1st wave. The concept of "Russian. zarub." arose and took shape after Oct. roar, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. Emigr. creatures. and in the royal Russia (the first Russian émigré writer is Andrei Kurbsky), but did not have such a scale. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. Russia left the color of Russian. intellectual More than half of the philosophers, writers, artists. were expelled from the country or emigrants. for life: N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin, F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, Anna Pavlova, Vatslav Nijinsky, S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Writers: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, B. Zaitsev A. Kuprin A. Remizov, I. Severyanin A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny; M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. They left on their own, fled, retreated with the troops, many were expelled (philosophical ships: in 1922, at the direction of Lenin, about 300 representatives of Russian intellectuals were sent to Germany; some of them were sent by train, some by steamers; subsequently such expulsions were practiced all the time), someone went “for treatment” and did not return.
The 1st wave covers the period of the 20s - 40s. Scattering centers - Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin, etc.
1. Const-l- center of Russian. to-ry in the beginning. 20s Here are the Russians who fled with Wrangel from the Crimea. whites. Then they dispersed throughout Europe. In Konst-le in tech. several months publishing house weekly "Zarnitsy", spoke A. Vertinsky.
2.Sofia. Means. Russian the colony. The magazine came out "Rus. thought".
3.In the beginning 20s lit. the capital of the Russian emigrant - Berlin. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power was 150 thousand people. In 1918-1928 in Berlin - 188 Russian. publishing house, Russian was published in large editions. classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, production of contemporary. authors - Iv. Bunin, A. Remizov, N. Berberova, M. Tsvetaeva, was resurrected. House of art-in (in the likeness of Petrograd), images. community of writers, musicians, artists "Spindle", worked "Prose Academy". Creatures. special Russian. Berlin - a dialogue of 2 branches of the k-ry - zarub. and remaining in Russia. Many owls go to Germany. writers: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of the book, there is no section on Sov. Russia and emigration,” Berl declared. magazine "Rus. book".
Wide distribution of ed. affairs in Berlin conducive. several factors: 1) relates. cheap publishing. affairs in conditions of inflation; 2) the accumulation of a large number of Russian. publishers willing to invest their money; 3) close contacts between Russia and Germany after the Treaty of Rapal, which made it possible to conduct a dialogue between the two cultures (Smenovekhovism).
In 1922 in Berlin - 48 Russian. publishing house, 145 titles of magazines, newspapers and almanacs. The largest publishing houses: "The Word", "Helikon", "Scythians", "Petropolis", "The Bronze Horseman", "Thought", "Knowledge", "Epoch", "Conversation" and others. Mostly berl. publishing house issue. humanist books. har-ra (children's and artistic literature, memoirs, textbooks, works of philosophers, literary critics, art critics).
Large berl. publishing house of landmarks. in Russian market. Between the owls Russia and emigration in Germany in the mid-20s. there was no Iron Curtain. What appeared in the emigration. publishing house, soon found its way onto the pages of owls. presses. There were joint publishing houses. Dry for about 2 years. in Berlin Russian "House of Arts": 60 diff. exhibitions and concerts, performance. Russian and German. celebrities, mostly from Lit. circles (T. Mann, V. Mayakovsky, B. Pasternak and others). But to ser. 1920s in the USSR, a rigid qualification begins to form. politics, about which he will testify. many qualifications. Glavlit documents. July 12, 1923 - special. Glavlit's circular: “The following are not allowed to be imported into the USSR: 1) all products bearing a definitely hostile character of owls. power and communism; 2) promoting an ideology alien and hostile to the proletariat; 3) literature hostile to Marxism; 4) idealistic books. for example; 5) children. literature, containing elements of bourgeois morality with the praise of the old living conditions; 6) works by counter-revolutionary authors; 7) the production of writers who died in the fight against owls. power; 8) Russian lit-ra, released relig. societies, regardless of content.
From the end of the 1920s. publisher boom is over. This has a detrimental effect on the condition of the emigrants. liters. She begins to lose her reader.
4. When the hope of a speedy return to Russia began to fade, and economic growth began in Germany. crisis, emigration center. move V Paris from the mid 20's. - the capital of the Russian zarub. By 1923, there were 300,000 Russians in Paris. refugees. Live in Paris: Yves. Bunin, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, G. Gazdanov, B. Poplavsky, M. Tsvetaeva and others. main lit. circles and groups, leading. position among which occupied. "Green Lamp". Lit. The life of Paris will come to naught with the beginning of the 2nd world. war, when, according to V. Nabokov, "it will become dark in Russian Parnassus." Many Russian immigrant writers. will remain in Paris, will be active participants in the Resistance. G. Adamovich will sign up as a dobrov. to the front. Writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in it. concentration camp. G. Gazdanov, N. Otsup, D. Knut will join the Resistance. Iv. Bunin in the bitter years of the occupation will write a book about the triumph of love, man. start ( « Dark alleys").
One of the most influential. social-politic. or T. Russian magazines. emigrant were “Modern. Notes ”, published by the Social Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920 - 1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). Magazine excellent. aesthetic breadth. views and policies. tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the journal were published, in which max. famous writers. Russian abroad. In "Modern. Notes” saw the light: “Luzhin’s Defense”, “Invitation to Execution”, “Gift” by V. Nabokov, “Mitya’s Love” and “Arseniev’s Life” by Iv. Bunin, verse by G. Ivanov, “Sivtsev Vrazhek” by M. Osorgin, “Walk through the torments” by A. Tolstoy, “Key” by M. Aldanov, autobiogr. Chaliapin's prose. The journal gave reviews of most of the books published in Russia and abroad, practical. across all branches of knowledge.
Since 1937, the publishers of Sovrem. notes "became the issue. also monthly. magazine "Rus. notes "(Paris, 1937 - 1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published the works of A. Remizov, A. Achair, G. Gazdanov, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya. Main printed writing organ. "Unnoticed. generation”, which did not have their own publication for a long time, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930 - 1934, ed. N. Otsup). For 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. "Numbers" became the mouthpiece of ideas "unnoticed. generation, oppoz. traditional “Modern. notes." "Numbers" cult. "Paris. note" and print. G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky so defined. value new magazine: "Numbers" is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where the new man can breathe. The journal also publishes notes on cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high, at the pre-revolutionary level. publishing house, quality printing. performer.
Among the most well-known Russian newspapers emigrant - organ of the Republican-democratic. association "Latest News" (Paris, 1920 - 1940, ed. P. Milyukov), monarchist. "Renaissance" (Paris, 1925 - 1940, ed. P. Struve), the newspapers "Link" (Paris, 1923 - 1928, ed. P. Milyukov), "Dni" (Paris, 1925 - 1932, ed. A. Kerensky ), "Russia and the Slavs" (Paris, 1928 - 1934, ed. B. Zaitsev), etc.
The activity of the main is connected with Paris. lit. circles and groups, leading. a position among which was occupied by the "Green Lamp". The Green Lamp was an organ. in Paris, Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, G. Ivanov became the head of the society. For a meeting "Green Lamp" discussed new books, magazines, it was about Russian. lit. older generation. The "Green Lamp" united the "senior" and "junior", during all the pre-war years it was the largest. revived lit. center of Paris. Young Parisian writers to the Nomad group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists "Through" also gathered in Paris. Paris. emigrant newspapers and magazines constituted the annals of the cult. or T. Russian life. abroad. In the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, lit. discussions, a new school of emigrants was created. poetry - "Parisian note".
5. Eastern centers of scattering - Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes literature in Harbin. united "Churaevka". Meetings of "Churaevka" included up to 1000 people. Over the years of being-I "Churaevka" in Harbin, more than 60 poets were released. sb-kov rus. poets. in Harbin magazine "Frontier" poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova were published. Creatures. direction of the Harbin branch of Rus. words-ty - ethnographic. prose (N. Baikov "In the wilds of Manchuria", "Great Van", "In the wide world"). Since 1942 lit. life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.
6. Scientific Russian center emigrant - Prague. Rus was founded. nar. un-t, 5 thousand Russians were invited. students who could continue their education on a state-owned koshte. Many professors and university professors also moved here. Important role in saving glory. k-ry, the development of science played Prague Linguistics. circle". Connected with Prague. TV-in M. Tsvetaeva, which creates in the Czech Republic its best products. Before the start of the 2nd world. war in Prague came out about 20 rus. lit. magazines and 18 newspapers. Among the Prague Lit. associations - Skit of Poets, Union of Russian Writers and Journalists.
7. Russian dispersion affected and Lat. America, Canada, Scandinavia, USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the United States in 1924, organized a Rus. publishing house "Alatas". Several Russian publishing house was opened in New York, Detroit, Chicago.
The older generation of the "first wave" of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.
The desire to “keep that really valuable thing that spiritualized the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the TV-va of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves even in the pre-revival period. Russia. This is Yves. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgina. Lit-ra "senior" is represented by preimusch. prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation create great books: « Arseniev's life"(Nob. Prize 1933), "Dark alleys"Bunin; "Sun of the Dead", « Summer of the Lord", « Pilgrimage"Shmelev; "Sivtsev Vrazhek "Osorgin; "Gleb's Journey", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh"Zaitsev; "Jesus Unknown"Merezhkovsky.A. Kuprin - 2 novelsDome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia»And "Juncker", story "Wheel of Time". Means. lit. self-em becomes the appearance of books of memoirs « Living faces»Gippius.
Poets of the older generation: I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burliuk, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov. Ch. the motive of the literature of the older generation is the nostalgic motive. memory of the lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian. culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics are retrospective: longing for "eternal Russia", the events of the revolution, etc. wars, historical the past, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to "eternal Russia" was given to biographies of writers, composers, biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ("The Liberation of Tolstoy"), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biography of the same name), etc. An autobiography is being created. books in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen "from the other side" idyllic, enlightened: poeticizes the past Iv. Shmelev ("Pilgrimage", « Summer of the Lord") , events of youth reconstructs A. Kuprin ("Juncker") , last autobiography. Russian book. noble writer writes Iv. Bunin ("Arseniev's life") , a journey to the "origins of days" imprint B. Zaitsev ("Gleb's Journey") And A. Tolstoy ("Nikita's childhood ") . A special layer of Russian. emigrant lit-ry - products, which give an assessment of the tragic. the events of the revolution and gr. war. Events gr. wars and revolutions are interspersed with dreams, visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, Rus. spirit in books A. Remizova "Vzvorchennaya Rus», « Music teacher", "Through the Fire of Sorrows". The mournful denunciation is full of diaries Iv. Bunin "Cursed Days". Novel M. Osorgina "Sivtsev Vrazhek " reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Iv. Shmelev creates tragedy. the story of the Red Terror in the Crimea - an epic « Sundead", which T. Mann called “nightmarish, shrouded in poetic. brilliance of the document of the era. Comparing "yesterday's" and "current", the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost. cult. world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also led to the aesthetic the conservatism of the “seniors”: “Is it time to stop following in the footsteps of Tolstoy? Bunin was perplexed. “And whose footsteps should we follow?”
Poets of the older generation of emigration: Vyach. Ivanov, K. Balmont, I. Severyanin.
Vyach. Ivanov. In 1917, he tried to cooperate with the new government. 1918-1920 - chairman. the historical and theatrical section of the Teo Narkompros, lectured, taught classes in the sections of Proletkult. Accept. participation in the activities of the Alkonost publishing house and the journal Notes of Dreamers, writes Winter Sonnets. Until they finish. departure abroad (1924) Ivanov writes the poetic cycle "Songs of the Time of Troubles" (1918) reflected Ivanov's rejection of the non-religious nature of the Russian revolution. In 1919 he published the tragedy "Prometheus", and in 1923 he graduated from music. tragicomedy "Love - Mirage". In 1920, after the death of his third wife from tuberculosis and an unsuccessful attempt to obtain permission to travel abroad, Ivanov left for the Caucasus with his daughter and son, then to Baku, where he was invited by the professor of the department of classical philology. In 1921, he defended his doctoral thesis here, on which he published the book "Dionysus and Pradonisism" (Baku, 1923). In 1924, Ivanov arrived in Moscow, where, together with A. Lunacharsky, he delivered a jubilee speech about Pushkin at the Bolshoi Theater. At the end of August of the same year, he left Russia forever and settled with his son and daughter in Rome. Until 1936 preserved. owls. citizenship, which does not give him the opportunity to get a job in the state. service. Ivanov is not printed in exile. magazines, stands aloof from the general-watered. life. March 17, 1926 accepts Catholicism, without renouncing (by special, hard-won permission) from Orthodoxy. In 1926-1931. professor at the Colleggio Borromeo in Pavia. In 1934 - refusal to teach at the university, moving to Rome. The only Russian Symbols, almost to the end of his days, remained faithful to this trend. In recent decades, there has been a relative decline in his TV. In 1924 - "Roman Sonnets", and in 1944 - a cycle of 118 poems "Roman Diary", included. in preparation them, but published posthumously the final collection of poems "Evening Light" (Oxford, 1962). After Ivanov's death, the work remained unfinished. the 5th book of the prose "poem" "The Tale of Svetomir Tsarevich", begun by him back in 1928. Continued public in foreign editions of their individual articles and works. In 1932 he publishes a monograph on it. Dostoevsky language. Tragedy - myth - mysticism. In 1936 for the encyclopedia. Dictionary Trekani Ivanov in Italian. language writes the article "Symbolism". Then for other Italian publications: "Form building and form created" (1947) and "Lermontov" (1958). In the last 2 articles, he returns to reflection. about Sophia (World Soul, Divine Wisdom) in the context of the world. and Russian culture. In 1948, commissioned by the Vatican, he worked on the introduction and notes to the Psalter. In the last years of his life, he led a solitary life, meeting only with a few people close to him, among whom was the Merezhkovsky couple.
Balmont Konstantin Dmitrievich(1867 – 1942) Feb. and Oct. revol. 1917 Balmont at first glorified. in his poems ("Foreshadowing" and others), but "chaos" and "hurricane of madness" gr. categorical wars. does not accept. He appears in the press, works in the People's Commissariat of Education, prepares poems and translations for publication, and gives lectures. But in public in the 1918 pamphlet Am I a Revolutionary or Not? dec. that the Bolsheviks-carriers will destroy. beginning, overwhelming. personality. He is convinced that the poet should be outside the parties, that the poet has his own paths, his own destiny - he is more like a comet than a planet (that is, he does not move along a certain orbit). Y. Baltrushaitis, who was in those years lit. Ambassador to Russia, through A. Lunacharsky managed to organize a business trip abroad for Balmont. June 25, 1920 Balmont left Russia forever. In France, where the poet lived most of the rest of his life, he was at first actively collaborating. in the newspaper "Paris News", the magazine "Modern. notes "and other periodicals. publications, regularly publishes (in different countries) books of poems: “Gift to the Earth”, “Bright Hour” (both - 1921), “Haze”, “Song of the Working Hammer” (both - 1922), “Mine - to her. Poems about Russia" (1923), "In the Parted Distance" (1929), "Northern Lights" (1933), "Blue Horseshoe", "Light Service" (both - 1937). In 1923, 2 books of autobiography were published. prose - "Under the new sickle" and "Air way". Balmont also works actively as a translator of Lithuanian, Polish, Czech and Bulgarian poets. In 1930, he published a translation of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. She is very homesick for her homeland and her daughter, who remained in Russia (the 1905 collection Fairy Tales is dedicated to her). The last years of his life he was practical. did not write. He died at Noisy-le-Grand, near Paris.
Igor Severyanin (Igor Vasilyevich Lotarev) February 27, 1918 at the evening at the Polytechnic University. museum in Moscow IP was elected the "king of poets". The second was V. Mayakovsky, the third - V. Kamensky. Through several days, the "king" went with his family to rest in Estonia. seaside the village of Toila, and in 1920 Estonia separated from Russia. IS was forced. emigrant, but felt comfortable there. Pretty soon he started up again. in Tallinn and elsewhere. In Estonia, IP is retained. and marriage to Felice Kruut. The poet lived with her for 16 years and it was the only legal marriage in his life. For Felissa, IS was like a stone. wall, she protected him from all the living. problems, and sometimes saved. Before his death, IS acknowledged the break with Felissa in 1935, a tragic one. mistake. In the 20s. keeps out of politics (calls himself not an emigrant, but a summer resident) and instead of polit. spoke out against the Soviets. authorities wrote pamphlets against the higher emigrants. circles. Emigrants needed other poetry and other poets. IS still wrote a lot, translated Estonian poets quite intensively: in 1919-1923. – 9 new books, including Nightingale. Since 1921, the poet has been touring outside Estonia: 1922 - Berlin, 1923 - Finland, 1924 - Germany, Latvia, Czech Republic ... In 1922-1925, IS wrote in a rather rare genre - autobiography. novels in verse: Falling Rapids, The Dew of the Orange Hour, and Bells of the Cathedral of Feelings. From 1925 to 1930 - not a single collection of poems. 1931 - a new (no doubt outstanding) collection of poems "Classic Roses", summarizing the experience of 1922 - 1930. In 1930 - 1934 - several tours of Europe, a resounding success, but no publishers could be found for books. A small collection of poems "Adriatica" (1932) IS published at his own expense and he himself tried to distribute. his. especially worse. mater. situation by 1936, when, moreover, he broke off relations with Felissa Kruut and became friends with V.B. Korendi: “Life has become completely like death: / All is vanity, all is dullness, all is deceit. // I go down to the boat, shivering chilly, // To sink into the fog with it...” In 1940, the poet admits that “there are no publishers for real poetry now. They don't have a reader. I write poetry without writing it down, and I almost always forget.” The poet died on December 20, 1941 in payback. Germans in Tallinn and was buried there at the Alexander Nevsky cemetery. His lines are placed on the monument: “How good, how fresh the roses will be, // Thrown into my coffin by my country!”
D. S. Merezhkovsky and Z. N. Gippius in exile. Ideological and creative evolution.
Merezhkovsky and Gippius hoped for the overthrow of the Bolshoi. authorities, but, having learned about the defeat of Kolchak in Siberia and Denikin in the south, they decided to flee from Petrograd. On December 24, 1919, together with their friend D. Filosofov and secretary V. Zlobin, they left the city, allegedly to give lectures to the Red Army. parts in Gomel; in January 1920 they moved to the territory, payback. Poland, and stopped in Minsk. Read lectures for Russian. emigrant, wrote polit. articles in the newspaper "Minsk Courier". In February 1920 - Warsaw, act. polit. activity. On October 20, 1920, we left for Paris.
