appeared. Merchants, previously considered the third estate, are coming to the forefront, both in the economy and in politics. In the field of science there is a gradual liberation from the influence of theology. Experimental science is developing.
Based on these processes in the advanced countries of Western Europe from the XIV century. economic doctrine and the policy of mercantilism begin to take shape (it. mercante- trader, merchant).
Mercantilism, as an economic doctrine, is the first school of economic theory that arose in England, France, Italy and other countries in the initial period of the development of capitalism. Her followers attempted to determine the form of society's wealth and ways to increase it.
Mercantilists, the basis of wealth - both private and national - was presented in the form of the accumulation of money, coins of gold and silver, the universal equivalent of a commodity economy. They measured the strength of the state by its monetary resources. Profits (income) that arose in foreign trade served as sources of accumulation of money.
Mercantilism, as a policy, was aimed at creating strong national centralized states, which were supposed to provide favorable conditions for national commercial capital for its development due to the influx of money from other countries.
In the development of mercantilist politics, two stages are distinguished: early mercantilism and late (mature) mercantilism.
Early mercantilism (monetarism), covers the XIV-XVI centuries. He was characterized by concern for an active monetary balance (the excess of the amount of money imported into the country over the amount exported from it). Since wealth is money, the main purpose of the state is to attract foreign coins into the country and prevent their own from leaking abroad. For this, administrative means of a coercive nature were used (“the law on spending”, “the law on detectives”) and manipulations in the sphere of money circulation (damage to money).
Late mercantilism (manufactory), the end of the 16th - the first half of the 18th centuries. opposed the ban on the export of money, which impeded the development of foreign trade, and for an active trade balance (the excess of the value of goods exported from the country over the value of goods imported into the country). For late mercantilism, a more mature approach is characteristic, expressed in achieving the goal by economic means.
The most famous representatives of mercantilism were William Stafford, John Lowe, Antoine de Montchretien, Gaspard Scaruffi, Antonio Gevonesi. But the main theorist of late mercantilism, who expressed the point of view of merchant capital, was Thomas Maine, later called the "trade strategist".

Brief biographical note

Major works in the field of economics

"A Discourse on the Trade of England with the East Indies, Containing an Answer to the Various Objections Usually Made Against It", 1621
Petition of London merchants trading with the East Indies, 1628
"The Wealth of England in Foreign Trade, or The Balance of Our Foreign Trade as the Regulator of Our Wealth", 1630 (published 1664)

Views on the theory of wealth, the role of the state, labor, price, money, value.

A look at the theory of wealth

Achieve a positive trade balance, "sell to foreigners annually for a greater amount than we buy from them";
Not to accumulate money as a treasure, but to use it in trading operations, to expand trade - "the export of our money is a means to increase our wealth";
To be economical in expenses, to avoid waste, excesses, vicious idleness. Referring to the example of the industrious Dutch neighbors of the English, Maine condemns those who, "indulging in pleasures and in recent years fooling themselves with pipe and bottle, and becoming like animals, sucking smoke and drinking each other's health", lose the usual valor that the English "often so well manifested both at sea and on land.

conclusions

Thomas Mann was born on June 6, 1875 in Lübeck, in northern Germany, into the family of a wealthy merchant. But in 1891, his father died, and his shipping company went bankrupt.

When Thomas was 16, his family moved to Munich. Here, the future writer worked in an insurance company and was engaged in journalism. After a while he became an editor in a satirical weekly and began to try writing books.

In 1901, Mann's first novel, The Buddenbrooks, was published. In 1903, the short story "Tonio Kroeger" was published. These works were a great success.

In 1905, Mann married Katya Pringsheim, the daughter of a prominent mathematician, a descendant of an old Jewish family of bankers and merchants. They had six children, three girls and three boys.

Thomas Mann and his wife Katja Pringsheim. Photo 1929

In 1913, the short story "Death in Venice" was published. During First World War Mann wrote the book Reasoning of the Apolitical (1918). In this work, he criticized liberal optimism and opposed rationalistic Enlightenment philosophy.

After the war, Mann again took up literary activity. In 1924, the novel The Magic Mountain was written.

Literary Nobel. Thomas Mann

In 1929, Mann received the Nobel Prize in Literature "primarily for the great novel The Buddenbrooks, which has become a classic of modern literature and whose popularity is steadily growing."

