1.4 Methods of geographical research
In geography, along with methods common to all sciences, special (geographical) methods are also used.
Methods of geographical research can be divided into three groups. Firstly, these are field research methods, when the study of geographical objects takes place directly in the field. Geographic expeditions and permanent stations and laboratories are one of the most important sources of information about the processes taking place in the geographic envelope. With the help of another group of methods - cameral (from Latin camera - room, treasury) - geographic information is processed, systematized, generalized. An example of such work is the processing of materials from aerial and space surveys of the Earth. With the help of cameral methods, the essence of geographical phenomena is known, the laws of their development are established. The third group is experimental methods, with the help of which scientists can test the truth of their assumptions, penetrate deeper into the secrets of nature. As you can see, all methods of geographical research are closely related. At each stage of research, certain methods are used. In order to get to know them in more detail, we will use the historical approach traditional for geography.
Descriptive, expeditionary and cartographic methods are the first in the history of geography. The descriptive method was the very first way of knowing the world around us. For many centuries, geography remained primarily a descriptive science.
Everything that a person learned about new lands, he received during expeditions (travels). During the expeditions, various geographical objects and phenomena are observed and described. The cartographic method appeared simultaneously with the emergence of geography. Along with the description of objects on the earth's surface, a special one appears - a geographical way of displaying and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study. It is no coincidence that the map is called the "second language" of geography. Geographical research begins and ends with it. But the main thing is that with the help of a map you can “embrace” the entire surface of our planet at once.
Methods of comparison, historical and generalization in geography. The accumulation of a huge amount of information about our planet put forward the problem of their generalization and systematization. Comparison of different elements of the geographic envelope led to the fact that similar elements were combined with each other. Such a generalization and at the same time a comparison of geographical data made it possible to group phenomena into different classes, which became the reason for the formation of a typological approach in geography.
Geography was one of the first sciences that mastered the historical approach in the knowledge of the phenomena of the world. Geographers began to compare objects not only by their location, but also by the time of formation. In geography, the historical method is also widely used because the connection between geography and history has always been close.
Mathematical methods and modeling in geography. As long as there were undiscovered lands, geography was not faced with the urgent task of explaining the world. A superficial description of the various territories was enough for the study to be considered geographical. But the rapid growth of human economic activity required penetration into the secrets of nature. To do this, geographers were forced to borrow research methods from other sciences. The use of mathematical methods made it possible not only to measure geographical objects, but also to find average indicators in a number of observations, to identify statistical (mathematical) patterns. This led to the discovery of the causes of rain floods on rivers, the emergence of ideas about cyclones and anticyclones, principles for choosing places for building enterprises, etc.
All geographic systems (natural, economic, natural-economic) have a structure, that is, a certain way of organizing the relationships between elements. With the advent of the modeling method in geography, knowledge of the structure of different geosystems has gone far ahead. Models are widely used to simulate processes that cannot be reproduced in experiments and experiments. The models reflect the main properties of the object, and the secondary ones are discarded.
Methods of remote research. Achievements of science and technology in the XX century. greatly changed the traditional ways of studying the Earth. Remote methods are called when the observer (or measuring apparatus) is at some distance from the object of study. At the same time, the area covered by observation is significantly increased. The appearance of materials from aerospace surveys of the earth's surface has led to an increase in the flow of new information about long-known objects and phenomena of the Earth.
Shooting the earth's surface in the optical range (in red, blue, green and other colors) provides information about the state of soils and vegetation cover of the territory, the transparency of water in reservoirs, etc. Shooting in the infrared range invisible to the human eye allows you to obtain information about the temperature land and oceans, on the concentration of agricultural pests. Shooting with radio waves shows the amount of moisture in the soil, the level of groundwater, etc.
With the help of remote methods, information is received in a form that allows it to be put into a computer and automatically processed. This led to the creation of geographic information systems, geographic data banks, which are widely used in cartography and mathematical modeling of geosystems.
Stationary, laboratory and experimental methods. In modern geography, instead of short-term expeditions, complex geographical stations are organized. The stationary method of studying the geographic envelope involves the use of permanent stations, laboratories, and expeditions. The methods of sciences close to geography make it possible to observe under constant conditions a whole complex of geographical phenomena. Thus, geophysical, geochemical and biological methods appeared in geography using the laboratory method characteristic of them (for example, the study of the chemical composition of the soil or the physical properties of polluted air).