The collapse of the fate and television of a writer doomed to life outside of Russia is a constant theme of the late Gippius. In emigration. she remained a faithful aesthete. and metaphys. system of thought that has developed in her predrev. years. This system is based on the ideas of freedom, fidelity and love raised up to Christ. In emigration. Gippius republished what was written in Russia (collection of stories "Heavenly Words", Paris, 1921). In 1922, the collection "Poems: Diary 1911-1921" was published in Berlin, and in Munich - a book by 4 authors (Merezhkovsky, Gippius, Philosophers and Zlobin) "The Kingdom of the Antichrist", where two parts of "Petersburg. diaries." In 1925, in Prague, a 2-volume book of her memoirs Living Faces: lit. portraits of Blok, Bryusov, A. Vyrubova, V. Rozanov, Sologub. In Paris, M. and G. co-workers. in "Modern. Zapiski", in the newspapers "Latest News" and "Vozrozhdeniye". But in fact, they did not enter a single emigrant. circle: their views did not resonate with either the right or the left. In 1926, the organization. lit. and phil. Society "Green Lamp". Society has played a prominent role in intelligence. life of the 1st emigration. It was a closed society, which was supposed to become an "incubator of ideas" and all members of which would be in agreement on the most important issues. 1st meeting - February 5, 1927. Verbatim. reports of the first 5 meetings - in the journal "New Ship", basic. Gippius in Paris. In September 1928, M. and G. took part in the 1st Congress of Russian émigré writers in Belgrade. A publishing house was created at the Serbian Academy of Sciences. the commission that began publishing the Russian Library, in which the Blue Book was published G. The theme of freedom and the question of whether genuine art is possible. TV-in isolation from their native soil - the main thing for Gippius throughout the years of the existence of the "Green Lamp" (until 1939).
M. in exile. wrote a lot. (lit. active. G. - less.) Journalism, historical novels, essays, screenplays - embodiment. original religious-philosophical concepts that defined his understanding of the place of Russia in the history of mankind: the work "The Kingdom of the Antichrist" with the subtitle "Bolshevism, Europe and Russia" (1921), a number of sources. research - "The Secret of the Three: Egypt and Babylon" (1925), "The Birth of the Gods. Tutankhamen in Crete (1925), Messiah (1928), Napoleon (1929), Atlantis-Europe (1930), Pascal (1931) Jesus Unknown (1932), Paul and Augustine (1936), Saint Francis of Assisi (1938), Joan of Arc and the Third Kingdom of the Spirit (1938), Dante (1939), Calvin (1941), Luther (1941).
Prose I. A. Bunin in exile.
Bunin deliberately went to break with the new government. Moves to Moscow - Odessa - Constantinople (January 1920) - France (first Paris, then Grasse, not far from Nice). Villa "Jeanette" in Grasse became his last refuge. In 1933, B was awarded the Nobel Prize "for having reproduced in narrative prose a typical Russian character." In Grasse, he survived the occupation and liberation of Fr. 1950 - writes memoirs. November 8, 1953 B died in Paris. In Fr Bunin wrote: "Mitina's love" (3 parts, 36 stories. A novel in short stories), "Sunstroke", "Arseniev's Life" (in the 1st edition with the subtitle "to the source of days"), "Dark alleys" etc. In the emigrant period, in the stories of B, love is the highest value of life. He treats war B badly - you can’t kill each other. In the 30s - 40s, main. the theme is the ruthlessness of passing time.
"The Life of Arseniev" - Nob. prize, 1933. Criticism - everyone praised.
"Mitina's love". A novel in short stories: 36 short stories, set. general plot. Student Mitya loves Katya. He seems to be happy. He kisses her, etc., but has not yet slept with her. Katya is studying theater. Mitya is jealous of her way of life, of the director. He does not like the theater, he does not like how Katya reads "The girl sang ..." at the exam - K "howls", Mitya does not like poetry either. Jealousy of M exhausted both, and M decides to go to the village, to his mother, for the summer. They will meet with K in June in the Crimea. M. is leaving, spring is all around. In the renewal of nature, he sees K., he is filled with love and constantly writes letters to her. K replies 1 time with a short letter that he also loves him. Village girls fall in love with M. K does not answer his letters and M starts looking at the girls. In the end, the clerk says that it is useless for the barchuk to live as a monk and wants to take him to Alenka, whose husband is in the mines. Alenka reminds M Katya. M goes to the post office every day, but there is no letter, and Mitya decides not to go there anymore. But he has thoughts of suicide. M arranges for Alenka to come to his garden in a hut, promises to pay her. She is nervous all day when she comes to the hut - she does not know how and what to do with her. Baba says "let's go faster." Mitya finally comes out of the hut. Everything was not as good as we would like. And then a letter comes from Katya: they say, she will not leave art for the sake of Mitya, let him not write to her anymore, she is leaving. Mitya is in unbearable pain. In delirium, he imagines some corridors, rooms, unnatural intercourse. And he shoots. "With pleasure". If only this torment would not be repeated. Images: Mitya - through his eyes we see what is happening. A young man in love, loves good poetry (Tyutchev, Fet, etc.), is all filled with dreams of the future and Katya, tries to unravel it, understands that he loves the image more than the real person. From childhood he lived with a premonition of love. Katya - this is where B's attitude towards actors comes into play - she takes what she does for "art", in general, she plays in life. Alenka - an "honest woman" - does not want to be without money. The clerk is a disgusting bawd. Katya's mother is a woman with crimson hair, kind. Mitya's mother is lean, with black hair.
"Dark alleys" 1943. The characters of the stories included in this book are outwardly diverse, but they are all people of the same destiny. Students, writers, artists, officers are equally isolated from the social. environment. they are characterized by internal tragic emptiness, the absence of the "price of life", a cat. they seek in love and memories of the past. they have no future, although the circumstances do not logically lead to a tragic ending. It is also symbolism: erotic moments - there is no soul, the flesh remains. The last secret of the world is the body of a woman, but an attempt to join this secret leads to disaster. The story itself "Dark Alleys" - 1938. An elderly gentleman arrives at an inn, the owner of which, no longer young, remembers him - her former lover from the gentlemen. He also remembers her. She did not marry, she loved him all her life. And he left her. He married, but his wife left him, and his son grew up a scoundrel. She says that she will not be able to forgive him - because everything passes, but not everything is forgotten. He is leaving. And he thinks that she gave him the best moments of his life, but he could not imagine her as his wife and mistress of his Petersburg house. (the title - he read poems to his mistress all the time "there was scarlet rose hips all around, there were alleys of dark lindens"). The image of a woman is bright, the man is an ordinary military man. "Clean Monday"- from "T.al." 1944. Everyone read and understood. "Sunstroke" 1925. A woman and a man met on the ship, disembarked, went to the hotel, and at night she left without even giving her name. The lieutenant asked her to stay, but she said that it would only spoil everything, that they had a sunstroke. He wandered around the city, became sad and boarded another steamboat. In my opinion, everything said about "T.A." is true. - meaninglessness, the search for love that is not given and slips away.
I. S. Shmelev. Characteristics of a creative personality, style features.
Feb. roar. Shmelev, like the rest of the democratic intelligentsia, accepted with enthusiasm. Shmelev did not accept October. Shmelev guessed during the roar. events violence over the fate of Russia. In the very first acts of the new government, he sees serious sins against morality. Together with his family in 1918, Shmelev leaves for the Crimea and buys a house in Alushta. The son, young Seryozha, ended up in the Volunteer Army. Twenty-five-year-old Sergei Shmelev served in the commandant's office in Alushta, and did not take part in the battles. After the flight of the Wrangel army in the spring of 1920, the Crimea was occupied by the Reds, many who served with Wrangel remained on the shore. They were asked to surrender their weapons. Among them was Shmelev's son Sergey. He was arrested. Shmelev tried to rescue his son, but he was sentenced to death and shot. But the trials of the Shmelev family were not exhausted by this tragedy. Still had to endure a terrible famine. Anger and sadness, sorrow and disgust were looking for an outlet. But it was no longer possible to write the truth, and the writer did not know how to lie. Returning from the Crimea to Moscow in the spring of 1922, Shmelev began to fuss about going abroad, where Bunin persistently called him. November 20, 1922 Shmelev and his wife leave for Berlin. Bunin, probably understanding the state of his fellow writer, tries to help the Shmelev family, invites Ivan Sergeevich to Paris, promises to get visas. In January 1923, the Shmelevs moved to Paris, where the writer lived for 27 long years. At first, the Shmelevs settled with Kutyrkina, in an apartment not far from the Palace of Invalides, where the ashes of Napoleon rest. The first work of Shmelev's emigrant period was "Sun of the Dead"- a tragic epic. The Sun of the Dead was first published in 1923 year, in the emigrant collection "Window", and in 1924 it was published as a separate book. Translations into French, German, English, and a number of other languages immediately followed, which was a rarity for a Russian émigré writer, and even unknown in Europe. "The Sun of the Dead" is the first deep insight into the essence of Russian tragedy in Russian literature. Until the end of the 1920s, collections of the writer were published, saturated with impressions of revolutionary Russia. IN "The Fly of the Lord" in front of us in a series of Orthodox holidays "appears", as it were, the soul of the Russian people. "Pilgrimage"- This is a poetic story about going to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. IN "Nanny from Moscow"- with sorrow and mild irony describes the feelings of a simple Russian woman, the vicissitudes of fate ended up in Paris. In 1936 Shmelev finished the first volume of the novel "Ways of Heaven". The writer "with a creative groping" is trying to explore the secret paths that can lead to the "Summer of the Lord" a doubting intellectual and rationalist. Is it any wonder that in the work of Shmelev, patriotic and religious motifs have come together. Life was preparing a new test for the writer. On July 22, 1936, the writer's wife, Olga Alexandrovna, dies after a short illness. In order to somehow distract the writer from gloomy thoughts, his friends organized a trip to Latvia and Estonia for him. He also visited the Pskov-Pechora Monastery, stood at the Soviet border. Reaching over the wire fencing, he plucked several flowers. In the last year of his life, illness confined him to bed. In November 1949, he underwent surgery. She was successful. The desire to work returned, new plans appeared. He wants to get down to the third book of the Ways of Heaven. June 24, 1950 Ivan Sergeevich Shmelev died of a heart attack.
Creativity B. Zaitsev. Main works.
Zaitsev Boris Konstantinovich (1881-1972), Russian writer. From 1922 in exile. The book of memoirs "Moscow" (1939), artistic biographies of Russian writers, "hagiographic portraits" (including "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh", 1925).
Creativity A. M. Remizov in exile.
In August 1921 the writer emigrated. In TV-ve R. emigr. period, the motive of separation dominates, also correlated with acc. plots of other literature (about Peter and Fevronia, about Bova Korolevich), but it also has a deeply personal meaning, especially in the story "Olya" (1927) and novel "In Pink Glitter" (1952). They are inspired by the history of the writer's family (his only daughter did not follow her parents into emigration and died in Kiev in 1943; Remizov's wife died the same year). The experience of reconstructing a holistic picture of the national spirit based on the legends that expressed religion. fans-I, often moving away from the officers. orthodox canon, was undertaken by Remizov in many works created in a foreign land - from the book "Russia in letters" (1922) to a collection of "dreams" and reflections on the forms of Russian spirituality, as they were reflected in classical literature (Gogol, Turgneev, Dostoevsky). This theme becomes the main one in the book. "Fire of Things" (1954). The sophistication of Remizov's style caused heated debate about the fruitfulness or artificiality of the art he chose. solutions. Criticism (G. Adamovich) saw only straightforward lines in Remizov's books. imitation of "Russian pre-Petrine antiquity", accusing the author of a deliberate predilection for the archaic. Other authors believed that the nature of Remizov's talent was playful, they associated this poetics with an emphatically peculiar style of life and social behavior, which attracted the attention of visitors to his apartment, where the wallpaper was painted with kikimors, guests were given certificates of their membership in the "Great and Free" invented by the writer. monkey chamber", and the atmosphere as a whole was suggestive of a "witch's nest". Still others perceived Remizov as "a holy fool within the limits of culture" - an intelligent, imaginative, gifted artist, with his own significant, but special vision. Remizov's style had a significant impact on a number of Russian writers of the 1920s. (Prishvin, L. M. Leonov, Vyach. Shishkov and others), who were adherents of "ornamental prose". IN autobiography "Cropped Eyes" (1951) R., speaking about the origins and specifics. features of his TV-va, notes the importance of the idea of great-memory ("sleep"), which determines the nature of the construction of many of his works: "From the age of two I begin to clearly remember. It was as if I woke up and was, as it were, thrown into a world ... inhabited by monsters, ghostly, with a confused reality and dream, colorful and sounding inseparably. 1 of the main works created by R. in exile. - Autobiography. by material book "Vzvorchennaya Rus" (1927). It contains constant references to the poetics of hagiographic literature, for which the motives of rejection of the unrighteous world, ordeal, homelessness and spirit are obligatory. purification in the finale, the author recreates the Russian hard times, introducing into his story those with whom he most communicated in his last years in St. Petersburg - Blok, D. Merezhkovsky, philosopher L. Shestov, his own student, the young prose writer M. Prishvin. Whirlwinded Rus' describes a time when "a man's dream of a free human kingdom on earth was burning exceptionally brightly", but "pogrom" had "never and nowhere so cruelly" thundered before (directly affecting Remizov himself, who was arrested and briefly imprisoned during the Red Terror). The story, as in the book "Cropped Eyes", which forms an autobiography with "Whirlwind Russia". diptych, conducted in the form of free. compilation of the events of large societies. significance (Lenin's arrival in Petrograd in the spring of 1917) and private witnesses, up to the recording of conversations in queues or scenes of the crowd mocking disarmament. policemen. R. creates a deliberately fragmentary montage, where the chronicle, saddening the course of history, is combined with the re-creation of the hardships and hardships endured by the narrator himself, with visions, dreams, echoes of legends, "spells", a record of the stream of consciousness, a mosaic of fleeting sketches "whirled " everyday life. Narratives, as in many other books by R., are in the form of a tale. Such style and similar compositions. the solution is also distinguished by R.'s novel about emigration, which remained in the manuscript "Music Teacher" (published posthumously, 1983) and a book of memoirs "Encounters" (1981), and partly published autobiography. story "Iveren" (1986).
Alexei Remizov died in Paris in 1957. He was buried in the Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois cemetery.
Creativity AI Kuprin in exile.
Feb. roar. K. met with enthusiasm. She found him in Helsingfors. He is immediate. departure to Petrograd, where, together with the critic P. Pilsky, he edited the Socialist-Revolutionary newspaper Free Russia for some time. Sympathy. meeting Oct. rev., but collab. in the bourgeois newspapers "Era", "Petrogradsky sheet", "Echo", "Evening Word", where he speaks with polit. articles in which the saying is contradictory. position of the writer. A confluence of circumstances leads K. to the camp of emigration. In the summer of 1920 - in Paris. Creative. the decline caused by emigration continued until the mid-20s. In the 1st time, only articles by K. appeared. And only with 1927. when it comes out collection "New novels and stories", we can talk about the last. fruitful period of his TV-va. Following this sat-com - the books "The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia" (1928) and "Elan" (1929). The stories published in the Vozrozhdeniye newspaper in 1929-1933 are included in collections "The Wheel of Time" (1930) and "Janeta" (1932 - 1933). Since 1928, K. has been printing chapters from novel "Junker" published as a separate edition in 1933 year. The writer feels that isolation from his homeland has a detrimental effect on his TV. In this, perhaps, manifested. esp. thin Warehouse K. He is more than even I. A. Bunin, B. K. Zaitsev or I. S. Shmelev, tied to the small and great sides of the Russian. way of life, the multinational way of life of the country. He makes essay sketches, creates a cycle of miniatures "Cape Huron" (1929), essays on Yugoslavia, "Paris at home", "Paris intimate" (1930), etc. But K. is able to find the very "substance of poetry" only in the impression . from native really. The world is crushed into small grains, into drops. The cycle of miniatures in prose included in the collection "Elan" is called by the writer: "Stories in Drops". He remembers a lot of friends. little things connected with the homeland - he remembers that "elan" is called "a bend in a dense pine forest, where it is fresh, green, fun, where lilies of the valley, mushrooms, songbirds and squirrels" ("Elan"); that the Kurtin peasants call the hill sticking out above the swamp "vereya". He remembers how with a meek sound "Pak!" (as if "a child in thought opened his mouth") a swollen bud bursts on a spring night ("Night in the Forest", 1931) and how tasty a piece of black bread sprinkled with coarse salt ("At the Trinity - Sergius"). But these details sometimes remain a mosaic - each in itself, each separately. The former, "Kuprin's" motifs resound in his prose. The short stories "Olga Sur" (1929), "Bad Pun" (1929), "Blondel" (1933) complete the whole line in the writer's depiction of the circus. Following the famous "Listrigons" he writes in exile. the story "Svetlana" (1934), resurrecting again. the colorful figure of the fishing ataman Kolya Kostandi. Glorification of the great "gift of love" (which was the leitmotif of many previous writers), dedicated. story "The Wheel of Time" (1930). Her hero, the Russian engineer "Mishika" (as the beautiful Frenchwoman Maria calls him), is still the same "passing" TV character K. kind, quick-tempered, weak. Rougher than previous characters. His number is a more ordinary, carnal passion, which, having quickly exhausted itself, begins to burden the hero, who is not capable of long. feeling. No wonder "Mishika" himself says about himself: "The soul has become empty, and only one bodily cover remains." Like other Russian pisat., K. dedicated. of his youth, the largest, and that means. emigrant thing - romance "Junkers" (1928 - 1932). The military theme ends with a novel about the Junker years in Alexander. school. Lear. Junker confession. Idyllic. intonation. Life is romanticized and tinted, and with it, pink highlights fall on the entire army service. But "Junker" is not just Alexander's "home" story. military school, story. one of her pets. This is a story about the old, "specific" Moscow, all woven from volatile memories. The best pages of the novel include poetic episodes. Alexandrov's hobbies Zina Belysheva. Despite the abundance of light and festivities, this is a sad book. Again and again the writer mentally returns to his homeland. A sense of unbridled nostalgia permeated the last major work of K. - the story "Janeta" (1932 -1933). Passes by the old prof. Simonov, once famous. in Russia, and now huddled in a poor attic, the life of a bright and noisy Paris. The old man became attached to the little half-poor girl Zhaneta. In old Simonov there is something of K. Lit himself. the legacy of late K. is much weaker than his dookt. tv-va. Until the end of his days, K. Rus. patriot. The writer decided to return to Russia. Everything is preliminary. the negotiations were undertaken by the artist I. Ya. Bilibin (who had already received permission to enter the USSR). He returned on May 31, 1937. The newspapers wrote that all the triumphants in the USSR. Already ill K. shares his ideas, joyfully experiencing the return to his homeland. He settles in the Golitsyn House of TV Writers, then moves to Leningrad and lives there, surrounded by care and attention. Serious illness. August 25, 1938 died.
"Middle generation" of the first wave of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.