After receiving the Nobel Prize, Mann began to pay a lot of attention to politics. He advocated the creation of a common front of socialist workers and bourgeois liberals to fight against the Nazi threat. In 1930, the political allegory "Mario and the Magician" was created. Mann was highly critical of the Nazis.

When Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Mann and his wife, who were in Switzerland at the time, decided not to return home. In 1938 they moved to the United States. For about three years, Mann lectured in the humanities at Princeton University, in 1941-1952. he lived with his wife in California.

In 1936, Mann was deprived by the Nazis of German citizenship and an honorary doctorate from the University of Bonn (awarded to him in 1919). But in 1949, at the end of World War II, the honorary degree was returned to him.

For many years (1933-1943) Mann worked on a tetralogy about the biblical Joseph. In 1939, the novel "Lotta in Weimar" (1939) was created, in 1947 - "Doctor Faustus", in 1954 - "The Adventures of the Adventurer Felix Krul".

In 1949 Mann received the Goethe Prize. This prize was awarded to him jointly by West and East Germany. In addition, he held honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge universities.

Mann loved his wife, but marriage could not save him from the homosexual attraction that haunted the writer all his life.

Mercantilism had not only general principles and features, but also country specifics. We need to consider them in England, France, Holland, Italy, Germany, Russia. It is important to identify the rational elements of mercantilism.

Thomas Man (1571-1641) - the most famous and authoritative representative of developed mercantilism, Thomas Man (1571-1641). He was a major merchant, director of the East India Company, and an influential member of the powerful bourgeois corporation called the City of London. Man was the author of the theory of trade balance. Balance of trade - the final summary of all transactions of the country in foreign trade for a certain period (for example, for a year). It indicates all payments made by a given country for goods and services purchased from other countries, and all receipts of "specie" in this country for goods and services supplied by it. Manu was brought to fame by his book, the title of which itself expresses the main idea: "Wealth England in Foreign Trade, or the Balance of Our Foreign Trade as the Regulator of Our Wealth" (1664). As Marx says, "this work remained for another hundred years the gospel of mercantilism ... if mercantilism has any work that constitutes an epoch "as a kind of inscription over the entrance," then Man's book should be recognized as such a work. In this book, compiled from rather heterogeneous chapters, the very essence of mercantilism is concisely and accurately stated. As a true mercantilist, Mun sees wealth mainly in its monetary form (gold, silver). His thinking is dominated by the point of view of commercial capital. Mang is against the prohibition of the export of money, since money brings wealth only when it is in circulation. He clearly articulates the theory of the balance of trade. Man points out that the basic rule of foreign trade is to sell goods to foreigners for a greater amount than that for which foreign goods are consumed in a given country. Mun compared money to seeds, which "the farmer, throwing into the ground, squanders, as it were, but in the autumn he receives back in the form of a plentiful harvest." Mun spoke out for the development of industry, for the export of finished products, not raw materials, for the development of transit trade and shipping.

A. Montchretien (1575-1621) - French economist. The main work is the Treatise of Political Economy. Introduced the term "political economy". The place that Montchretien occupies in the history of economics is probably more the result of the title than of the content. Political Economy. Never before have the words "political" and "economy" been combined on the title page of a volume that claims to be a treatise that presupposes a systematic treatment of one topic. For some, this is the only merit of Montchretien, others believe that he was busy with the painstaking work of separating the analytical wheat from the chaff of factual data. Montchretien's contribution to economics, even if somewhat lacking in originality, introduces for the first time some important elements of what was to serve as the standard of the mercantilist way of thinking. Montchretien was the first to add (to external wars) the pursuit of wealth as a means of securing the stability of France's social order, which had formed around the king. Policy is one of those first works that explicitly calls into question the old Aristotelian assertion of the independence of politics from (and its superiority to) other aspects of social life, including economic activity. Labor is no longer under a curse, but is one of the factors of political stability, productive labor and the accumulation of wealth - Montchretien came to this logical conclusion: "the happiness of people: lies mainly in wealth, and wealth - in work." In addition to agriculture, in his study of the structure of society, Montchretien also turned to the study of industry and trade. Since exchange became the basis of most productive labor, sellers and "merchants" began to play a central coordinating role. Profit, being their main incentive, was to be encouraged and protected (by the state): merchants are more than useful, and their concern for income, which is carried out in work and industry, creates/is the cause of much of the public wealth. For this reason, they should be forgiven for the love of profit and the desire for it. From this naturally follows the statement of the mercantilists about the need for state assistance in improving the welfare of nations. For the first time, emphasizing the close relationship between politics and economics, it was Montchretien christened political economy a work that included simple proofs about how the wealth of a nation is produced, distributed and exchanged, and which were systematically studied only a century and a half later.