The main task of conducting complex stationary studies is to reveal the connections between phenomena. The disclosure of these basic relationships allows, firstly, to create a model of the object under study, and secondly, to conduct an experiment or experiment in nature.
For example, to find out how agriculture affects soil erosion, two sites with the same conditions are selected. The experimental site is plowed up and sown with agricultural crops, while the other (control) site remains unchanged. The extent and rate of soil erosion at the two sites is then measured and a conclusion is made about the impact of agricultural activities on the soil cover.
Today it is not enough to explain why and how geosystems and their elements develop; it is also necessary to foresee how they can change under the influence of man. A new stage of geographical research is coming - the stage of prediction. At this stage, the tasks of what the object will be in the future are solved. For this, environmental monitoring and geographic forecasting are used.
Environmental monitoring. Monitoring (from Latin monitor - warning) is an information system, the task of which is to observe and evaluate the environment under the influence of human impact. The purpose of this method is the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. There are three main types of monitoring: local, regional, global. Unlike the first two, a global monitoring system has not yet been created. It should provide monitoring of planetary changes in the geographic envelope - in the composition of the atmosphere, in the cycles of substances, etc. So far, there are fragments of such monitoring in the form of biosphere reserves, scientific stations and laboratories. They monitor and control physical, chemical, biological changes in the environment. The information received is transmitted to national and international centers.
Geographic forecast. One of the tasks of geographic forecasts is the development of scientifically based predictions about the state and development of the natural environment in the future. In order to make the forecast reliable, it is necessary, first of all, to rely on the historical approach to the object and, accordingly, to consider it in the process of development. There are several hundred forecasting methods. Some of them are familiar to you. The method of geographical analogies makes it possible to transfer the patterns of development of some geosystems to others. At the same time, it can be foreseen that younger systems will follow the path of geosystems that are at a high stage of development. One of the most important methods of forecasting is extrapolation - it is like a continuation of existing patterns into the future. To do this, it is necessary to study the object well enough. Successfully used in forecasting and methods of mathematical modeling.
Geographers are also involved in the preparation of economic and social forecasts, which must also take into account the dynamics of the environment. As a rule, forecasts are related to a specific territory and are made for a specific purpose. For example, the forecast for the integrated development of new territories.
Ahead of the scientific and geographical community and did not have an impact on it. We know of only one geographer of this time, who consistently and purposefully applied advanced philosophical methodology in geographical science. This is N. Desmarais. He was the first and last of the geographers to set forth the principles of scientific knowledge in relation to geography. It should also be noted that the principles were stated very briefly ...
For example, A. Khodiyev was actively engaged in such propaganda, being sure that he was doing a great job for positivism. But these were all separate episodes. The connection between positivism and geographical science did not improve. One can understand why the positivist philosophers neglected geography. For most of them, geography was a second-class science, doomed to forever bear the burden of descriptiveness. This opinion...
During the period, material is also accumulated on the study of the nature of our country. All this makes it possible to create a number of major consolidated geographical works that were of great importance for the development of economic geography. Among them stand out: “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire” (5 volumes, 1863-1885), “Statistics of Land Property and Settlements of European Russia” (8 issues, 1880-...
Remember:
1. How did ancient people study the Earth?
Answer: For example, we are talking about the relief of a country. The ancient geographer would have considered his task accomplished if he could describe where and what landforms exist.
2. How does modern man study the Earth?
Answer: The modern geographer cannot be satisfied with this: he not only describes the existing forms of relief, but also finds out the reasons for such an arrangement of mountains, plains, hills, their connection and interdependence with other geographical factors, etc. Therefore, geography is considered an explanatory science.
How do you think:
Can the methods of geographical research be applicable in other sciences?
Answer: Many of these methods are also applied in other sciences. The basic philosophical methods of research are the same as those of other sciences.
Let's check your knowledge:
1. What is the feature of the descriptive research method?
Answer: The descriptive method in geography answers the question: a) why is this happening? b) where is it located? c) What happens if this happens?
2. What is the basis of the cartographic research method?
Answer: The cartographic research method is a research method based on obtaining the necessary information using maps for scientific and practical knowledge of the phenomena depicted on them.