In an intermediate position between the "senior" and "junior" were poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves back in Russia: V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, M. Tsvetaeva, G. Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. M. Tsvetaeva in exile is experiencing a creative take-off, refers to the genre of the poem, "monumental" verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, she wrote: “The Tsar Maiden”, “The Poem of the Mountain”, “The Poem of the End”, “The Poem of the Air”, “The Pied Piper”, “The Staircase”, “New Year's”, “Attempt at the Room”. V. Khodasevich publishes his top collections "Heavy Lyre", "European Night" in exile, becomes a mentor to young poets who united in the "Crossroads" group. G. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of early collections, receives the status of the first poet of emigration, publishes poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: "Poems", "Portrait without resemblance", "Posthumous diary". A special place in the literary heritage of emigration is occupied by G. Ivanov's quasi-memoirs "Petersburg Winters", "Chinese Shadows", his infamous prose poem "The Decay of the Atom". G.Adamovich publishes a program collection "Unity", a well-known book of essays "Comments".
VF Khodasevich - poet, critic, memoirist.
Emigration. In 1922, H., together with N. Berberova, who became his wife, left. Russia, lives in Berlin, collaborator. in berl. newspapers and magazines; in 1923 origin. a break with A. Bely, who in retaliation gave a caustic, essentially parodic, portrait of H. in the book. "Between two revolutions". In 1923-25 he helps A. M. Gorky, editor. magazine "Conversation", he lives with Berberova in Sorrento (October 1924 - April 1925), later X. will devote several essays to him. In 1925 he moved. to Paris, where he remains for the rest of his life. Back in 1922, The Heavy Lyre was published. As in “The Way of the Grain”, overcoming, breaking through are the main value imperatives of H. (“Step over, jump, / Fly over, over whatever you want”), but their breakdown, their return to material reality is legitimized: “God knows what muttering, / Looking for pince-nez or keys. The eternal collision of the opposition of the poet and the world from H. acquired. physical form. incompatibility; every sound of reality, the "quiet hell" of the poet, torments, deafens and stings him. Verse occupies a special place in the book and in H.'s poetry. “Not by a mother, but by a Tula peasant woman ... I am fed,” dedicated. to the poet's nurse, whose gratitude develops into a manifesto of literary self-determination of H., the adherence of the Russian. language and culture gives the "torturous right" to "love and curse" Russia. Life in exile. sopr-Xia constant lack of money and exhaust. lit. labor, difficult relations with emigrant writers, first because of the proximity to Gorky. H. published a lot in the journal Sovrem. notes”, to the newspaper “Vozrozhdeniye”, where since 1927 he has been leading the department of literature. annals. In emigration. H. develops a reputation for being picky. criticism and disagreement. human, bilious and poisonous skeptic. In 1927, the "Collected Poems" was published, including the last small book "Europ. night", with amaze. the verse “In front of the mirror” (“I, I, I. What a wild word! / Is that one over there really me?”). The natural change of images - a pure child, an ardent young man and today, "bilious-gray, half-gray / And omniscient, like a snake" - for H. a tragic consequence. split and uncompensated mental waste; longing for wholeness sounds in this verse. like nowhere else in his poetry. On the whole, the poems of "European Night" are painted in gloomy tones, they are dominated not even by prose, but by the bottom and underground of life ("Underground"). He is trying to penetrate into the "alien life", the life of the "little man" of Europe, but the blank wall of misunderstanding is symbolized. not social, but the general senselessness of life rejects the poet. After 1928, Kh. almost did not write poetry, on them, as well as on other “proud designs” (including biogr. Pushkin, which he never wrote), he puts an end to it: “Now I have nothing,” he writes in August 1932 to Berberova, who left him in the same year; in 1933 he marries O. B. Margolina. H. becomes one of the leading critics of emigrants, responding to all the meanings. publications abroad and in Sov. Russia, including books by G. Ivanov, M. Aldanov, I. Bunin, V. Nabokov, Z. Gippius, M. Zoshchenko, M. Bulgakov, polemics with Adamovich, seeks to instill a pier. emigrant poets. classical lessons. mast. Last TV period ended with the release of two prosaic. books - bright thin. biogr. "Derzhavin", written. fluff tongue. prose, using the language color of the era, and memoir prose "Necropolis", compiled. from the essays of 1925-37, published, like the chapters of Derzhavin, in periodicals.
G. V. Ivanov - poet, critic, memoirist.
In 1911, the GI adjoins the ego-futurists, but already in 1912 it departs from them and approaches the acmeists. At the same time, it is published in magazines that are completely different in areas: Rosehip, Satyricon, Niva, Hyperborea, Apollo, Lukomorye, etc.
The first collection of the poet "Departure to the island of Tsitera", published at the end of 1911 (in imprint - 1912) and marked by reviews of Bryusov, Gumilyov, Lozinsky, was influenced by the poetry of Kuzmin, Vyach. Ivanov and Blok.
In the spring of 1914, already a full member of the Poets' Guild, GI published his second book of poems, The Upper Room.
During the First World War, GI actively collaborated in popular weeklies, writing a lot of "jingo-patriotic" poems (the collection "Monument of Glory", 1915, which the poet himself later did not include in his poetry books), most of which he later treated critically. .
At the very end of 1915, the GI released his last pre-revolutionary collection - "Heather" (on the title page - Pg., 1916).
After the revolution, GI participated in the activities of the second "Workshop of Poets". To feed himself, he was engaged in translations of Byron, Baudelaire, Gauthier, and a number of other poets. Only in 1921 was Ivanov's next book of poems "Gardens" published.
In October 1922, G. GI, together with his wife Irina Odoevtseva, left Russia. During the years of emigration he lives in Berlin, Paris, sometimes in Riga. During the Second World War, the GI was in Biarritz, from where he returned to Paris after it ended.
GI publishes a lot in the emigre press with his poems, critical articles, writes prose (the unfinished novel The Third Rome (1929, 1931), the prose poem The Decay of the Atom (1938, Paris).
In exile GI shared with V. Khodasevich the title of "first poet", although many of his works, especially memoirs and prose, caused a lot of unfavorable reviews both in the emigre environment and, especially, in Soviet Russia. This applies, in particular, to the book of essays "Petersburg Winters" published in 1928.
The pinnacle of Ivanov's poetic work was the collections "Roses" (1931, Paris) and "1943-1958. Poems" (prepared by the author himself, but released a few months after his death). At the very beginning of 1937, the only lifetime book of G. Ivanov's "Chosen One" was published in Berlin - "Departure to the Island of Cythera", practically repeating the title of the first collection, which was published exactly 25 years before. Only one of the three sections of this book contained poems that the author had not previously included in collections. The last years of his life were spent for G. Ivanov in poverty and suffering - since 1953, he, together with I. Odoevtseva, has been living in a nursing home in Hyères, near Toulon, until his death on August 26, 1958. Later, the ashes of the poet were transferred to Parisian cemetery of Saint Genevieve de Bois.
Creativity GV Adamovich.
Adamovich Georgy Viktorovich was born in Moscow. In 1914-1915 Adamovich got acquainted with acmeist poets, and in 1916-1917 he became one of the leaders of the second "Shop of Poets". In 1916, Adamovich's first collection of poetry "Clouds" was published, marked by the features of acmeist poetics that were easily recognizable by that time. A detailed landscape, mostly winter and autumn, the interior serves as a backdrop that sets off the state of mind of the lyrical hero. Critics noted the "special vigilance for everyday life" characteristic of the poet. However, "visual images" are not an end in themselves for Adamovich; for him, the search for emotionally intense content is more important. Ultimate lyricism is a natural property of Adamovich's talent. N. S. Gumilyov drew attention to this feature of his poetic talent when reviewing the first collection of the poet. "... He does not like the cold splendor of epic images," the critic noted, "he is looking for a lyrical attitude towards them and for this he seeks to see them enlightened by suffering ... This sound of a rattling string is the best that is in Adamovich's poems, and the most independent" . The poet's lyrics aspire to the classical completeness of the form, but in it, elegiac in nature, there always remains a moment of understatement and deliberate openness. Critics attributed Adamovich to "strictly subjective lyricists and limited by their subjectivity." The conflicts of public life do not seem to affect the poet: immersed in the circle of literary and mythological reminiscences, he seems to be detached from the anxieties of the world, although he lives by them. The poet knows the uncontrived mental pain, and the "pangs of conscience" of I. F. Annensky are close to his poetry.
After the revolution, Adamovich participated in the activities of the third "Workshop of Poets", actively collaborated as a critic in his almanacs, in the newspaper "Life of Art", translated C. Baudelaire, J. M. Heredia. In 1922, Adamovich's collection "Purgatory" was published, written in the form of a kind of lyrical diary. Reflection and introspection are intensified in his poems, and the functional role of the quotation is increasing. "Alien word" is not just woven into the fabric of the word, but becomes a structure-forming beginning: many of Adamovich's poems are built as a paraphrase of famous folklore and literary works ("The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Gudrun's Lament", "The Romance of Tristan and Isolde", urban romances ). His nervous emotional verse is not alien to pathos, especially when the poet turns to "high genres", as a rule, to the ancient Greek and medieval Western European epic. Adamovich realized himself as a poet of the Time. He felt himself a contemporary of different epochs, nevertheless maintaining his own "position of being outside" - the distance separating him, a poet of the 20th century, from the conventional mythological chronotope. The mythological past of culture is experienced by the poet as real history, he identifies himself with the ancient Greek Orpheus, and the "longing of remembrance" becomes the counterpoint of his lyrics.
In 1923 Adamovich left Russia and settled in Paris. As a critic, he appears in the journal Sovremennye Zapiski, the newspaper Latest News, then in Zven and Numbers, gradually gaining a reputation as "the first critic of emigration." He writes few poems, but nevertheless it is to him that emigrant poetry owes the appearance of the so-called "Parisian note" - an extremely sincere expression of his spiritual pain, "truth without embellishment." Poetry is meant to be a diary of human sorrows and experiences. It must abandon the formal experiment and become "artless", because the language is not able to express the whole depth of the life of the spirit and "the inexhaustible mystery of everyday life." The search for truth becomes the pathos of Adamovich's poetry of the emigrant period. The Russian thinker G.P. Fedotov called his path "ascetic wandering". In 1939, a collection of poems by Adamovich "In the West" was published, testifying to a change in the artist's creative manner. Its poetics is still citation, but the development of this principle goes along the line of philosophical deepening. According to the reviewer P.M. Bitsilli, who called Adamovich's book a "philosophical dialogue", the poet's originality manifests itself precisely in "a special dialogism of various modes: either these are direct, albeit fragmentary quotations from Pushkin, Lermontov, or the use of other people's images, sounds, speech structure , and sometimes in such a way that in one poem there is an agreement of two or more voices "". This emphasized polyphonism is associated with Adamovich with his declared desire for clarity and simplicity. Adamovich formulated his poetic credo as follows: "In poetry, as in the point to converge all that is most important that animates a person. Poetry in its distant radiance should become a miraculous deed, just as a dream should become true. " And in his poetic work of the late period, Adamovich strove for a constant "spiritualization of being."
At the beginning of the Second World War, Adamovich signed up as a volunteer in the French army. After the war, he contributed to the New Russian Word newspaper. A sympathetic attitude towards Soviet Russia leads him to disagree with certain circles of emigration. The last collection of Adamovich's "Unity" was published in 1967. The poet addresses the eternal themes of life: life, love, death, loneliness, exile. The theme of death and the theme of love unite the poems of the collection and explain its title. Going into metaphysical problems did not mean giving up "beautiful clarity" and "simplicity". Adamovich in his own way, as noted by the poet and critic Yu. P. Ivask, continued acmeism. He constantly felt the form - the flesh of the verse, the poetic being of the word. Answering the question he himself posed - what should poetry be? - Adamovich wrote: “To make everything clear, and only a piercing transcendental breeze burst into the cracks of meaning ...” The poet aspired to this creative super-task: “To find words that do not exist in the world, / To be indifferent to the image and color, / / To flash a white beginningless light, / And not a flashlight on penny oil.
The fate and work of M. I. Tsvetaeva. Prague and Parisian periods of creativity.
For almost 4 years C. had no news of her husband. In July 1921, she received a letter from him from abroad. C. instantly decides to go to her husband, who studied at the university in Prague. In May 1922, Ts. sought permission to travel abroad. To Berlin first. There's a sign. with Yesenin, tied up. correspondence with Pasternak. 2 and a half months - more than 20 poems, in many ways not similar to the previous ones. Her lyrics become more complicated.
In August, C. went to Prague to Efron. In search of cheap housing, they wander around the suburbs: Macroposy, Ilovishchi, Vshenory - villages with primitive living conditions. With all her heart, C. fell in love with Prague, the city that inspired her, in contrast to Berlin, which she did not like. In the Czech Republic, Ts. completes the poem "Well Done", about the mighty, all-conquering power of love. She embodied her idea that love is always an avalanche of passions that falls on a person, which inevitably ends in separation, she embodied in the “Poem of the Mountain” and “Poem of the End”, inspired by a stormy romance with K.B. Razdevich. The cycle "The Ravine", the poems "I love, but the flour is still alive ...", "Ancient vanity flows through the veins ..." and others are dedicated to him. The lyrics of Ts. of that time also reflected other feelings that worried her - contradictory, but always strong. Passionate, poignant verses express her longing for her homeland ("Dawn on the Rails", "Emigrant"). Letters to Pasternak merge with lyrical appeals to him ("Wires", "Two"). Descriptions of the Prague outskirts (“Factory”) and echoes of their own wanderings from apartment to apartment are combined in anguish from inescapable poverty. She continues to reflect on the special fate of the poet (the cycle "Poet"), on his greatness and defenselessness, power and insignificance in the world "where crying is called a runny nose":
In 1925, Ts. had a son, George, whom she had long dreamed of, in the family he would be called Mur. A month later, she began to write the last work in Czechoslovakia - the poem "Pied Piper", called "lyric. satire." The poem was based on the legend of a flutist from Gammeln, who saved the city from an invasion of rats, luring them into the river with his music, and when he did not receive the promised payment with the help of the same flute, he lured all the young children out of the city, took them to the mountain, where they swallowed by the abyss that opened beneath them. On this external background, Tsvetaeva imposes the sharpest satire, denouncing all sorts of manifestations of lack of spirituality. Pied Piper-flutist - personifies poetry, rats (fat burghers) and city dwellers (greedy burghers) - soul-destroying life. Poetry takes revenge on life that did not keep its word, the musician takes children away to his charming music and drowns them in the lake, granting them eternal bliss.
In the autumn of 1925, C. moved with the children to Paris. In Paris and its suburbs Ts. destined to live for almost fourteen years. Life in France has not become easier. Emigr. the environment did not accept Ts., and she herself often went into open conflict with Lit. abroad. In the spring of 1926, through Pasternak, C. met in absentia with Rainer Maria Rilke. Thus the epist was born. "A novel of three" - "Letters of the summer of 1926". Experiencing a creative upsurge, C. writes a dedication. To Pasternak the poem "From the Sea", she dedicates "Attempt at the Room" to him and Rilke. At the same time, she created the poem "Ladder", in which her hatred of "the satiety of the well-fed" and "the hunger of the hungry" found expression. The death at the end of 1926 of the never seen Rilke deeply shocked Ts. She creates a requiem poem, a lament for the poet "New Year's Day", then "The Poem of the Air", in which she reflects on death and eternity.
The poet is changing. Tsvetaeva's language, a kind of high tongue-tied tongue. Everything in poetry is subject to rhythm. The bold, impetuous fragmentation of the phrase into separate semantic pieces, for the sake of almost telegraphic brevity, in which only the most necessary accents of thought remain, becomes a characteristic sign of her style. She is conscious. destroys the musical traditional poems. forms: “I do not believe in the verses that pour. They tear - yes! Prose was more readily published, so by the will of fate in the 30s. the main place in TV-ve Ts. is occupied by prose. product. Like many Russian writers in exile, she turns her gaze to the past, to a world that has sunk into oblivion, trying to resurrect that ideal atmosphere from the heights of the past years in which she grew up, which shaped her as a person and a poet. Essays "The Bridegroom", "The House at Old Pimen", the already mentioned "Mother and Music", "Father and His Museum" and others. The death of her contemporaries, people whom she loved and revered, is the reason for the creation of requiem memoirs: “Living about the Living” (Voloshin), “The Captive Spirit” (Andrei Bely), “An Otherworldly Evening” (Mikhail Kuzmin), “ The Tale of Sonechka ”(S.Ya. Holliday). Tsvetaeva also writes articles devoted to the problems of creativity (“The Poet and Time”, “Art in the Light of Conscience”, “Poets with History and Poets Without History” and others). A special place is occupied by Tsvetaeva's "Pushkiniana" - the essays "My Pushkin" (1936), "Pushkin and Pugachev" (1937), the poetic cycle "Poems to Pushkin" (1931). She bowed to the genius of this poet from infancy, and works about him are also autobiographical. character. In the spring of 1937, Ts.'s daughter, Ariadne, left for Moscow, and at the age of 16 she adopted the owls. citizenship. And in the fall, Sergei Efron, who continued his activities in the "Union of Homecoming" and cooperation with Soviet intelligence, became involved in a not very clean story that received wide publicity. He had to leave Paris in a hurry and secretly cross to the USSR. Tsvetaeva's departure was a foregone conclusion. She is in a difficult mental state, she has not written anything for more than six months. Prepares to send your archive. The September events of 1938 brought her out of creative silence. Germany's attack on Czechoslovakia aroused her stormy indignation, which resulted in a cycle of "poems to the Czech Republic": "Oh mania! O mummy // Majesty! // Burn, // Germany! // Madness, // Madness // You create! On June 12, 1939, Tsvetaeva and her son leave for Moscow.
Poetry of the young generation of the first wave of emigration. Main directions: "Parisian note", "formists", poets of "Crossroads", "provincial" poets.
“Unnoticed generation” (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky, refusal to reconstruct the hopelessly lost. Young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation in Russia belonged to the “unnoticed generation”: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov , M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knuth, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam , Y. Terapiano, etc. Their fate was different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, in the case of Nabokov, even world fame. the most dramatic fate of B. Poplavsky, who died under mysterious circumstances, A. Steiger, I. Knorring, who died early. Yu. Terapiano served in a pharmaceutical company, many of them were interrupted by a penny extra money. Describing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in small cheap cafes in Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “Despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse… is fed and supported by insults and poverty… At the tables of Montparnasse sit people, many of whom did not dine during the day, and find it difficult to ask in the evening yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse, sometimes they sit until the morning because there is nowhere to spend the night. Poverty deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. The extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless "Parisian note" sounds in the collections of B. Poplavsky ( Flags), N. Otsupa ( Up in the smoke), A. Steiger ( This life,Two by two is four), L. Chervinskaya ( Approximation), V. Smolensky ( Alone), D. Knut ( Paris nights), A.Prismanova ( Shadow and body), I.Knorring ( Poems about yourself).
Parisian note, a movement in Russian emigrant poetry of the late 1920s, the leader of which was considered G. Adamovich, and the most prominent representatives of B. Poplavsky, L. Chervinskaya (1906–1988), A. Steiger (1907–1944); Prose writer J. Felzen (1894–1943) was also close to him. Adamovich was the first to speak about a special, Parisian current in the poetry of the Russian Diaspora in 1927, although the name "Parisian note" apparently belongs to Poplavsky, who wrote in 1930: "There is only one Parisian school, one metaphysical note, growing all the time - solemn, bright and hopeless.