J.Colbert- during the reign of Colbert. Intervention in the economy has reached a large scale. The system of protectionism was aimed at minimizing the import of goods, actively promoting the development of domestic industry, export manufactories were created and subsidies were allocated. There was a development of the royal manufacturing industry, the construction of a merchant and military fleet, the colonization of conquered lands, and a protective customs tariff was introduced. It was forbidden to export bread from the country and its free importation, introduced low prices for bread, feudal forms of exploitation stopped, high taxes on agricultural goods, which later had a negative impact on the level of industrial production and the national economy. Host. Generally.

12.V.Petty his role in the formation of English classical economics.

William Petty is the founder of classical bourgeois political economy in England.

Theory of value: Petty distinguished between the "natural" price of a commodity and the market price, which he called the "political" price. Considering the "natural" price as the internal basis of market prices, he determined it by labor. in the form of money. The direct source of value was considered labor for the extraction of gold and silver (i.e., monetary material). The value of labor products in other branches of production was determined as a result of their exchange for precious metals. The influence of mercantilism is especially pronounced here.

The theory of wages and rent: wages seemed to be the natural price of labor. He defined wages as the minimum means of subsistence for workers, and if workers were paid twice the specified minimum, they would work half as much. Rent is the value of agricultural products minus the cost of production. It is rent in Petty's doctrine that acts as the main form of surplus value.

The Doctrine of Interest and the Price of Land: Changes in the price of land follow changes in the rate of interest. The sale of land was considered by him as a sale of the right to receive rent and should be calculated as a certain amount of annual rent. The interest rate was defined as

the ratio of rent to the price of land.

It originates in the 17-18 century. in France and England.In England, its representatives Viviem Petty, Pierre Buchaliere (French). Petty wrote a treatise on taxes and fees, on money, on political arithmetic. He is an intermediate point between mercantilism and the classical school. He has a mercantile understanding of wealth - this is an abundance of gold, silver and precious stones, because they do not perish and are not as changeable as other goods, but always and everywhere are wealth, while an abundance of meat and melon is also wealth, but only second-class wealth here and now he has typical mercantile attitudes towards agriculture, industries and trade, i.e. He said that you can earn more by fishing than by agriculture, and by trade more than by industry, and the most productive labor in terms of wealth formation in foreign trade is labor for the extraction of monetary material. He believed that the interests of the state contradict each other, therefore, they can be justified by the power of the state's actions. Petty as a representative of the English. classical school. The theory of labor value, i.e., definitions of labor as the most important factor influencing the price level. Labor is the father, and land is the mother of wealth. The valuation of all objects must be reduced to the two natural values ​​of labor and

earth. Buchaliere is the origin of the classical school in France. Ideas believed that the basis of the wealth of the state is agriculture. Labor is the most important factor eq. life. He believed in order to eq. developed successfully, it is necessary to have free competition between commodity producers.

Biography

Paul Thomas Mann (German Paul Thomas Mann, June 6, 1875, Lübeck - August 12, 1955, Zurich) - German writer, essayist, master of the epic novel, Nobel Prize in Literature (1929), brother of Heinrich Mann, father of Klaus Mann, Holo Mann and Erica Mann.

Thomas Mann is an outstanding German writer, author of epic paintings, Nobel Prize winner in literature, the most eminent representative of the Mann family, rich in creative talents. Born June 6, 1875 in Lübeck. At the age of 16, Thomas finds himself in Munich: the family moves there after the death of his father, a merchant and city senator. In this city he will live until 1933.

After graduating from school, Thomas gets a job in an insurance company and is engaged in journalism, intending to follow the example of his brother Heinrich, at that time an aspiring writer. During 1898-1899. T. Mann edits the satirical magazine Simplicissimus. The first publication dates back to this time - a collection of short stories "Little Mr. Friedeman". The first novel - "Buddenbrooks", which tells about the fate of the merchant dynasty and was autobiographical in nature - made Mann a famous writer.