3. What is the name of the youngest research method?
Answer: space
Now for the more difficult questions:
1. What is the difference between ancient maps and modern cartographic images?
Answer: The first geographical images of the area were rock carvings, drawings on bark, skin, wood, bone. In the Roman Empire, maps were used to organize and conduct military campaigns. Modern geographical maps are more accurate and have much more geographical features, as over time, researchers have discovered more and more new places on Earth.
2. What would you call the research method associated with the organization and conduct of scientific expeditions?
Answer: Expeditionary, from the word "expedition".
From theory to practice:
1. Classify the sources of geographic information you use in geography lessons.
Answer: Maps and atlases, newspapers and magazines, radio, television, the Internet, museum exhibits, expeditions, etc.
2. Write a description of the geography classroom.
Answer: In my opinion, the most remarkable thing in our class is a huge globe mounted on a round base. His usual place is on a special bedside table at the end of the classroom, but during the lessons he always stands in front of us - on the teacher's table. In the geography classroom, everyone can find something interesting for themselves. A whole collection of binoculars, compasses, various measuring instruments, and even camping equipment is stored in a special cabinet. Schoolchildren are especially fond of a small shelf with multi-year filings of the Vokrug Sveta magazine, many issues of which have been read to the Holes. Interesting stories and a wonderful design of the geography classroom helped many students of our school not only understand the subject well, but also fall in love with this science forever. There is a board right in front of me, and to the left and right of it there are a lot of geographical maps that can be moved using a special mechanism. There is no need to constantly remove them and attach them to the board with a string, if necessary - the card is immediately in front of your eyes. The political map will tell you how many countries there are in the world, how unusually the cities are called in them, the physical map shows the location of rivers and lakes, mountains and forests. And on this map - the temperature regime, here - underwater currents, here - rocks. And here is a completely amazing map - a map of the starry sky. Of course, because humanity is developing not only new lands, but also outer spaces. There are bookshelves along the wall. On the topmost shelf stands a large multicolored globe, followed by a dozen smaller ones; Perhaps they will hand them out to us in class. And here is a shelf with magazines "Around the World". And here is a book about the first expeditions and trips around the world. On another shelf I see atlases, neat stacks of contour maps. Here is a place prepared for us. I will be happy to come to the lessons in our geography classroom.
Final tasks on the topic of the section:
1. Which of the ancient scientists first used the word "geography"?
2. The word "geography" is translated into Russian as:
3. The main reason for increasing the accuracy of maps in the 15th century was:
4. The exact outlines of the continents and islands can be obtained using:
5. Which of the following research methods was not available to ancient scientists?
6. Scientific ideas about the nature of the Earth can be obtained using:
7. Establish a correspondence between the name of the research method and its characteristics:
Answer: 1-B, 2-A, 3-C
8. What research method are we talking about?
Answer: descriptive method
9. Complete the statement.
Answer: 1 - cartography, 2 - cartography, 3 - XV
10. Complete the statement.
Answer: Cartographic
The comparative geographical method of research is a method of comparing various countries, economic regions, cities, industrial centers, types of agriculture, and other economic and geographical objects, according to their development, specialization, etc. The comparative method replaces experiment in economic geography. It allows us to approach the problem of the typology of the phenomena under study. The comparative geographic method is used in close connection with the cartographic method of research. But approaches to the definition of objects and subjects of the study of geography have changed throughout the history of the development of science. One thing remained in common: most scientists considered the surface of the Earth as the main object of geographical science. At the same time, K. Ritter considered the entire globe to be an object of geography, A. Gettner - countries that are studied from the point of view of the spatial distribution of objects and phenomena, F. Richt-hofen - the earth's surface, E. Martonne - the distribution of physical, biological and phenomena associated with human activity, as well as the reasons for this distribution, O. Peschel - the nature of the Earth, etc. Various terms were proposed to define the object of geography: geographical shell, landscape shell, geosphere, landscape sphere, biogenosphere, epigeosphere, etc. The greatest recognition received the term "geographical envelope". Prominent Soviet geographer, acad. A. A. Grigoriev believed that the main task of science is to understand the structure of the geographical shell. Another outstanding Soviet geographer, acad. S. V. Kalesnik specified the definition of the object of geography, including in it the structure of the geographical shell, the laws of its formation, spatial distribution and development. So, geographers have established a specific object of their research. This is a geographic envelope, which is a complex formation consisting of interacting main earthly spheres or their elements - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere1 Over the years, experience has been accumulating that makes it possible to refine the specialization depending on a number of points that were not previously taken into account. Such moments include, for example, differences from place to place in water supplies for irrigation, in temperatures (beets need more water, and cotton needs more heat); but along with the moments of the natural order, others have to be taken into account, such as: proximity to the city market (which is important for vegetable growing), the presence or absence of labor reserves, the labor skills and traditions of the population, the possibility of production linkage with other industries (for example, beet sugar crop with intensive animal husbandry), etc. e. In all this very complex set of various kinds of factors and moments, factors of the natural order always play one role or another, but not as the only ones, but in combination with a number of factors, although also regional, but of a different order - socio-historical or transport- market. In all studies on the influence of natural conditions on the production direction of the economy, it is necessary to take into account the technique of production, which in turn is closely connected with the social system.