The movement, which recognized this “note” as the dominant one, considered G. Ivanov the poet who most fully expressed the experience of exile, and opposed its program (the movement did not publish special manifestos) to the principles of the Perekrestok poetic group, which followed the aesthetic principles of V. Khodasevich. In his responses to the speeches of the "Paris Note", Khodasevich emphasized the inadmissibility of turning poetry into a "human document", pointing out that real creative achievements are possible only as a result of mastering the artistic tradition, which ultimately leads to Pushkin. To this program, which inspired the poets of the Crossroads, the adherents of the Paris Note, following Adamovich, opposed the view of poetry as a direct evidence of the experience, the reduction of "literary" to a minimum, since it prevents the expression of the genuineness of the feeling inspired by metaphysical longing. Poetry, according to the program outlined by Adamovich, was to be "made from elementary material, from "yes" and "no" ... without any embellishments.
The “Paris Note” countered the requirements of getting used to the Russian tradition with its principle of a broad creative dialogue with European poetry, from the French “damned poets” to surrealism, and with an attitude towards an experiment that caused skeptical comments from the opponents of this poetry from Z. Gippius to the critic A. Bem.
Without publishing a single almanac that would indicate a common worldview and creative position, and without spending a single collective evening, the poets of the Paris Note nevertheless quite clearly expressed the range of moods and aesthetic orientation, which made it possible to talk about a holistic phenomenon. The early deaths of Poplavsky and Steiger, the death of Felsen, who became a victim of the Nazi genocide, did not allow the "Paris Note" to realize its potential and even forced Adamovich, after two decades, to declare that "the note failed", making the reservation that it "sounded not entirely in vain ". However, Chervinskaya or the poet V. Mamchenko (1901–1982), who shared its basic principles, remained committed to this program until the end of his career.
Crossroads. V. Khodasevich considered the main task of Russian literature in exile to be the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for craftsmanship, insisted that émigré literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, "graft the classic rose" into the émigré wild. Young poets of the Crossroads group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky.
The creative path of G. I. Gazdanov.
Gazdanov Gaito (Georgy Ivanovich) (1903, St. Petersburg - 1971, Munich; buried near Paris in the cemetery of Saint-Genevieve-des-Bois).
Born in consist. family of Ossetian origin, Russian in culture, image and language. Gazdanov is a Russian writer. About the language of ancestors: “I do not know the Ossetian language, although my parents knew it very well. I studied at the University of Paris, but Russian remained my mother tongue.” The father's profession is a forester => the family traveled a lot around the country, so only childhood - in St. Petersburg, then - in different cities of Russia (in Siberia, Tver province, etc.). Often visited relatives. in the Caucasus, in Kislovodsk. School years - Poltava, a year in the Cadet Corps, and Kharkov, a gymnasium from 1912. Douch. up to grade 7. In 1919, at the age of 16, he joined Dobrovolch. Wrangel's army, fighting in the Crimea. Serves on an armored train. Then, together with the army - to Gallipoli, later - to Constantinople. Here is the case. meetings. his twin. sister, ballerina (she left before the Revolution, lived with her husband and worked as a slave in Const-le). Pts. helped Gazdanov. In K-le continued. studying at the gymnasium in 1922. 1st story - "Hotel of the Future", published. in 1926 in Prague. magazine "In Your Own Ways". The gymnasium was translated. in the city of Shumen in Bulgaria, where G. graduated from high school in 1923. In 1923 he came to Paris, lived there for 13 years. Salary for a living, working as a loader, a locomotive washer, a worker at the Citroen automobile plant, etc. Then 12 years of work. taxi driver. In tech. these 12 years, 4 out of 9 novels, 28 out of 37 short stories were written, and everything else - in the next 30. years.
In the late 20s - early. 30s 4 years at the Sorbonne at the historical-philological. f-those, busy. history of literature, sociology, economic. sciences. In the spring of 1932, under the influence of M. Osorgin, he entered Russian. Masonic lodge "Northern Star". In 1961 he became her Master. He corresponded with Maxim Gorky, sent him some of his works, incl. and 1st novel.
In 1929 - Gazdanov's 1st novel ("An Evening at Claire's"). The entire emigration praises the novel. G. starts public. stories, novels along with Bunin, Merezhkovsky, Aldanov, Nabokov in Sovrem. notes ”(the most authoritative and respectable journal of emigration). Actively participates in lit. united "Kochevye".
In 1936 he went to the Riviera, where he met his future. wife Gavrisheva, nee Lamzaki (from an Odessa family of Greek origin). In 1937-39 every summer he comes to the Middle East. the sea is the happiest. lifetime.
In 1939 - the war. G. remains in Paris. Surviving fascist. occupation, helps those who are in danger. Participates in the movement resistance. He writes a lot: novels, short stories. From what was written at that time, the novel The Ghost of Alexander Wolf (1945-48) received recognition. After the war, publ. book "Return. Buddha." Great success, fame and money. Since 1946 only Lit. labor, sometimes moonlighting as a night taxi driver.
In 1952, G. was offered to become an employee of a new radio station, Svoboda. Accept. this proposal is from January 1953 until the death of works. Here. After 3 years, he became the editor-in-chief of the news (in Munich), in 1959 he returned. to Paris as a correspondent for the Paris Bureau of Radio Liberty. In 1967 he was again transferred to Munich as a senior, and then chief editor of the Russian service. I visited Italy, forever in love. to this country, especially to Venice. Came here every year.
In 1952 - the novel "Night Roads", then "Pilgrims" (1952 - 54). The latest novels to see the light of day are The Awakening and Evelina and Her Friends, begun in the 1950s but completed in the late 60s.
Died of lung cancer.
Poetry and prose of B. Yu. Poplavsky.
Boris Yulianovich Poplavsky was born in Moscow on May 24, 1903 and died in Paris on October 9, 1935. Overdose. He began writing poetry very early as a student. notebooks, decorating them with fantasy. patterns. In 1918, Poplavsky's father, who considered it dangerous for himself to remain in Moscow, left with his son for the south of Russia. In the winter of 1919, in Yalta, Boris made his first public appearance at the Chekhov Lit. mug. In November 1920, the Wrangel army finally left the Crimea, and in the stream of Russian refugees, the father and son ended up in Istanbul, where they stayed until May 1921, that is, before moving to Paris. In Paris, Poplavsky visits a private art school. academy "Grand Chaumière" and is already starting to spend his evenings in Montparnasse. His dream in 1921-1924 was to become an artist. Boris leaves for Berlin for two years to try his luck in his favorite field. Among writers, Poplavsky liked Andrey Bely the most. Returning to Paris, forever, Boris now divides his main activities between writing, sports, diligent studies in the library of St. Genevieve, which he prefers to lectures on philosophy and the history of religions at the Sorbonne. After several fleeting attempts to become a taxi driver, Boris will finally give up on any practical work and, despite some support from his father, will drag out a beggarly existence for the rest of his life, barely making his way on "chamomile money", that is, on benefits for the unemployed. In 1928, the magazine "Will of Russia" published eight poems by Boris Poplavsky. Almost only Adamovich responded sympathetically to this. There were specific reasons for this. The old generation, which held in its tenacious hands all the publishing houses not only in Paris, but also in Berlin, was very reluctant to allow the younger generation to print. This circumstance explains Georgiy Ivanov's caustic remark: "`Will of Russia`-de recently discovered the amazingly gifted Poplavsky, but among all the charming poems published there, not one could appear in Sovremennye Zapiski, since the poems are too good and exceptionally original for such a magazine" . However, Sovremennye Zapiski soon caught on and, starting from 1929 to 1935, nevertheless published fifteen of his poems, albeit in homeopathic doses, in eleven issues of the magazine. During his lifetime, Poplavsky managed to publish only one collection of poems "Flags" in 1931. Among the critics who then reproached Poplavsky for the "errors" of his Russian language was Vladimir Nabokov, who nonetheless admitted that some of the poems in the collection were "lifted up by their pure musicality." In a narrow circle of connoisseurs, Poplavsky was nevertheless recognized during his lifetime. At least he did not leave his audience indifferent. "Flags" was reviewed more thoroughly than other books already in the year of its publication. The reviews not only differed sharply from each other, but also preceded those two prevailing lines of characteristics that develop in the evaluations of Poplavsky's work even today. After Boris's death, three more of his collections were published: "Snow Hour" (1936), "In a wreath of wax" (1938), "Airship of unknown direction" (1965). From 1921 he began to keep his diary. Most of the recordings have remained unsorted and unreleased to this day. Nikolai Berdyaev, who devoted a detailed review of this work in Sovremennye Zapiski in 1939, drew attention to the essay "On the Substantial Personality" published from the diaries. Along with these diaries, and "rather" in their line, in the form of a creative projection, Boris Poplavsky started since 1926 a novel-confession in the form of a trilogy: "Apollo Bezobrazov", "Home from Heaven", "Teresa's Apocalypse". “And the wind descends into the fireplace, / Like a diver into a flooded ship / Seeing in it that the drowned man is alone / Looking recklessly into empty water.”
"Second wave" of emigration and its literature. Peculiarities. Periodicals.
The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave, prisoners of war, the so-called displaced persons, are leaving the USSR - citizens who were driven away by the Germans to work in Germany, those who did not accept the totalitarian regime. Most of the emigrants of the second wave settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and in America. By 1952 there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America by 1950.
Among the writers brought out of their homeland with the second wave of emigration: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 1940s faced no less difficult trials than refugees from Bolshevik Russia: war, captivity, Gulag, arrests and torture. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the work of writers of the second wave are the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of Stalinist terror.
The greatest contribution to Russian literature among the representatives of the second wave was made by poets: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, V. Yurasov, V. Morshen, V. Sinkevich, V. Chinov, Yu. Ivask, V. Markov. In émigré poetry of the 1940s and 1950s, political themes predominate: Iv. Yelagin writes political feuilletons in verse; Tvardovsky. Critics most often call I. Elagin the first poet of the second wave, who published collections in exile On the way from there, You, my century, Night reflections, Oblique flight, Dragon on the roof, Under the ax constellation, In the hall of the Universe. I. Yelagin called the main "nodes" of his work: civic consciousness, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, urban fantasy. In terms of social sharpness, political and civic pathos, Elagin's poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the "Paris note".
Having overcome the horror of the experience, Y. Ivask, D. Klenovsky, V. Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motifs sound in the poems of Y. Ivask (collections Tsar's Autumn, Praise, Cinderella, I am a tradesman, the Conquest of Mexico). Acceptance of the world - in the collections of V. Sinkevich Coming of the day, Flowering of herbs, Here I live. Optimism and harmonious clarity marked the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of Life, Towards the Sky, Touch, Outgoing Sails, Singing Burden, Warm Evening, Last). I. Chinnov, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkin also made a significant contribution to emigrant poetry.
Heroes who did not get used to Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. Tragic is the fate of Fyodor Panin, who is running from the "Great Fear" in V. Yurasov's novel Parallax. S. Markov argues with Sholokhov's Virgin Soil Upturned in Denis Bushuev's novel. B.Filippov addresses the camp theme (the stories Happiness, People, In the Taiga, Love, Motive from La Bayadère), L.Rzhevsky (the story The Girl from the Bunker (Between Two Stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Blockade, B. Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki from Peter the Great to Soviet concentration camps (The Unquenchable Lampada). Against the backdrop of “camp literature”, the books by L. Rzhevsky Dean and Two lines of time stand out, which tell about the love of an elderly man and a girl, about overcoming misunderstanding, life tragedy, barriers in communication. According to critics, in the books of Rzhevsky "the radiation of love turned out to be stronger than the radiation of hatred."
Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the "magazine of literature, art and social thought" Grani (Munich, since 1946).
The third wave of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives. Periodicals.
3rd wave - 1970s Predominantly from the USSR. departure figures of lawsuits, creative. intelligence. In 1971, 15 thousand owls. citizens left. country, in 1972 - 35 thousand. Pisat.-emigrants of the 3rd wave, as a rule, belonged. to gen. "sixties", the heyday of creativity of which passed for the period of the "thaw", "the decade of Soviet quixoticism" (V. Aksenov). This is the generation of Formers. during the war and post-war period. "Children of War", grown up. in the atmosphere spirit. rise, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev's "thaw". But it soon became obvious that fundamental changes in the life of owls. general-va "thaw" does not promise. Following the romantic dreams followed a 20-year stagnation. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom - 1963, with a visit by N.S. Khrushchev to an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. Ser. 60s - a period of new persecution of creativity. intellectuals and, in the first place, writers. Solzhenitsyn's works banned. for publication. Excit. corner. case against Y. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky, A. Sinyavsky was arrested. I. Brodsky condemned. for parasitism and exiled to the village of Norenskaya. S. Sokolov is deprived of the opportunity to publish. The poet and journalist N. Gorbanevskaya (for participating in a protest demonstration against the invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia) was placed. in psych. hospital. 1st writer, deporters. to the west, - V. Tarsis (1966). Persecution and prohibitions => a new stream of emigrants, creatures. different from the previous 2: in the beginning. 70s USSR left. intellectuals, deyat. to-ry and science. Many are deprived of owls. citizens (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich and others). With the 3rd wave of emigrants. travel abroad: V. Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, I. Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenstein, I. Huberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu Kublanovskii, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavskii, A. Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, and others. writing emigrant in the USA, where a powerful Russian is being formed. diaspora (I. Brodsky, N. Korzhavin, V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, Yu. Aleshkovsky and others), to France (A. Sinyavsky, M. Rozanova, V. Nekrasov, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, N . Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (V. Voinovich, F. Gorenstein).
Writers of the 3rd wave in emigration. in perfect new conditions, they were largely not accepted by their predecessors, alien to the "old emigration". In excellent from emigrants. 1st and 2nd waves, they did not set themselves the task of "preserving k-ry" or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Comm. different experiences, worldviews, even different languages (as A. Solzhenitsyn publishes the "Dictionary of Language Expansion", including dialects, Lag. jargon) interfered with the emergence of ties between generations. Rus. lang. for 50 years of owls. power has undergone means. change-I, TV-in will present. The 3rd wave was formed not so much under the air of the Rus. classics, how much under the influence of popul. in the 60s in the USSR, American and Latin American literature, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, and the prose of A. Platonov. 1 of the main damn Russian. emigrant lit-ry 3rd wave - gravitation towards the avant-garde, p-modernism. But the 3rd wave is heterogeneous: in emigration. prov. realistic writers. for example (A. Solzhenitsyn, G. Vladimov), p-modernists (S. Sokolov, Yu. Mamleev, E. Limonov), nob. laureate I. Brodsky, anti-formalist N. Korzhavin. Rus. lit-ra of the 3rd wave is a tangle of conflicts: “We left in order to be able to fight each other” (Naum Korzhavin).
Periodicals. One of the most famous magazines of the 3rd wave is "Continent". Created by V. Maksimov and published in Paris 4 times a year. The journal is thought of as a tool of resistance to the owls. totalit. system and communist ideology. The name was suggested by A.I. Solzhenitsyn: the authors of the journal seemed to speak on behalf of the whole continent of Eastern countries. Europe, dominated by totalitarianism. => Not only dissidents and emigrants from the USSR (A. Solzhenitsyn, A. Sakharov, I. Brodsky, A. Sinyavsky, V. Bukovsky, N. Korzhavin) collaborated with the magazine, but also representatives. other countries, the so-called. "socialist camp": E. Ionesco, M. Djilas, M. Mikhailov, K. Gustav-Shtrem. But for a long time to unite the authors with dec. persuasion under the auspices of the magazine failed. Quite quickly, they stopped cooperating with the "Continent". A.I. Solzhenitsyn (the magazine takes an insufficient Russian and Orthodox position), A. Sinyavsky with his wife M. Rozanova (the magazine is accused of excessive nationalism). Authors of the journal: Yu. Aleshkovsky, V. Betaki, V. Voinovich, A. Galich, A. Gladilin, N. Gorbanevskaya, S. Dovlatov, N. Korzhavin, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov. "Continent" traditionally had a large citat. audience in the USSR. Among the journals, Russian emigrant he was considered centrist, the right was accused of cosmopolitanism, and the liberal dissidence was not allowed. patriotism. Despite this, he had a great influence on the development of the fatherland. lit-ry and to-ry. + in Paris, the journal "Syntax" (M. Rozanova, A. Sinyavsky). The most famous Amer. publishers - newspapers "New American" and "Panorama", magazine "Kaleidoscope". In Israel, the magazine "Time and Us" was founded, in Munich - "Forum". In 1972, the beginning work publishing house "Ardis", I. Efimov founded. publishing house "Hermitage". At the same time, such publications as New Russian Word (New York), New Journal (New York), Russian Thought (Paris), Grani (Frankfurt am Main) maintain their positions. .
Poets of the third wave of emigration. General characteristics.
Among the poets who in exile - N. Korzhavin, Yu. Kublanovskiy, A. Tsvetkov, A. Galich, I. Brodsky. Prominent place in the history of Russian. poetry owned. I. Brodsky, received. in 1987 Nob. award for "development and modernization. classical forms." In emigration. Brodsky public. poems. collections and poems: “Stop in the Desert”, “Part of Speech”, “The End of a Beautiful Era”, “Roman Elegies”, “New Stanzas for Augusta”, “Autumn Cry of a Hawk”.
Prose writers of the "third wave" of emigration. General characteristics.
2 largest. writing realistic. for example - A. Solzhenitsyn and G. Vladimov. The AU, having been forced to go abroad, creates in exile the epic novel "The Red Wheel", in which the appeal. to the key. sob-yam rus. history of the twentieth century, interpreting them in an original way. Recently emigrated. before perestroika (in 1983), G. Vladimov publ. the novel "The General and His Army", in which also touches the ist. themes: in the center of the novel is the so-called Second World War, which abolished the ideological and the class. opposition inside the owls. Society-va, muzzled repression 30-ies. The fate of the peasant kind of dedication his novel "Seven Days of Creation" by V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, received. Became. prize for the novel "In the trenches of Stalingrad", after the departure of the public. "Notes of an Onlooker", "A Little Sad Tale".
A special place in the literature of the 3rd wave is occupied. TV-in V. Aksenov and S. Dovlatov. TV-in Aksenov, deprived of owls. gr-va in 1980, addressed to the owls. really 50-70s, the evolution of his generation. The novel "The Burn" is enchanting. panorama post-war. Moscow life, brings to the fore the "cult" heroes of the 60s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksyonov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in the Moscow Saga. In Dovlatov's TV - rare, not typical. d / rus. verbal connection of a grotesque worldview with the rejection of moral invectives, conclusions. In Russian literature of the twentieth century. stories and novels of the writer continue the tradition of depicting “mal. person." In his short stories, Dovlatov accurately conveys the lifestyle and worldview of the generation of the 60s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow. kitchens, the absurdity of owls. indeed, the ordeal of Russian. emigrants to the USA. In written in exile. "Foreigner" Dovlatov pic. emigrant beings in ironic. key. 108th Street of Queens, depicted in "Foreigner" - a gallery of non-production. cartoons in Russian emigrants.