In 1905, an important event took place in Mann's personal life - his marriage to Katya Pringsheim, a noble Jewish woman, the daughter of a mathematics professor, who became the mother of his six children. Such a party allowed the writer to become a member of the society of representatives of the big bourgeoisie, which contributed to the strengthening of the conservativeness of his political views.

T. Mann supported the First World War, condemned social reforms and pacifism, while experiencing a serious spiritual crisis at that time. A huge difference in beliefs caused a break with Henry, and only the transition of Thomas to the position of democracy made reconciliation possible. In 1924, the novel "Magic Mountain" was published, which brought T. Mann world fame. In 1929, thanks to the Buddenbrooks, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The period of Thomas Mann's biography following the award is marked by an increase in the role of politics in his life and in his work in particular. The writer and his wife did not return to Nazi Germany from Switzerland when Hitler came to power in 1933. Having settled not far from Zurich, they spend a lot of time traveling. The German authorities made attempts to return the eminent writer to the country, and in response to his categorical refusal, they deprived him of German citizenship and took away an honorary doctorate from the University of Bonn. Having first become a citizen of Czechoslovakia, Mann emigrated to the United States in 1938, where for three years he taught humanities at Princeton University and advised the Library of Congress on German literature. During 1941-1952. his life path is connected with California.

After the end of World War II, life in the United States was complicated by the fact that T. Mann, who was fond of the ideas of socialism, was accused of complicity with the Soviet Union. In East and West Germany, he is met extremely cordially, but the writer decides not to return to his homeland that has turned into two camps. In 1949, on behalf of both Germanys, he was awarded the Goethe Prize (in addition, Mann was awarded honorary degrees from Cambridge and Oxford universities).

The most significant works of art of this period are the novel "Doctor Faustus" and the tetralogy "Joseph and his brothers", on which he worked for more than ten years. The last novel, The Adventures of the Adventurer Felix Krul, remained unfinished.

In the summer of 1952, T. Mann and his family came to Switzerland and lived there until his death in 1955.

Thomas Mann - list of all books

All genres Roman Fairy tale/Parable Prose

Roman (60%)

Fairy tale / Parable (20%)

Prose (20%)

Especially if you take into account how much women - you may smile that I, in my youth, allow myself some generalizations - how much they, in their attitude towards a man, depend on the attitude of men towards them - then you will be surprised nothing. Women, I would say, creatures in which there are very strong reactions, but they are deprived of independent initiative, are lazy - in the sense that they are passive. Allow me, albeit rather clumsily, to develop my thought further. A woman, as far as I have been able to observe, considers herself primarily an object in love affairs, she allows love to approach her, she does not choose freely and becomes a choosing subject only on the basis of a man's choice; and then, let me add, freedom of choice - of course, if a man is not too insignificant - is not a necessary condition; freedom of choice is influenced, a woman is captivated by the fact that she has been elected. My God, these are, of course, commonplaces, but when you are young, naturally everything seems new, new and amazing to you. You ask a woman: "Do you love him?" “But he loves me so much,” she tells you. And at the same time, either he raises his gaze to the sky, or lowers it to the bottom. And just imagine that we, men, would give such an answer - excuse me for generalizing! Maybe there are men who would have answered that way, but they will be simply ridiculous, these heroes are under the shoe of love, I will say in an epigrammatic style. It is interesting to know what kind of self-esteem a man can talk about giving such a feminine answer. And does a woman think that she should treat a man with boundless devotion because he, having chosen her, showed mercy to such a low-ranking creature, or does she see a man's love for his person as a sure sign of his superiority? In my hours of reflection, I asked myself this question more than once. “You have touched with your well-aimed words the primordial classical facts of antiquity, some sacred given,” said Peppercorn. A man is intoxicated by desire, a woman demands that his desire intoxicate her. Hence our obligation to experience genuine feeling, hence the unbearable shame for insensitivity, for the impotence to arouse desire in a woman.

From the book "Magic Mountain" -

If you are an advocate of health, then let me tell you that it has little in common with art and the spirit, to some extent it is even contraindicated for them, and, in any case, health and spirit are not at all interested in each other.

From the book "Doctor Faustus" -