Methods (methods) of research are specific methods for studying geographical objects and phenomena. Geographic methods (methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.
Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge, is the expeditionary method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.
Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence of a method of description. The very name of science - geography (from the Greek geo - Earth and grapho - describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, indicates the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a country-specific nature, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive country-specific characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description (literary works of I.A. Bunin, K.G. Paustovsky, M.M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.
With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus, a very important and necessary cartographic method of research arose.
Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development of a comparative method of research, which is successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)
Geographic information system (geographic information system, GIS) - a system for collecting, storing, analyzing and graphical visualization of spatial (geographical) data and related information about the necessary objects.
The concept of a geographic information system is also used in a narrower sense - as a tool (software product) that allows users to search, analyze and edit both a digital map of the area and additional information about objects.
A geographic information system may include spatial databases (including those under the control of universal DBMS), editors for raster and vector graphics, and various tools for spatial data analysis. They are used in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal government, transport, economics, defense and many other areas. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of geoinformation systems are studied by geoinformatics.
Data in geographic information systems usually describe real objects, such as roads, buildings, water bodies, forests. Real objects can be divided into two abstract categories: discrete (houses, territorial zones) and continuous (relief, precipitation, average annual temperature). Vector and raster data are used to represent these two categories of objects.
§ 3. Classification of methods of geographical research. Traditional Methods
Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:
Ø to deepen and systematize knowledge of traditional methods of geographical research obtained in elementary grades;
Methods(ways) research- these are specific methods of studying geographical objects and phenomena. TO geographical methods(methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.
Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge - forwarding method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.
Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence description method. The very name of science geography(from Greek. geo– earth and grapho- I describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, testifies to the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a country-specific nature, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive country-specific characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description (literary works of I. A. Bunin, K. G. Paustovsky, M. M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.
With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus arose a very important and necessary geography cartographic method research.
The origins of geographical maps come from graphic images (on a tree, on a rock, on a bone, etc.) intended for orientation in space. Maps were used for navigation purposes, to establish the boundaries of possessions, lands, orientation in the area, etc. In Italy, starting from the 14th century. began to create maps of coastlines - partholans.
Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development comparative research method which has been successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)
Later, on the basis of a comparison of objects and phenomena, a analogy method(from Greek. apology - similarity, correspondence). The analogy method is also widely used by modern geographers. Having noticed the similarity of objects in some way, we can assume that they are similar to each other and to others. The use of analogies will be more reliable if the similarity is established not by external, but by the main (essential) features. For example, in geography, knowledge about the processes occurring in one landscape can be transferred to another. In science, this technique is widely used. Often analogies serve as the basis of scientific hypotheses, without which science cannot develop.
Society gradually began to ask geography questions of a completely different nature, for example, such as: why is the river wide in the plains and narrow in the mountains? How much water flows in it in general and at different times of the year? Why do forests grow in one place and steppes in another? etc. . In search of answers to these and other questions, mathematical and statistical methods geographical studies, which can be attributed to the traditional ones, since already in the Middle Ages there were geographical works performed using mathematical approaches.
At the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. in connection with the development of chemistry in geographical research began to be actively used laboratory-analytical methods. This made it possible to qualitatively assess the state of natural complexes and resources, and to create an objective database.
Questions and tasks:
1. What methods of studying geographical objects appeared first in the history of science and why?
2. What tasks does the descriptive method solve in geography? What is its current role?
3. What is the essence of the method of observations?
4. Name the activities in which various types of geographical research are widely used.
5. Why is there a need for the integrated use of geographical and non-geographical methods for studying geographical objects? Give examples.