V. Voinovich abroad tries himself in the genre of dystopia - in the novel "Moscow-2042", in which a parody of Solzhenitsyn is given and the agony of owls is depicted. total Islands.
A. Sinyavsky public. in emigration. "Walks with Pushkin", "In the Shadow of Gogol" - prose, in which the literature is combined. with brilliant writing, and writes ironically. Biography Good Night.
S. Sokolov, Yu. Mamleev, E. Limonov refer their TV to the p-modernist tradition. The novels of S. Sokolov "School for Fools", "Between the Dog and the Wolf", "Palisandria" are sophisticated. verbal structures, masterpieces of style, they reflected the p-modernist attitude to play with readers, the shift of time plans. The first novel by S. Sokolov "School for Fools" was highly appreciated by V. Nabokov, his idol. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Y. Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown My Head, Eternal Home, Voice from Nothing, Connecting Rods. E. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story "We Had a Wonderful Era", denies the establishment in the books "It's me - Eddie", "The Diary of a Loser", "Savenko the Teenager", "Young Scoundrel".
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After the October Revolution of 1917, more than two million Russian people left Russia. Mass emigration from Russia began in 1919-1920. It was during these years that the concept of the Russian diaspora and the great Russian emigration appeared, since, in fact, the first wave of Russian emigration managed to preserve “both the spirit and the letter” of pre-revolutionary Russian society and Russian culture. Emigration, according to the poetess Z. Gippius, "represented Russia in miniature." Russian emigration is representatives of all classes of the former Russian Empire: the nobility, merchants, intelligentsia, clergy, military personnel, workers, peasants. But the culture of the Russian diaspora was created mainly by people from the creative elite. Many of them were expelled from Soviet Russia in the early 1920s. Many emigrated themselves, fleeing the Red Terror. Prominent writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, musicians, and actors ended up in emigration. Among them are the world-famous composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky, the singer F. Chaliapin, the actor M. Chekhov, the artists I. Repin, N. Roerich, K. Korovin, the chess player A. Alekhin, the thinkers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, S. Frank, L. Shestov and many others. Russian literature split. Symbolists D. Merezhkovsky and Z. Gippius, K. Balmont, V. Ivanov ended up abroad. Of the futurists, I. Severyanin, who lived in Estonia, became the largest figure outside of Russia. The most prominent prose writers I. Bunin, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev, B. Zaitsev left Russia. After living abroad for some time, A. Bely, A. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, M. Tsvetaeva returned. L. Andreev lived out his last years at a dacha in Finland. The "Russian dispersion" spread throughout the world, but several centers played a particularly important role in the formation and development of Russian foreign literature and culture: these are Berlin, Paris, Prague, Belgrade, Warsaw, Sofia, Constantinople, "Russian China" (Harbin and Shanghai) and Russian America. The Berlin and Parisian Russian diasporas were decisive for the formation of the Russian diaspora.
In the early 1920s, Berlin was the capital of Russian emigration. A regional feature of the literary life of Berlin can be considered the intensity of cultural contacts between emigration and the metropolis, accompanied by an unprecedented publishing boom (from 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Germany). In the literary environment of Berlin there was
the idea of "building bridges" between the two streams of Russian literature is popular. This task was set by the journals "Russian Book", "Epic" (edited by A. Bely), "Conversation" (prepared by Gorky, Khodasevich and Bely for readers of Soviet Russia). As well as the newspapers "Dni" (1922-1925), which published the prose of I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, B. Zaitsev, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev and others, and "Rul", with which literary fate is largely connected V. Nabokov.
By the middle of the 1920s, ideas about the future of Russia in the emigrant environment had changed. If from the beginning the emigrants hoped for changes in Russia, it later became obvious that the emigrantsI J /’tion is for a long time, if not forever. In the mid-20s, an economic crisis occurred in Germany, which led to the departure of Russian writers to other countries. The literary life of the Russian diaspora began to move to Paris, which became, before the occupation by the Nazis, the new capital of Russian culture. One of the most famous in the literature of the Russian diaspora was the Parisian journal Sovremennye Zapiski (1920-1940), distinguished by its broad political views and aesthetic tolerance. A. Tolstoy's "Walking Through the Torments", I. Bunin's "Life of Arsenyev", novels by M. Adlanov, works by B. Zaitsev, M. Osorgin, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev, A. Bely were printed here. Of the master poets, M. Tsvetaeva, G. Ivanov, Z. Gippius, V. Khodasevich, K. Balmont regularly published in the journal. The pride of Sovremennye Zapiski was the literary and philosophical section, where N. Berdyaev, N. Lossky, F. Stepun presented articles. The unifying center of the Russian emigration was also Sunday readings at the apartment of the Merezhkovskys in Paris. N. Teffi, V. Khodasevich, I. Bunin, N. Berdyaev, L. Shestov, B. Poplavsky, and others performed here with poetry readings and reports on Russian culture. In 1927, the Green Lamp literary association arose in Paris , whose main goal was to maintain "light and hope" in emigre circles. Literary masters, "old men", united in the "Union of Writers and Journalists". And the emigrant youth created the Union of Young Writers and Poets.
The life and literature of emigration did not contribute to the harmonious worldview of the artist. There was a need to create new expressive means adequate to the modern tragic era. It was in Paris that “artistic multi-style” was formed, which was called the “Parisian note” - a metaphorical state of mind of artists, in whichrum combined "solemn, bright and hopeless notes", clashed with a sense of doom and a keen sense of life.
The vast majority of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration considered themselves the keepers and continuers of the traditions of Russian national culture, the humanistic aspirations of A. Pushkin, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky. In their works, they preached the priority of the individual over the state, the idea of catholicity, the fusion of man with the world, society, nature, and space. At the same time, many of them were the heirs of the literature of the Silver Age, which expressed the tragedy of the destruction of world harmony.
The cross-cutting theme of all Russian literature abroad is Russia, longing for it. Bunin's "Life of Arseniev" (1927-1952) is permeated with memories of the world's bright past. With nostalgic sadness and at the same time warmth, the writer draws Russian nature. Its simplest manifestations are filled with lyricism and poetry: from afar, the past life seems bright and kind to the writer. His main thoughts in this work are about the feeling of the unity of a person with the family, his ancestors, as a guarantee of "continuity of blood and nature." In Ivan Bunin's publicistic diary book "Cursed Days" (1928), in the description of the lost pre-revolutionary Russia, the phrases lengthen, become slow-moving, and in stories about revolutionary events, on the contrary, they are short and ragged. The stylistically harmonious vocabulary of the old Russian language is opposed to the rough and tongue-tied speech of the new time. The revolution is shown here as the destruction of culture, chaos.
As D. Merezhkovsky believed, Russian emigrants were "not in exile, but in messages." “If my Russia ends, I die,” said 3. Gippius. They were afraid of the “Coming Ham” (the future Soviet man who had lost cultural roots) and saw their main goal in the first years of emigration as telling the West about the bloody horror of the Russian revolution. D. Merezhkovsky's Notebooks became an angry denunciation of the destructive power of the revolution. As a symbolist, behind real events and facts, he was looking for a visionary meaning, trying to discern divine intent. The poetic legacy of Z. Gippius is small, but it left a deep mark on Russian literature. It showed not only the best ideas of the Silver Age, but also the innovation of form. Her poetry is imbued with the love-hate of the exiles for their homeland. Hope and fear, contradictions, "splitness" of the inner world of a person and the idea of Christian love - these are the inalienable properties of the characters of her poetry ("Pro-
a member of graphic works about a wonderful, happy childhood (“Botmolye”, “Summer of the Lord” by Y. Shmelev, the trilogy “Gleb’s Travels” by B. Zaitsev, “Nikita’s Childhood, or The Tale of Many Excellent Things” by A. Tolstoy). And the catastrophic and ugly present, the new Russia, is described, for example, in I. Shmelev's masterpiece story "About an Old Woman" (1925) as a punishment for the destruction of the "reliable for the time being", for distemper. Ivan Shmelev (1873-1950), who in many respects continues the traditions of F. Dostoevsky, is also characterized by the translation of everyday text into an existential, philosophically generalized plan. The plot of the road in this story allows the writer to give an epic picture - the life of the righteous, the eternal worker has collapsed - and the whole
The older generation of Russian writers retained their attachment to the neo-realism of the turn of the century, to the pure Russian word. Younger artists were looking for a "golden aesthetic mean". So, V. Khodasevich (1886-1939) follows the classical traditions of Derzhavin, Tyutchev, Annensky. With the help of reminiscences, the poet restores the long-gone, but dear (“Through the wild voice of catastrophes”, “Tears of Rachel”, the poem “John Bottom”, the book of poems “European Night”). Such fidelity to the Russian classics expressed the need to preserve the great Russian language. But a repulsion from the literature of the 19th century with the retention of all the best was also inevitable - life and literature were rapidly changing. This was understood by many poets of the "oldour generation." V. Khodasevich also tried, in a somewhat new way, to convey the non-poetic nature of émigré reality through rhythmic disharmony (lack of rhymes, multi-foot and multi-foot iambic). M. Tsvetaeva, echoing the innovations of Mayakovsky, created poems based on the style of folk song and colloquial speech (“Lane”, “Good job”). But first of all, the young generation of writers, who had already formed in exile, were fond of innovative searches: V. Nabokov, B. Poplavsky, G. Gazdanov and others. V. Nabokov, for example, gravitated toward Western modernism. In the work of B. Poplavsky and G. Gazdanov, researchers discover surrealistic tendencies.The genre of the historical novel, as well as the novel-biography, is widely used - especially in the work of M. Aldanov. But the most common theme of the literary abroad is the life of the emigration itself. Everyday prose is becoming popular, characterized by Irina Odoevtseva (1895-1990) with her memoirs "On the Banks of the Seine" and novels from emigre life and Nina Berberova (1901-1993). The combination of drama and comedy, lyricism and humor distinguished the everyday prose of A. Averchenko and Teffi.
The poetry of Boris Poplavsky (1903-1935) is a reflection of the continuous aesthetic and philosophical searches of the "unnoticed generation" of Russian emigration. This is the poetry of questions and conjectures, not answers and solutions. In his surrealistic images (“sharks of trams”, “laughing motors”, “the face of fate covered with freckles of sadness”), an invariably tragic attitude is expressed. Mystical analogies convey the "horror of the subconscious", which is not always amenable to rational interpretation (the poem "The Black Madonna", the book of poems "Flags" (1931), "Airship of an unknown direction" (1935), "Snow hour" (1936)).
Gaito Gazdanov (1903-1971) also wrote prose works of a non-classical type, without a plot, with a mosaic composition, where parts of the text are connected according to the associative principle ("Evening at Claire's" (1929)). G. Gazdanov's favorite topics are the search for the meaning of life, the conflict between the present and memory, the illusory nature of dreams, the absurdity of being. The emphasis on the inner world of the characters determines the impressionistic composition of his works, the style of the "stream of consciousness".
Until now, the question of the degree of unity of Russian culture - the mother country and abroad remains relevant. Today, when almost all previously banned emigre works have already been published in the homeland of the authors, it is clear that Soviet and Russian emigre literature are in many ways consonant and even complement each other. If Soviet writers managed to show the active side of the Russian character, then existential truths, God-seeking, individualistic aspirations of human nature were forbidden topics for them. It was these questions that were developed mainly by the artists of the Russian diaspora. Playful, comic beginning, combined with experiments in the field of art form and violencevenously “removed” from Soviet literature (OBERIUTs, B. Pilnyak, I. Babel, A. Kruchenykh, Yu. Olesha), was picked up by A. Remizov (1877-1957), the only continuer of the tradition of ancient Russian laughter culture, folklore play with words, literary mischief by A. Pushkin and V. Khlebnikov (novel-chronicle "Whirlwind Russia" (1927)). Another advantage of the “literature of dispersion” was that, unlike the official Soviet one, it developed in the context of global literature. M. Proust and D. Joyce, almost unknown then in the USSR, influenced the work of young writers abroad. In turn, V. Nabokov, who wrote both in Russian and in English, had a huge influence on world and American literature.
send them even to Madagascar
to the eternal settlement, they are there
will write novel after novel.
And I need everything native, everything -
good, bad - only native.
A.I. Kuprin
The literature of the Russian diaspora is a completely unique phenomenon, the result of a forcible division, the boundaries not between, but within a single Russian literature, drawn in the first years after the October Revolution of 1917. In the world history of literature, there are many examples of the flourishing of the work of individual writers far from their homeland - among them Dante , Mitskevich, Joyce, but before the Russian revolution there was no precedent for the existence of a significant part of literature outside its "mother country".
The literary and cultural center of Russian writers abroad was first Berlin (1920-1924), then Paris. The popularity of Berlin in the first half of the 1920s for emigrants, it was explained simply: the Weimar Republic, unlike many other European countries, recognized Soviet Russia, and because of inflation, the exchange rate of the NEP ruble was quite weighty. A feature of Berlin was also intensive communication between emigre and Soviet writers. Numerous and often short-lived Russian publishing houses in the German capital (between 1918 and 1928 there were 188 of them registered in Germany) worked for both markets: Soviet and émigré. In addition to the largest publishing house Z.I. Grzhebin, were Epoch, Helikon, Slovo, Edges, Thought, Petropolis and many others. Many Soviet writers came to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. S. Yesenin's performance at the Berlin House of Arts made a splash. Periodicals of various socio-political orientations in Russian were published in Berlin: Days, Rul, Vremya, Voice of Russia, Coming Russia, and a number of others. “For us, there is no division into Soviet Russia and emigration in the area of the book,” the Berlin magazine Russkaya Kniga proudly declared, and it was so - but only until the mid-1920s, when the border was closed.
Around the same time, the center of Russian literary emigration moved to Paris. Actually, in terms of language and culture, France was initially close to Russians from the privileged classes, some lucky ones - for example, the Merezhkovskys - had housing there, but the vast majority of emigrant writers (and non-writers) faced great everyday difficulties and were forced to earn for a life of hard unskilled labor. By 1923, according to various sources, from 70 to 400 thousand Russian refugees lived in France.
The largest journal was the left-democratic Sovremennye Zapiski, which was notable for its obvious anti-Bolshevik pathos. Created in 1920 in the image and likeness of classic Russian thick magazines (the name itself clearly referred both to the Pushkin-Nekrasov Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski), it published all the best and "anything known" writers of the Russian diaspora . Until 1940, 70 issues were published, the circulation was about 2000 copies. Among the newspapers, the moderately conservative Vozrozhdeniye (Vozrozhdeniye) stood out (at first edited by P.B. Struve, since 1927 - by Yu.F. Semenov), which also published many prominent émigré writers.
Since 1921, Prague became other centers of the Russian diaspora with a full-fledged cultural life (not so much a literary center as a scientific center - there, among other things, the Russian Free University, the largest Union of Russian Writers and Journalists in exile, the Russian Foreign Archive and many other institutions were created , from 1920 to 1932, the newspaper (later - the magazine) “Will of Russia” was published) and Belgrade (thankful to Nicholas I for help, King Alexander tried to make the life of white émigré writers better: the Russian Library publishing house was founded at the Serbian Academy of Sciences, published books by many Russian writers). In Sofia, for some time, a thick magazine "Russian Thought" was published - the successor to the pre-revolutionary Russian edition, edited by the same P.B. Struve; in Riga, one of the largest emigre newspapers, Segodnya, was published. In the Russian cultural center in the Far East - Harbin - newspapers and magazines in the 1920s. more came out than in Berlin, however, Europeans usually treated the Russian "Chinese" abroad as a deep province, making an exception only for the largest writers - for example, for the poet, prose writer and publicist Arseny Nesmelov (Arseny Ivanovich Mitropolsky, 1889-1945), member of the White movement, who published six collections of poetry in exile.
The literary life of the Russian diaspora (at least before the Second World War), despite being isolated from the language and cultural life of the Motherland, was quite full-fledged: in addition to many publishing houses and various periodicals, there were literary societies (for example, zhurfiksy D.S. Merezhkovsky and Z .N. Gippius, later developed into meetings of the Green Lamp Society), there was a literary controversy: the most significant and long-term one was between V.F. Khodasevich and G.V. Adamovich.
Khodasevich worked in 1925-1926. in the Socialist-Revolutionary newspaper "Days", and from 1927 until his death he was the main literary critic of "Renaissance"; Adamovich was a critic of "Latest News" - the first and most durable of the emigre newspapers (since 1921 - edited by P.N. Milyukov). The dispute was about the fate and the very possibility of the existence of literature and the native language away from the homeland, and later - about poetry. Khodasevich called for paying more attention to poetic skill and discipline and focusing on classical poetry, while Adamovich criticized young poets for their excessive, in his opinion, attention to the formal aspects of creativity, demanded "humanity" from her. Unfortunately, Khodasevich - "the largest poet of our time, a literary descendant of Pushkin along the Tyutchev line", the pride of "Russian poetry, while the last memory of it is alive" (according to the authoritative opinion of V.V. Nabokov) - wrote relatively little in exile, and after 1927, when his last collection European Night came out, almost nothing, focusing on literary criticism.
The largest prose writer "with pre-revolutionary experience" was, of course, I.A. Bunin (1870–1953), the first Russian to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1933. Bunin also wrote poetry, but only in the first years of emigration, remaining mainly a prose writer. In 1918-1919. in Moscow and Odessa, Bunin kept diaries, which later became the basis for the book "Cursed Days" - a living testimony of the era of revolution and civil war and one of the most evil and vivid pamphlets about the beginning of Bolshevik power. A little later, the writer left political pathos and turned to eternal themes. The all-consuming passion and tragedy of earthly love, always associated with death, is the basis of the story "Mitya's Love" (1924), the collection of short stories "Sunstroke" (1927). During the Second World War in Grasse, in difficult living conditions and anxiety about the outcome of the war (despite the hatred of the Bolsheviks, he was very worried about the fate of his homeland), Bunin created one of his most penetrating works - the book "Dark Alleys".
The central work of Bunin's emigrant period is the novel "The Life of Arseniev": both autobiographical and, using the expression of L.Ya. Ginzburg, autopsychological, and universal. According to G.V. Adamovich, “The Life of Arseniev” is a book about Russia, about Russian people, about Russian nature, about the disappeared Russian way of life, about the Russian character”, while “no matter how rich the narration is with this national content, no matter how sad it is in tone in this plane, the true theme of "Arseniev" is different. Behind Russia, Bunin has the whole world, the whole indefinable life, with which Arseniev feels his kinship and connection.
Many writers of the Russian diaspora have their own "cursed days" - the difficult experience of a collision with the new government. So, the story of A.I. Kuprin's "The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia" (1927) is dedicated to the events of the autumn of 1919 and clearly shows the non-randomness of the author's emigration. For Kuprin, whose prose was closely tied to Russian realities, the separation from his homeland became a tragedy not only emotional, but also creative. In the early 1920s he put on, in the words of Sasha Cherny, "the cast-iron yoke of an anti-Bolshevik publicist." Later, Kuprin would write a number of biographical essays, as well as novels and stories, most of which are devoted to memories of Russia - its former greatness and amazing people; he also refers to Orthodox motifs. The largest work of Kuprin's period of emigration was the autobiographical novel "Junkers" (1932) - about the maturation of the alter ego of the author, the transition from adolescence to youth.
It should be noted that self-documentary genres were favorite among emigrant writers, which is quite psychologically understandable: if it was impossible to return to their homeland and resurrect the past, many tried to do this in texts: historical events were transmitted through the prism of the personal, and nostalgia added emotional and lyrical flavor. Vivid examples are the tetralogy of B.K. Zaitsev's "Journey of Gleb" about the growing up of the protagonist against the backdrop of Russian life and the history of the last decades of the 19th - early 20th centuries; autobiographical novel "Father's House" by E.N. Chirikov. Nostalgia for the homeland, the desire to preserve the roots can also explain the appeal of many Russian writers abroad to religious motives.
Both the mentioned themes - autobiographical and religious - are the basis of I.S. Shmelev (1873-1950), which he began with a passionate accusation of the new Russia - the epic (according to the author's definition) "The Sun of the Dead" (1923). The revolution in it is a huge personal and national tragedy, an eschatological prediction of the end not only of the world of people, but also of animals suffering from "those who want to kill."
Salvation Shmelev soon begins to see in Orthodoxy, in the preservation of the former "Holy Rus'" as opposed to the modern, clearly satanic ("Where there is no God, there will be the Beast"). He writes the novels "Summer of the Lord" and "Praying Man", combining autobiographical and religious motifs, poetizing the past. The book "Summer of the Lord" describes the "city of Kitezh": the life and life of pre-revolutionary Russia through the perception of a seven-year-old boy, Vanya Shmelev. The story "Praying Man" is dedicated to the pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
Emigrant writers often turned to the genre of literary biography ("The Life of Turgenev" (1932) by B.K. Zaitsev, Merezhkovsky's numerous "oversaturated with erudition and culture" novels ("Napoleon", books about Dante, about Francis of Assisi, etc.) , 16 novels and stories by the master of historical portrait M.A. Aldanov (1886-1957) about the events of Russian and European history.Historical novels were also written on the basis of their own experience: such is the multi-volume novel by General P.N. Krasnov "From the Double-Headed Eagle to the Red Banner "(1921-1922), which tells about the Russian-Japanese, World War I and the Civil War, about the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 - everywhere Krasnov was a witness and participant (this is probably why battle scenes and descriptions of military life were especially successful for him).
The largest writer of the young generation of emigration - V.V. Nabokov (1899–1977) also paid tribute to self-documentary prose: Masha, the first novel published abroad, is based on the author's personal recollections - his youthful love story, which would later be retold in the book Other Shores. One of the finest examples of the genre, this book has become a central autobiographical commentary, a key to understanding Nabokov's earlier books and an introduction to his later writings. The best of them are "Luzhin's Defense", "Invitation to Execution" (1934-1935) with clear references to the two totalitarian regimes that were gaining strength, "The Gift". In the American period, Nabokov's best works were written in English, but with numerous references to Russian literature: Lolita, Hell, or the Joys of Passion, Pnin, and Pale Fire.
One of the brightest young prose writers of emigration is Gaito Gazdanov (1903–1971), the author of nine completed (Evening at Claire's, etc.) and one unfinished novel, a documentary story about the French Resistance, several dozen stories and articles about literature.
Among the poets of the Russian diaspora, first of all, it is worth mentioning (in addition to V.F. Khodasevich) G.V. Ivanov and M.I. Tsvetaeva.
For Marina Tsvetaeva (1892-1941), the emigrant period was both creatively fruitful and dramatic: the Russian emigration treated her more than coolly. According to researchers, for 1922-1924. (life time in Berlin and Prague) accounts for the pinnacle of the development of Tsvetaeva's lyrical talent. Among the written - "delightful fairy tale" (in the words of Khodasevich) poem "Well Done" (1922), completing the cycle of folklore poems; "poems of parting" (1924) - "The Poem of the Mountain" and "The Poem of the End"; "lyrical satire" "Pied Piper", collections of poems. The "triple" epistolary novel with Pasternak and Rilke became the impetus for the creation of the last four lyric poems, united by the common theme of death - "The Poem of the Stairs" (1926), "The Attempt of the Room", "New Year's" (direct response to Rilke's death) and "The Poem of the Air" ; wrote Tsvetaeva and prose, original and original.
"The last Petersburg poet" Georgy Vladimirovich Ivanov (1894-1958) became one of the first poets of emigration with the release of the collection "Roses" (1931), which contained the famous poem "It's good that there is no Tsar ...". The collection captures the tragic rupture of the emigrant consciousness with great artistic power. The second and last Parisian collection - "Portrait without resemblance" - was published in 1950. According to the researcher, "written by Georgy Ivanov outside of Russia is a kind of commentary on Rozanov's" Apocalypse of Our Time "with his famous sentence:" Rus' faded away in two day."
Konstantin Balmont, who always suffered, according to G.P. Struve, "many writing", wrote a lot in exile; approximately the same can be said about Igor Severyanin, who released in the 1920s and 30s. "at least ten volumes of poetry."
Unfortunately, the volume of even the largest article does not allow for a somewhat representative review of even significant writers and poets of the Russian diaspora: a simple listing of names, titles, dates, books, publishers and periodicals would take up many pages. The scale, diversity, and “blooming complexity” of the literary world of the first wave of Russian emigration were impressive. However, despite this, for the vast majority of her writers and poets, Tsvetaeva’s formula is quite applicable: “Everything pushes me to Russia, where I can’t go. I'm not needed here. I'm not available there."
The originality of the texts of émigré writers is also connected with this attitude towards the forever lost homeland: despite the continuity of the realistic tradition, they cannot be called realistic in the strict sense. The corpus of works of Russian abroad creates another, "nostalgic" Russia, "which we have lost" - the best, freed from all negative features; Russia, the unsightly details of everyday realism which are replaced by details dear to the heart.
In Russia, Kuprin wrote "Duel", in exile - the novel "Junker". In Russia, Shmelev is known as a critical realist, the author of The Man from the Restaurant - in exile he creates The Summer of the Lord and Praying Man. Even the most "removed" writer from Russia - Nabokov - writes things in emigration either directly referring to the lost homeland and life in it ("Mashenka", "Gift", "Luzhin's Defense"), or - even more surprisingly - fills his English-language prose , intended primarily for a foreign reader, with references to Russian realities and allusions to Russian classical literature, understandable only to a Russian reader. This myth about the lost ideal Russia is perhaps the main thing in the literary heritage of the Russian diaspora.
original document?
The purpose and objectives of the research work 3
Introduction. Russian literature of the XX century 4
Chapter I. Literature of the Russian diaspora 7
I .I The first wave of emigration (1918–1940).
I .II The second wave of emigration (1940 - 1950).
I .III The third wave of emigration (1960–1980).
Chapter II. Directions of Russian Literature Abroad 11
Chapter III. The contribution of Russian literature abroad to the general context of Russian literature of the 20th century 14
Conclusion 15
Bibliography 16
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH WORK:
PURPOSE: To get acquainted with the literature of the Russian diaspora.
1. Get acquainted with Russian literature of the 20th century.
2. Get acquainted with the literature of Russian abroad.
3. To identify the directions of Russian literature abroad.
4. To identify the contribution of the literature of the Russian diaspora to the general concept of Russian literature of the 20th century.
INTRODUCTION
RUSSIAN LITERATURE IN THE XX CENTURY.
The first tumultuous years after 1917, when numerous opposing literary groups emerged in response to the new social forces released by the overthrow of the autocracy, were the only revolutionary period in the development of art in the Soviet Union. The struggle was mainly between those who joined the great literary tradition of 19th century realism and the heralds of the new proletarian culture. Innovation was especially welcomed in poetry, the primordial herald of the revolution. The futuristic poetry of V.V. Mayakovsky (1893–1930) and his followers, inspired by the “social everyday class struggle, represented a complete break with tradition. Some writers adapted old means of expression to new themes. So, for example, the peasant poet S.A. Yesenin (1895-1925) sang the new life that was expected in the countryside under the Soviet regime in the traditional lyrical style.
Some works of post-revolutionary prose were created in the spirit of 19th-century realism. Most described the bloody Civil War of 1918-1920 - an example of this are the murderous pictures of social decline during the general strife in B.A. Pilnyak's novel The Naked Year (1922).
The predominant theme in the early prose of the "fellow travelers of the revolution", in the words of L. Trotsky, was the tragic struggle between craving for the new and adherence to the old, the constant consequence of the civil war.
In the absence of political censorship in the early years of Soviet power, much was allowed to satirical writers who ridiculed the new regime in every possible way, such as Yu.K. Olesha in the sophisticated political satire Envy (1927) or V.P. Kataev in the story “ The embezzlers" (1926).
The Communist Party set about officially regulating literature with the start of the first Five Year Plan (1928–1932); it was heavily promoted by the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). The result was an incredible amount of industrial prose, poetry and drama, which almost never rose above the level of monotonous propaganda or reporting.
In 1932, the Central Committee ordered the dissolution of all literary associations and the founding of a single nationwide Union of Soviet Writers, which was established two years later at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers.
However, given the need for international agitation in the 1930s in the spirit of the Popular Front, some tolerance was shown towards the most talented writers.
During this period, Sholokhov completed the great novel Quiet Flows the Don (1928–1940), which was recognized as a classic work of Soviet literature and awarded the Nobel Prize in 1965. This is a wide epic panorama of the events of war, revolution and fratricidal strife, culminating in the conquest of the Cossacks by the Red Army.
Of all the genres, poetry is the most difficult to regulate, and among the mass of poetic production of the 1930s, published by such leading Soviet poets as N. S. Tikhonov, A. A. Prokofiev, A. A. Surkov, N. N. Aseev and A.T. Tvardovsky, the only significant work that seems to have retained artistic value is “Country of Ant” (1936) by Tvardovsky.
During the repressions in the second half of the 1930s, many writers were arrested - some were shot, others spent many years in camps. After Stalin's death, some were posthumously rehabilitated, like Pilnyak; and those who were excommunicated from literature, like A.A. Akhmatova, were again allowed to publish.
Many writers of the Stalin era, seeking to avoid the dangers of modern themes, took up writing historical novels and plays. The appeal to history suddenly became popular on the rise of nationalism, which the party encouraged in the face of the growing threat of war.
Immediately after the German invasion in 1941, literature was mobilized to support the warring country, and until 1945 almost every printed word contributed in one way or another to the defense of the fatherland.
Soviet writers hoped that the party would expand the limits of the relative creative freedom granted to them during the war, but the decision of the Central Committee on Literature of August 14, 1946 put an end to these hopes.
After Stalin's death in 1953, growing dissatisfaction with strict regulation was reflected in I.G. And although the party organs severely reprimanded the rebellious authors at the Second Congress of Writers (1954), the speech of the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev at the 20th Party Congress gave rise to a wave of protest against interference in the creative process.
The 1960s were remarkable not only for new works, but also for the first time published old ones. Thus, readers had the opportunity to get acquainted with the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva (1891–1941), who committed suicide shortly after returning from exile. The name of Boris Pasternak appeared again in the press, although only his poems were published; Doctor Zhivago was published in the Soviet Union thirty years later than in the West. The most important literary discovery of the decade was the work of M.A. Bulgakov (1891–1940).
The most significant literary events of the 1960s was the publication in 1962 of A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”. Solzhenitsyn's subsequent work reflects the development of Soviet literature during the Brezhnev era.
Following the publication of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, which brought him general fame, Solzhenitsyn managed to publish only a few stories, the best of which is Matrenin Dvor (1963); after that, the doors of Soviet publishing houses closed before him. His main novels In the First Circle and The Cancer Ward were published abroad in 1968, and in 1969 he was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
During the Brezhnev era, official control over Soviet literature did not weaken, and many talented authors were forced to emigrate from the Soviet Union. Among the most prominent emigrants were the poet I.A. Brodsky, the satirist V.N. Voinovich and the writer-philosopher A.A. Zinoviev. Brodsky was tried in 1964 for "parasitism" and sent into exile for forced labor. He was released in 1965 when the publication of his first book of poems in the West brought attention to his plight, but was forced to emigrate in 1972. In 1987, he became the fifth Russian writer to receive the Nobel Prize, and in 1991 he was awarded the title of Poet Laureate of the United States. Voinovich emigrated to West Germany in 1981. His most famous book, The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of a Soldier Ivan Chonkin (1975), was published in the West, followed by Ivankiada (1976) and Chonkin's sequel, Pretender to the Throne (1979). ). While in exile, he published the caustic satire Moscow 2042 (1987) and the caricature story Shapka (1988) about the Union of Soviet Writers. Like Voinovich, Zinoviev published his most famous work, a bizarre mixture of fiction, philosophy and social satire called The Yawning Heights (1976), before emigrating in 1978, but he continued to write and publish extensively abroad.
Some of the prominent writers who remained in the Soviet Union tried to resist the official omnipotence over the publication and distribution of literature. Unapproved literature began to appear in "samizdat" in the early 1960s, and the circulation of "uncensored" reprints increased significantly after the trial of Sinyavsky and Daniel. Other writers, as was said, published in "tamizdat" (i.e. abroad).
Although the “period of stagnation” emasculated literature, noteworthy works continued to be published in the Soviet Union well into the Brezhnev era. Since the 1950s, a group of “villagers” has gained more and more weight in Soviet literature. Their works depicted the woeful life of the Russian countryside; they were full of longing for the past and were distinguished by their propensity to mythologize the Russian peasantry. The leading representatives of this group were F.A. Abramov, V.G. Rasputin, V.I. Belov and V.P. Astafiev. Some writers have focused on the life of the urban intelligentsia. Yu.V. Trifonov attracted attention with his novels exploring the "bourgeoisization" of the intelligentsia and the complex of moral problems associated with Stalin's repressions and their consequences (the novel House on the Embankment, 1976). Like Trifonov, A.G. Bitov chose the intelligentsia as his collective character. He continued to be published in his homeland in the 1970s, but the main of his then works, the novel of the polysyllabic structure "Pushkin House", could not be fully printed in the Soviet Union until the era of perestroika. He appeared in the West in 1978. Kataev most consistently planted modernism in Russian literature of the 1960s–1970s, with his memoirs The Holy Well (1966) and The Grass of Oblivion (1967), who began publishing his own, as he put it, “Movist” works that he wrote and published until his death.
By the early 1980s, Russian literature was divided into two communities - emigrants and Soviet writers. The panorama of legal literature within the Soviet Union dimmed when many prominent writers such as Trifonov, Kataev, and Abramov died in the early years of the decade, and there was literally no evidence of new talent emerging in print.
CHAPTER I.
LITERATURE OF THE RUSSIAN ABROAD.
Russian literature abroad is a branch of Russian literature that emerged after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian émigré literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of World War II, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave emerged at the end of World War II.
The third wave began after Khrushchev's "thaw" and carried out of Russia the largest writers A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov. The greatest cultural and literary significance is the work of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration.
I .I FIRST EMIGATION WAVE (1918–1940)
The concept of "Russian abroad" arose and took shape after the October Revolution of 1917, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - "Russia in miniature" was formed, which retained all the features of Russian society. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church was active. But despite the preservation of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society by the first wave of emigration, the situation of the refugees was tragic. In the past, they had the loss of a family, homeland, social status, a way of life that collapsed into oblivion, in the present - a cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not come true, by the mid-1920s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and could not be returned to Russia. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor, everyday disorder; most of the emigrants were forced to enlist in the Renault factories or, which was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.
Russia left the flower of the Russian intelligentsia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, artists were expelled from the country or emigrated. Religious philosophers S. Bulgakov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside the homeland. F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vatslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rakhmaninov and I. Stravinsky became emigrants. From among the famous writers emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, K. Balmont, A. Kuprin, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, G. Ivanov. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of the Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.
At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: the absence of a mass reader, the collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, the need of most writers were bound to undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, great books were written in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the past decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and "Soviet", not one seems to have lost his talent, on the contrary, almost all have grown stronger and grown. And, besides, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.
Having lost their loved ones, their homeland, any support in life, support anywhere, the exiles from Russia received in return the right to creative freedom. This did not reduce the literary process to ideological disputes. The atmosphere of émigré literature was determined not by the political or civic lack of accountability of writers, but by the variety of free creative searches.
In the new unusual conditions, the writers retained not only political, but also internal freedom, creative wealth in opposition to the bitter realities of emigre existence.
One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers Latest News (published by Adamovich) and Vozrozhdenie (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich considered the main task of Russian literature in exile to be the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for craftsmanship, insisted that émigré literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, "graft the classic rose" into the émigré wild. Young poets of the Crossroads group united around Khodasevich. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of "human documents", raised his voice in defense of "drafts, notebooks". Unlike Khodasevich, who countered the dramatic realities of emigration with the harmony of Pushkin's language, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful attitude, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which entered the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the "Parisian note". The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bitsilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.
Disputes about literature were also going on among the “unnoticed generation”. The articles by Gazdanov and Poplavsky on the situation of young émigré literature contributed to understanding the literary process abroad. In the article “On Young Emigrant Literature”, Gazdanov admitted that the new social experience and the status of the intellectuals who left Russia make it impossible to preserve the hierarchical appearance, artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture.
The absence of modern interests, the incantation of the past, turns emigration into a "living hieroglyph". Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? - Poplavsky asked in the article "On the mystical atmosphere of young literature in exile." - Die. Smiling, crying, making tragic gestures, passing smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is the perfect setting for this.” The sufferings of Russian émigrés, on which literature must feed, are identical with revelation, they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become "the seed of the future mystical life", the cradle of the revival of Russia.
The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the controversy between the Smenovekhites and the Eurasians. In 1921, the collection "Change of milestones" was published in Prague (authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrischev-Pushkin - former White Guards). The Smenovvekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime, for the sake of the motherland, to compromise with the Bolsheviks. The idea of national Bolshevism and the use of Bolshevism for national purposes will be born among the Smenovekhites. Smenovekhovstvo will play a tragic role in the fate of Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron worked for the Soviet special services. In the same 1921, the collection Exodus to the East was published in Sofia. Premonitions and Accomplishments. Eurasian statements. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position of Russia - between Europe and Asia, they saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. On the Eurasian platform, the magazine Versty was published, in which Tsvetaeva, Remizov, and Bely were published.
I.II THE SECOND WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1940 - 1950).
The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war, displaced persons, citizens driven by the Germans to work in Germany, leave. Most of the emigrants of the second wave settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and in America. By 1952 there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America by 1950.
Among the writers brought out of their homeland with the second wave of emigration were I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 1940s faced severe trials. This could not but affect the attitude of writers: the most common themes in the work of writers of the second wave are the hardships of the war, captivity, the horrors of the Bolshevik terror.
In the emigrant poetry of the 1940s–1950s, political themes prevail: Yelagin writes political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems (“The Seal”, “In the Evening of November 7”). Criticism most often calls Yelagin the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called civic consciousness, refugee and camp themes, the horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main "nodes" of his work. In terms of social sharpness, political and civic pathos, Elagin's poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the "Paris note".
Ivask, Klenovsky, Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives sound in Ivask's verses. Acceptance of the world - in the collections Sinkevich "The Coming of the Day", "Flowering Herbs", "Here I Live". Optimism and harmonious clarity marked the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books "Palette", "Trace of Life", "Towards the Sky", etc.). Chinnov, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkin also made a significant contribution to emigrant poetry.
Heroes who did not get used to Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in the novel "Yurasova Parallax" is tragic. S. Markov argues with Sholokhov's "Virgin Soil Upturned" in Denis Bushuev's novel. B. Filippov (the stories “Happiness”, “People”, “In the Taiga”, etc.), L. Rzhevsky (the story “The Girl from the Bunker” (“Between Two Stars”) turn to the camp theme. Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book "Blockade", Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki ("The Unquenchable Lamp"). Rzhevsky's books "Dina" and "Two Lines of Time" stand out.
Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the journal Grani.
I.III THE THIRD WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1960–1980).
With the third wave of emigration from the USSR, representatives of the creative intelligentsia mainly left. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the "sixties", an important role for this generation was played by the fact of its formation in the war and post-war period.
The "children of war", who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev's "thaw", but it soon became obvious that the "thaw" did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society.
The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited the exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, above all, writers. In 1966 V.Tarsis becomes the first writer sent abroad.
In the early 1970s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich and others). With the third wave of emigration abroad go: Aksenov, Yu. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, Solzhenitsyn, Sinyavsky, Rozanova, Nekrasov, N. Gorbanevskaya and others.
The writers of the third wave found themselves in exile in completely new conditions, they were largely not accepted by their predecessors, they were alien to the "old emigration". Unlike the emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of "preserving culture" or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages prevented the emergence of ties between generations. The Russian language in the USSR and abroad has undergone significant changes over 50 years, the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 1960s, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov.
One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its gravitation towards the avant-garde, postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a "tangle of conflicts": "We left in order to be able to fight each other."
The two largest writers of the realistic trend who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates in exile the epic novel The Red Wheel, in which he refers to key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes the novel "The General and His Army", which also touches on a historical theme: in the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which canceled the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. V. Maksimov dedicates his novel "Seven Days" to the fate of the peasant family. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel "In the Trenches of Stalingrad", after leaving, publishes "Notes of an Onlooker", "A Little Sad Tale".
The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950s-1970s, the evolution of his generation. The novel "The Burn" gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksyonov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in the Moscow Saga.
In the work of Dovlatov there is a rare combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invectives and conclusions, which is not typical for Russian literature. His stories and novels continue the tradition of portraying the "little man".
In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. In the “Foreigner” written in exile, Dovlatov ironically depicts an emigrant existence. 108th Street of Queens, depicted in Inostranka, is a gallery of caricatures of Russian emigrants.
Voinovich tries himself abroad in the genre of dystopia - in the novel "Moscow 2042", which parody of Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.
Sinyavsky publishes "Walks with Pushkin", "In the Shadow of Gogol" in exile.
Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov belong to the postmodern tradition. Sokolov's novels "School for Fools", "Between the Dog and the Wolf", "Palisandria" are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodern setting for playing with the reader, the displacement of time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown My Head, Eternal Home, Voice from Nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story "We Had a Wonderful Era", denies the establishment in the books "It's me - Eddie", "The Diary of a Loser", "Savenko the Teenager", "Young Scoundrel".
A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for "the development and modernization of classical forms." In exile, he publishes poetry collections and poems.
Isolated from the "old emigration", representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses, created almanacs and magazines.
CHAPTER II.
DIRECTIONS OF RUSSIAN ABROAD LITERATURE.
The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving the testaments”, the younger generation recognized the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration (poetry of G. Ivanov, the “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in messages,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “seniors”. “Be aware that in Russia or in emigration, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general ...” , - such was the task of the writer to the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should I remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.
II .I OLDER GENERATION OF WRITERS - EMIGRANTS.
The desire to “keep that really valuable thing that inspired the past” is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers include: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the "senior" is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: The Life of Arseniev (Nobel Prize 1933), Bunin's Dark Alleys; "Sun of the Dead", "Summer of the Lord", "Praying Man of Shmelev"; "Sivtsev Vrazhek" by Osorgin; "The Journey of Gleb", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" by Zaitsev; "Jesus Unknown" Merezhkovsky. Kuprin publishes two novels "The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia and Juncker", the story "The Wheel of Time". A significant literary event is the appearance of the book of memoirs "Living Faces" by Gippius.
Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burlyuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov went abroad. They made an insignificant contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger, etc. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of the lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for "eternal Russia", the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth.
Biographies of writers, composers, biographies of saints received the meaning of addressing "eternal Russia": Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ("The Liberation of Tolstoy"), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin ("My Pushkin"), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin (" Derzhavin”), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh. Autobiographical books are being created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other side” idyllic and enlightened: Iv. ”), the last autobiographical book of the Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin (“The Life of Arseniev”), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev (“Gleb's Journey”) and Tolstoy (“Nikita's Childhood”). A special layer of Russian émigré literature is made up of works that assess the tragic events of the revolution and the civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams, visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, the Russian spirit in Remizov's books Whirled Rus', The Music Teacher, Through the Fire of Sorrows. Bunin's diaries "Cursed Days" are full of mournful accusation. Osorgin's novel "Sivtsev Vrazhek" reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - the epic "The Sun of the Dead", which T. Mann called "a nightmarish document of the era shrouded in poetic brilliance." R. Gul’s Ice Campaign, E. Chirikov’s The Beast from the Abyss, Aldanov’s historical novels (“Key”, “Escape”, “Cave”), three-volume Rasputin V. Nazhivin, who joined the writers of the older generation, are devoted to understanding the causes of the revolution. Contrasting "yesterday" and "present", the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “senior”: “Is it time to stop following in the footsteps of Tolstoy? Bunin was perplexed. “And whose footsteps should we follow?”
II .II YOUNGER GENERATION OF WRITERS IN EMIGRATION.
A different position was taken by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in exile, who refused to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fate was different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won all-European, in the case of Nabokov, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous émigré magazine, Sovremennye Zapiski, joined the "senior" ones. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could earn a living by literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano served in a pharmaceutical company, many survived on a penny extra money. Describing the position of the "unnoticed generation" that lived in small cheap cafes in Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich. The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, then the younger one left the documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the "Russian monparno" is captured in Poplavsky's novels "Apollo Bezobrazov", "Home from Heaven". Ageev's Romance with Cocaine also enjoyed considerable popularity. Household prose has also become widespread: Odoevtsev's "Angel of Death", "Isolde", "Mirror".
G. Struve, a researcher of emigrant literature, wrote: “Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction - criticism, essays, philosophical prose, high journalism and memoir prose.” The younger generation of writers made a significant contribution to memoirs.
Nabokov and Gazdanov belonged to the "unnoticed generation", but did not share its fate, having learned neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the "Russian monparnos" nor their hopeless attitude. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exiled restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories, characteristic of the "senior". Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and belletristically elegant, turned to the Parisian reality of the 1920s-1960s. At the heart of his attitude is the philosophy of life as a form of resistance and survival.
In his first, largely autobiographical novel, An Evening at Claire's, Gazdanov gave a peculiar turn to the theme of nostalgia, traditional for émigré literature, replacing the longing for the lost with the real embodiment of a "beautiful dream." In the novels "Night Roads", "The Ghost of Alexander Wolf", "The Return of the Buddha", Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the "unnoticed generation" with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in her ability to transform. The experience of the Russian emigrant was also refracted in a peculiar way in V. Nabokov's first novel Masha, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to "delightfully accurate Russia" freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Brilliant characters, victorious heroes who won in difficult, and sometimes dramatic, life situations, Nabokov depicts in his novels "Invitation to the Execution", "Feat".
The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and miserable circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov's work, hidden behind the game doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also creates: a collection of short stories "Spring in Fialta", the world bestseller "Lolita", the novels "Despair", "Camera Obscura", "King, Queen, Jack", etc.
In an intermediate position between the "senior" and "junior" were poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves back in Russia: Khodasevich, Ivanov, Tsvetaeva, Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. Tsvetaeva in exile is experiencing a creative take-off, turning to the genre of the poem, "monumental" verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, she wrote "The Tsar Maiden", "Pied Piper", "Ladder", "New Year", "Attempt at the Room". Khodasevich published his top collections "Heavy Lyre", "European Night" in exile, and became a mentor to young poets who united in the "Crossroads" group.
Ivanov, having survived the lightness of early collections, receives the status of the first poet of emigration, publishes poetry books credited to the golden fund of Russian poetry: "Poems", "Portrait without resemblance", "Posthumous diary". A special place in the literary heritage of emigration is occupied by Ivanov's memoirs "Petersburg Winters", "Chinese Shadows", his famous prose poem "The Decay of the Atom". Adamovich publishes the program collection "Unity", the famous book of essays "Comments".
CHAPTER III.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN ABROAD LITERATURE TO THE GENERAL CONTEXT OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XX CENTURY.
CONCLUSION:
We got acquainted with the literature of Russian abroad and Russian literature of the 20th century:
1. We studied in detail the periods of wave emigration. Three waves of emigration were identified:
A. The first wave of emigration (1918-1940)
B. Second wave of emigration (1940-1950)
B. Third wave of emigration (1960-1980)
2. We got acquainted with the directions of Russian literature abroad (Symbolism, acmeism, futurism, etc.)
3. We revealed the contribution of the literature of Russian abroad to the general concept of Russian literature of the 20th century:
Poetry continues, but more and more often talks about how difficult it is for her. It continues, but with more and more effort it recognizes and recognizes its continuation, stops before breaking the tradition.
Now poetry is defined not by groups and trends, but by a small circle of poetic names belonging to different generations and representing different poetic inclinations. Some names, as it were, returned again after some silence and oblivion, returned with new poems and final books.
Untidy rhymes. A verse that goes with the vernacular word and easily raises the vernacular to prayer, everyday life to eternity, conveying the classical dignity of poetry itself.
The literature of the Russian diaspora was not subject to censorship, which gave it fresh air for creation. But, despite this, the emigrant writers, whose field of ideas was wide, chose the main idea of creativity: the Motherland and thoughts about it.
And although those to whom these lines were addressed did not notice them, later we were able to see a look at the Motherland from the outside.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Encyclopedia Around the World. Literature of the Russian Diaspora.
2. Wikipedia. Literature of the Russian Diaspora.
3. Struve G. P. Russian literature in exile.
4. Agenosov V.V. Literature of the Russian Abroad.
For a long time, this was an area of Russian culture that had not been explored for ideological reasons. Back in the 1920s, emigre literature was declared hostile to our worldview as a phenomenon of "bourgeois decay", after which prohibitive measures followed. The works of émigré writers, even those who had entered the history of Russian culture even before the revolution, were withdrawn from libraries, and their publication ceased. This was the case until the mid-1950s, when, under the conditions of Khrushchev's "thaw", the situation changed somewhat for a while. But only since the mid-1980s. the systematic publication of the works of Russian writers abroad and the study of their work began. But another extreme also arose - the assessment of the literature of the Russian diaspora is uncritically positive, and the Soviet literature is negative. One cannot agree with this. And emigrant literature is not the same in its level. And Soviet literature, even under the conditions of a totalitarian regime, inscribed outstanding names, magnificent works in which it continued the great traditions of national culture into domestic and world culture.
The literature of the Russian diaspora is one of the brilliant pages of Russian culture, created by its greatest masters who found themselves in exile. The émigré literature featured poets and writers of various ideological and artistic movements that had developed in pre-revolutionary Russia at the beginning of XX century, - and the founders of Russian symbolism, and former acmeists, and representatives of futuristic movements, as well as those who did not adjoin, such as M. Tsvetaeva, with any movement.
A prominent figure in the literature of the Russian diaspora was Dmitry Sergeevich Merezhkovsky(1865-1941) - one of the "fathers" of Russian symbolism. He gained fame as a novelist, literary critic and essayist. Before the revolution, the trilogy "Christ and Antichrist" made him popular. In his work, he consistently affirmed the concept of the mystical and religious development of the world - through the contradictions of heaven and earth to a harmonious synthesis.
In exile, there is a certain decline in Merezhkovsky's fame, although he published a lot. He wrote mainly artistic and philosophical prose with pronounced subjective judgments about the world, man, history. The books “The Secret of the Three”, “Napoleon”, “Jesus the Unknown”, as well as artistic studies about Dante, Francis of Assisi, Joan of Arc and others were written in this way. novels "The Birth of the Gods", "Tutankhamun in Crete" and "Messiah". Among his historical books, the book "Jesus the Unknown" became the central one, in which he returned to his utopias about the coming kingdom of the "Third Testament" and "third mankind", where the deepest contradictions inherent in the world will be removed.
Merezhkovsky's companion throughout his life, who shared his philosophical and religious quests - Zinaida Nikolaevna Gippius(1869-1945) - poet, one of the largest representatives of the older symbolism. Emigrant creativity Gippius consists of poems, memoirs, journalism. In 1921 she published part of her Petersburg Diary, the so-called Black Book. And we must pay tribute to the poetic intuition of the author - she wrote: “... the Bolsheviks are a permanent war, a hopeless war. The Bolshevik government in Russia is a product, the offspring of the war. And while it will be-there will be a war. Civil? No matter how! It’s just a war for yourself, only a double one, both external and internal. ”
In 1922, her first émigré collection “Poems. Diary. 1911-1921" - The main theme of the poems is politics. But then in poetry she begins to return to her "eternal themes" - about man, love and death. The best of the poems that she created in exile were included in the collection "Shine". Of the prose works, 3. Gippius herself especially appreciated the novel "Martynov's Memoirs" and the story "The Mother-of-Pearl Cane", which are based on the extraordinary love adventures of the protagonist and again reflections on the essence of love, faith, human existence. Gippius' memoir prose is "Living Faces" (memoirs of many Russian writers), and an unfinished book about Merezhkovsky is "Dmitry Merezhkovsky" (Paris, 1951). Zinaida Gippius until the end of her days was convinced of a certain messenger mission of the Russian emigration, considering herself the messenger of those forces that alone possess the truth of history and in the name of this truth do not accept the new Russia.
The role of another founder of Russian symbolism - Konstantin Dmitrievich Balmont(1867-1942) in the literary life of the Russian diaspora is somewhat more modest, although he wrote quite a lot. Of the most significant books by Balmont published abroad, the following are interesting: The Gift of the Earth (Paris, 1921), Sonnets of the Sun, Honey and the Moon (Berlin, 1923), Mine to Her (Prague, 1924), gave” (Belgrade, 1930), “Northern Lights” (Paris, 1931). Along with the magnificent ones, these collections also contain weak poems. Balmont was also an excellent translator and in this capacity made a great contribution to Russian culture. He translated, providing articles and comments by Shelley, Edgar Allan Poe, Calderon, as well as O. Wilde, Marlo, Lope de Vega, Hauptmann, and others. He also made a verse translation of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
A major poet of Russian symbolism, who ended up in exile (left in 1924 on a scientific mission and remained in Italy), was Vyacheslav Ivanovich Ivanov(1866-1949). From 1926 to 1934 he was a professor of new languages and literatures in educational institutions in Italy. He published "Roman Walls" and did not write more poetry. After 1944, he returned to the idea of his monumental novel The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir, but out of the planned 12 books he wrote only 5. Olga Aleksandrovna Shor, who had Ivanov's archive and was familiar with the idea and plan of the novel, continued to work on the novel. She published four more books in a decade and a half. The novel in its conception is a myth about a man (Svetomir), who, through the transformation of the flesh and spirit, overcomes his sinful human nature. The story was supposed to end with a vision of the kingdom of God on the earth cleansed of sin, instilling hope for some kind of mystical rebirth of man and mankind.
Their poets, adjoining the acmeists, the most notable in exile was Vladislav Filitsianovich Khodasevich (1886-1939). His personality and work have been and remain the subject of heated debate and conflicting assessments. Throughout his life, Khodasevich published only five small books of poetry: "Youth" (1908), "Happy House" (1914), "Ways of Grain" (from poems 1917-1920; 1920) and two already in emigration: "Heavy Lyre" (Berlin, 1923) and "Collected Poems" (1927), which are dominated by a sense of pessimism associated with the impossibility of creating outside of Russia. He owns a brilliant novel about Derzhavin (Paris, 1921), many historical and literary articles, including those about Pushkin. Shortly before his death, a book of memoirs by Khodasevich "Necropolis" was published (about Bryusov, Sologub, Gumilyov, Bely, Gorky, Blok, Yesenin, and many others).
Georgy Viktorovich Adamovich(1894-1972) - also one of the former acmeists. As a poet, he wrote little in exile. In 1939, a collection of poems "In the West" was published. Adamovich pondered a lot and hard about the fate and paths of Russian foreign literature. In 1955, his book “Solitude and Freedom” was published in New York, where he sums up, as it were, his thoughts on literature and emigration writers. He was considered one of the best critics among émigré writers.
Another famous poet Georgy Vladimirovich Ivanov(1894-1958). In exile, he republished his collections "Heather" and "Gardens" and only in 1931 a new collection of his poems "Sailing to the island of Cythera" appeared, and then (1937) the collection "Roses", "Portrait without resemblance" (1950), and finally - "Poems 1943-1958." (1988). He is also known as a prose writer - in 1926 in Paris he published a book of very subjective literary memoirs, Petersburg Winters.
Of the egofuturists it is necessary to name Igor Vasilyevich Severyanin(Lotareva) (1887-1941). Once in exile (in Estonia), he published several collections of poems: The Nightingale (1918), Vervena (1918), Minstrel (1921), novels in verse - Falling Rapids (1925), Bells of the Cathedral of Feelings "(1925), the poem "The Dew of the Orange Hour" (1925), as well as the collections "Classic Roses" (1930), "Adriatic" (1932). He died in poverty and obscurity in German-occupied Tallinn.
Recently, the name has become more and more popular in our country and abroad. Marina Tsvetaeva(1892-1941) - poet, prose writer, critic. Maria Ivanovna in 1922 went abroad to her husband - S.Ya. Efron - a former officer of the Volunteer Army. At first she lived in Berlin (two collections of her poems were published here: "Psyche" and "Craft" - 1923), then in the suburbs of Prague (it was beyond her means to live in the capital) and in 1925 moved to France.
To understand Tsvetaeva's attitude to the world and man in the world, her poems "The Poem of the Mountain" and "The Poem of the End" (1924) are of interest - they manifested her characteristic view of man, the romanticization of the spiritual principle. In exile, he also turned to dramaturgy - he is working on a trilogy based on Greek mythology - Ariadne, Phaedra, Elena. Begins to write a lot in prose.
In 1932-1937. more and more “withdraws into itself”, moves away from the emigrant environment. A particularly difficult period of Marina Tsvetaeva's emigrant life was 1937-39, when she was left with her son George in Paris all alone. Husband - S.Ya. Efron, back in the early 30s. recruited by the KGB, worked in the Union of Return, which served as a cover for KGB agents, left for Russia in 1937 (he took part in the organization, which made a lot of noise, the murder of the Soviet intelligence officer Poretsky (Reis), who decided not to return to the USSR).
In June 1939 Tsvetaeva returned to Moscow. Soon her husband S. Efron and daughter Ariadna were arrested (her husband was soon shot) and Marina Tsvetaeva is left alone with her son. Lives very hard; her poems are not printed, but she earns a living by translations. In August 1941, together with a group of writers and their families, she was evacuated to Yelabuga, where, after unsuccessful attempts to get a job, she committed suicide. Her grave is lost.
The tragic outcome of Marina Tsvetaeva's life is most likely due not only to material disorder, indifference to her fate on the part of writers and the writers' organization at that difficult time, but also to an increasingly growing sense of loneliness. It so happened that she did not find her place in emigration, there was no place for her in her homeland either. Much of the literary heritage of Tsvetaeva was not published at the time, much remained in the archives of foreign publishing houses, in private archives, in her personal archive.
Only in recent years has work begun on the study of the foreign work of M. Tsvetaeva, her contribution to the Russian poetic culture of the 20th century.
From realist writers (of the older generation) who ended up in exile, first of all it must be said about Leonid Andreev, Ivan Bunin, Alexander Kuprin, Boris Zaitsev, Ivan Shmelev and others.
Leonid Nikolaevich Andreev(1871-1919) after the October Revolution, he left Petrograd for Finland, to a dacha in Reyvol, where he was surrounded by leaders of the White Guard government of Yudenich. All of them, in his opinion, were "swindlers and swindlers" who speculated on high ideals of love for Russia. He spent very little time abroad. In Finland, he will write his last significant work - a pamphlet novel "Satan's Diary" - about the adventures of Satan, embodied in an American billionaire.
Alexander Ivanovich Kuprin(1870-1938) in the autumn of 1919 he emigrated to Finland and then to France (although his emigration was not due to any clear political reasons).
Kuprin's works of the emigrant period differ in philosophical content and style from his pre-revolutionary work. Their main motive is longing for the abstract ideal of human existence and a nostalgic look at the past.
In exile, he was published in newspapers, thick magazines, published in separate books “The Wheel of Time”, “Elan”, “The Dome of St. Isaacius of Dalmatia”, “Junker”, “Zhannette”, etc. He also writes fairy tales, legends, fantastic stories filled with a romantic appeal to people to be humane.
The work of this great, talented writer in exile met, of course, with a positive attitude. In 1937 he returned to his homeland, but lived very little - in August 1938 he died of cancer in Leningrad.
Ivan Alekseevich Bunin(1870-1953) - the first Russian writer to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933. The official announcement of the award of the Nobel Prize to Bunin said: “By the decision of the Swedish Academy of November 9, 1933, the Nobel Prize in Literature for this year was awarded to Ivan Bunin for true artistic talent, with which he recreated in artistic prose a typical Russian character. Bunin continued the best traditions of Russian literary classics.
The writer perceived the February Revolution as a way out of the impasse in which tsarism had entered. October - hostile. In 1918 he left Moscow, and in February 1920, together with the remnants of the White Guards, he left Russia. Bunin's response to the October Revolution was his essays "Cursed Days", which he wrote in Moscow and Odessa in 1918-1920. This work - in essence - his political creed, an expression of rejection of the revolution and the new Russia: “... one of the distinguishing features of the revolution is a mad thirst for play, acting, posture, booth. A monkey wakes up in a man. And further: “For the third year now, something monstrous has been going on. The third year is only baseness, only dirt, only brutality.
Bunin tragically experienced a break with his homeland. In his work, he focused on memories of Russia, on the experiences of the past forever gone. During the war he took a patriotic position.
Bunin's main interest in emigration focused on "eternal themes" that sounded even in pre-October creativity, about the meaning of being, about love and death, about the past and future, which were intertwined with the motives of the hopelessness of personal fate, with thoughts about the homeland. The main stages of Bunin's work after 1924 were identified in the books: Mitina's Love (1925), Sunstroke (1927), God's Tree (1931), Arsenyev's Life (1930), Tolstoy's Liberation (1937). ), "Lika" (1939), then appeared "Dark Alleys" (1946) and finally "Memories" (1950). Bunin's poetic works were collected in the volume of Selected Poems (1929).
The most significant phenomenon in Bunin's work in recent years was the novel "The Life of Arseniev", in which he tried to comprehend the events of his life and the life of Russia in the pre-revolutionary period.
In 1934-35. The Petropolis publishing house published Bunin's collected works in 11 volumes in Berlin. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin is still an unsurpassed master of the word. His name rightfully ranks among the greatest writers of Russian literature. Bunin was buried at the Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois cemetery in the suburbs of Paris.
The closest Bunin was Boris Konstantinovich Zaitsev(1881-1972), who declared himself back in 1906 with a collection of short stories Quiet Dawns. In 1922 he left with his family for Berlin, lived in Italy for about a year, then in Paris until his death.
In the work of Zaitsev - both in tone and in the subject matter of his works - the religious principle is clearly manifested, as, for example, in the work "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" (Paris, 1925).
Zaitsev's most extensive work is the autobiographical tetralogy Gleb's Travels, which includes four novels: Dawn (1937), Silence (1948), Youth (1950), The Tree of Life (1953). The novels “The Life of Turgenev” (1932), “Zhukovsky” (1952), “Chekhov” (1954), written in the style of lyrical impressionism, stand apart in Zaitsev’s foreign work.
A significant contribution to the literature of the Russian emigration was made by writers Evgeny Nikolaevich Chirikov(1864-1932) ("The Life of Tarkhanov" - an autobiographical trilogy about the eternal break of the intelligentsia with the people, etc.) and Ivan Sergeevich Shmelev(1872-1950), who declared themselves at the beginning of the century (the book of essays "On the slopes of Valaam" (1890), the story "The Man from the Restaurant" (1911).
I.S. Shmelev met the February revolution enthusiastically, he did not accept the October revolution, he settled in Alushta. His son, an officer of the Volunteer Army, was in the infirmary in Feodosia, from which he was captured and then shot by the Reds. Shmelev left Russia; lived first in Berlin, and then in France.
The emigrant period of creativity of I. Shmelev was very fruitful. Here are just some of his books: essays "The Sun of the Dead" (1923) about post-revolutionary life in the Crimea, where hunger, death, arbitrariness reigned; novels Love Story (1929), Nanny from Moscow (1936), Ways of Heaven (1937-1948) and unfinished: Soldiers (1930) and Foreigner (1938). Shmelev was one of the most widely read authors in exile. Shmelev's autobiographical works "Summer of the Lord" and "Bogomolye", which glorify the old patriarchal Russia, received a very high critical acclaim.
A special figure in Russian literature of the XX century, including foreign, - Alexei Mikhailovich Remizov(1877-1957). The basis of his literary and historical conception, which finally took shape already in exile, was the idea of the chaos of being, disbelief in the victory of the “divine” over the “devilish”. His work is characterized by fantasy and grotesqueness, and not as artistic devices, as in Gogol, but as the essence, the content of life itself. Hence, in his works, delusional visions, terrible dreams, hallucinations, all kinds of evil spirits - kikimoras, imps, goblin, etc. Remizov believes that the secret of the world and its "spheres" can only be penetrated in a dream, which for Remizov is "a special reality ”, the soul lives in it, the world of the soul is expressed. In 1954, a collection of Remizov's "literary dreams" was published in Paris - "Martyn Zadeka. Dream Interpretation.
Remizov did not accept the October Revolution, seeing in it the final destruction of his ideal of Russia. It was then that he wrote The Word on the Destruction of the Russian Land (1917). Soon the writer left for Berlin, and in 1923 he moved to Paris, where he remained to live until the end of his days.
He published a lot in exile. The response to the revolution was his book Whirled Russia (1927). At the same time, Remizov plunged into his world of dreams, devils and goblin - "Dokuk and jokers" (1923), "Grass-ant" (1922), "Zvenigorod sklikannyy. Nikolina's parables "(1924). Many of his works are like a retelling of dreams. "The Fire of Things" (1954) is about dreams in Russian literature... The dream, says Remizov, is at the heart of mythology, at the heart of human history. A person can look into the secret of the higher cosmic spheres only in a dream. Cosmos in Remizov's philosophy united all life. One of Remizov's best books in exile, With Trimmed Eyes (1954), is subtitled The Book of Knots and Twisting Memory.
Towards the end of his life, he does a lot of literary history, reworking the stories of Ancient Russia (“The Possessed. Savva Grudtsyn and Solomonia” (1951), “Melusina Bruntsvik” (1952), “Circle of Happiness. The Legend of Tsar Solomon”, “Tristan and Isolde”, etc. .).
One of the tragic figures of the Russian emigration of the 20s. was MichaelOsorgin(Ilyin) (1872-1942). Love for the motherland has always been combined with his love for freedom. The writer was expelled from Russia in 1922 ("Philosophical ship"); voluntarily, as he stated, he would never have left Russia. Far from her, despite the complexity of emigre life, he always remained a Russian patriot. The main theme of his work is Russia. He considered Russian literature to be unified and responded to all the best that appeared both in Soviet Russia and in the Russian diaspora. This put him in a special position in emigration circles.
About Russia, his books: "Sivtsev Vrazhek" (1928), "Witness of History" (1931), "The Book of Ends" (1935), as well as the memoir "Miracle on the Lake", "Things of a Man", "Times". In the novel "Sivtsev Vrazhek" (published in Russia in 1990), Osorgin wrote about the tragic situation in which Russia found itself during the years of the revolution and civil war, that it is impossible to see the truth of our history as unambiguous and one-sided, because it was, and neither side had it. To see only reds and whites in history is hardly to see the truth: “Two fraternal armies stood against the wall, and each had its own truth and its own honor ... two truths and two honors were and fought among themselves, and the battlefield was littered with corpses the best and most honest.
Alexey Nikolaevich Tolstoy(1883-1945) - a representative of Russian realism at the beginning of the century. He was in exile for a short time - in 1922 he returned to Russia with his family. There, in exile, he began to write "The Sisters" (the first part of the famous trilogy), he also creates such works where he moves away from modernity into the world of fantasy: "Count Cagliostro" (1921), "Country Evening" (1921). He also writes "Nikita's Childhood". During the years of emigration (1918-1922), Tolstoy also created works on historical themes "Delusion", "Peter's Day", "The Tale of the Time of Troubles", in which the author tries to find a clue to the Russian character.
A few words must be said about the satyriconists. When the publication of the New Satyricon magazine ceased in August 1918, most of the employees went abroad. These are A. Averchenko, Teffi (Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya), Sasha Cherny (Alexander Mikhailovich Glikberg), Bukhov, Remy, Yakovlev. Their work abroad is quite extensive. Teffi, Sasha Cherny, Averchenko (for example, Stories of a Cynic, Prague, 1922, or the novel Jokes of a Patron) were published especially a lot. These were brilliant satirists. Their work before the revolution and in exile constituted a whole era in the history of Russian satirical literature .
And about one more interesting author abroad - Evgenia Zamyatin. He began to print even before the revolution. In 1914, his story "In the middle of nowhere" was published. After the October Revolution, Zamyatin had no intention of emigrating. He actively participated in cultural work, published a lot of articles on the problems of literature and art, etc. In 1920 he wrote the novel "We", which was not published in his homeland, but first appeared in England in 1924 in English . Gradually, the newspaper persecution of the writer intensified, his play "Flea", which went on with invariable success, was removed from the repertoire, and books were banned; the novel "We" qualified as "an evil pamphlet on the Soviet state." In 1931, with the assistance of Gorky, Zamyatin received permission to go abroad, although he did not consider himself an emigrant, hoping to return to his homeland.
Zamyatin's novel "We" (published in our country in 1990) is a dystopia, a warning novel in a possible future. And at the same time, this is a very modern thing. The novel takes us to a society of realized dreams, where all material problems are solved, mathematically verified happiness is realized for everyone, and at the same time, freedom, human individuality, the right to free will and thought are abolished here. This novel is, as it were, a response to the naive belief, widespread in the first years after October 1917, in the possibility of realizing communist utopias. Zamyatin created many magnificent stories, the tragedy "Attila" - about the invasion of barbarians on the decrepit Rome, and the historically accurate story, virtuoso in style, The Scourge of God (about perishing Rome).
Especially among the writers of the Russian diaspora is the name Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokova(1899-1977). He not only won worldwide fame, but became equally "his own" for the Russian and English-speaking intellectual public. He wrote eight novels in Russian: "Mashenka" (published in 1926), "Luzhin's Defense", "Invitation to Execution", etc. - and eight novels - in English: "The True Life of Sebastian Knight" (1939), the novel "Lolita", which made a lot of noise, etc.
Nabokov's prose is intellectually oversaturated, stylistic overabundance, as some literary critics believe, is of great interest in many countries. The publication of his works in our country, which began during the period of perestroika, was met with great satisfaction by the reading public. V.V. Nabokov made a serious contribution to Pushkinianism. In 1964, he published a 4-volume commentary on "Eugene Onegin" with a prose translation of Pushkin's novel.
; The list of first-wave emigrant writers and their works can be continued for a very long time. Now this huge spiritual wealth is gradually returning to us. In recent years many of the works mentioned and not named here have been published in our country. Now, it seems, there are no longer those who will deny that the literature of the Russian diaspora is the richest layer of Russian culture. And in her roots, and in plots, in all her spirit, in her best works, she highly carried the great traditions of Russian classics. In many ways, this literature “feeds” on nostalgia. This is her strength and weakness. The strong side is primarily that she gave excellent examples of poetry and prose based on the materials of pre-revolutionary Russia. Weakness - its isolation from those real processes that took place in the Motherland - doomed it to the fact that the literature of the Russian diaspora had no future, could not be continued by its descendants of emigrants. But her future turned out to be different - new waves of emigration joined the ranks of Russian writers abroad.
Many prominent and big names in the literature of the Russian diaspora were inscribed by the third wave of emigration. This, as a rule, was not voluntary emigration. Writers, artists who had the courage not to accept the violation of elementary human rights and freedom of creativity, were forced to leave their homeland or simply thrown out of its borders through systematic harassment, persecution, threats.
Alexander rightfully heads this extensive list. Isaevich Solzhenitsyn.
Solzhenitsyn marched along the fronts of the Great Patriotic War, was awarded orders and medals. At the end of the war, he was arrested as a "traitor to the Motherland" (according to denunciations, for his literary works). More than ten years - prisons, camps, exile and the first rehabilitation in 1957. A deadly disease - cancer - and a miraculous cure. Widespread fame during the Khrushchev "thaw" and silence during the years of stagnation.
The literary fate of Solzhenitsyn opened in 1962 with the publication of the story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” in the journal Novy Mir, which was then directed by A.T. Tvardovsky. It would not be an exaggeration to say that this story became the pinnacle of the literary and social upsurge of the 60s. She brought fame to the author. (The story was nominated by the magazine for the Lenin Prize, but times were changing, the “thaw” was ending, and there could no longer be any talk of any prize.) At the same time, a number of Solzhenitsyn’s stories were published, and above all, Matryona’s Dvor. According to one of the most outstanding and honest writers of our time - Viktor Astafiev - "Matryona Dvor" became a real revelation and the starting point of a whole direction of our literature - the writers of the "villagers".
The great significance of the story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" is not only that it opened the camp theme in literature. Solzhenitsyn showed the suffering of an ordinary person, who is morally purer and higher than many leaders and figures of that time, who are now presented as victims and suffering heroes. Ivan Denisovich is a truly Russian person, like Pushkin's stationmaster, Maxim Maksimych in A Hero of Our Time, men and women in Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, Tolstoy's peasants, Dostoevsky's poor people.
In 1970 Solzhenitsyn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. And in his homeland, the persecution of the writer began and intensified. The press publishes "letters of workers", writers, scientists, under which there are signatures and many award-winning then venerable figures of literature and art. “Literary Vlasovite” is not yet the strongest expression of such letters.
In February "1974, after the publication of the book The Gulag Archipelago in the West, and when it was not possible to "survive" Solzhenitsyn's country by persecution, he was seized, pushed into a plane and taken to Germany, depriving him of Soviet citizenship. For many years the writer lived and worked in the USA, in the state of Vermont.
Solzhenitsyn is a phenomenon of Russian literature, a world-class artist. V. Astafiev, stingy with praise, says that with the release of The Gulag Archipelago and The Red Wheel, the greatest writer of our time, an ascetic of the spirit, appears before the Soviet reader.
At the end of 1991, an International Symposium dedicated to Solzhenitsyn took place in Naples. Opening it, Professor Vittorio Strade noted that Solzhenitsyn was more than just a writer. In his works such as The Gulag Archipelago and The Red Wheel, he acts not only as an outstanding writer, but also as a deep researcher-historian, looking for the roots of evil in the Russian past that led his homeland to decline and desolation. In understanding the complexity of the historical processes of his time, he made a contribution that exceeded the contribution of any of his contemporaries. His grandiose journalistic activity is devoted to the problems of the future of Russia and the world.
Not everything is indisputable in Solzhenitsyn's views on the past and future. He criticizes the thesis that affirms continuity between Russia before and after October, but his antithesis, which denies continuity between these two periods, is not indisputable. Russia appears as an incomprehensible victim of outside cultural and political interference. The notion arises that the Bolshevik revolution was made possible by the activities of demonic personalities, vividly presented in the episode entitled "Lenin in Zurich." Raises the question and his search for some mythical new path, not capitalist (Western. Criticism of the West by him, quite reasonable, causes him to be accused of anti-Westernism) and not communist. In the past, a lot of effort was expended in the search for such a path, and not only in Russia. Solzhenitsyn's views on these problems contain utopian elements of Christian socialism.
Solzhenitsyn's views on the role, place, duty of the artist in the modern world are interesting and significant. They found a vivid reflection in his Nobel lecture.
In the Nobel lecture, Solzhenitsyn speaks of the great power and mystery of art, of literature as a living memory of the people, of the tragedy of Russian literature. “The bold national literature remained there (those in the Gulag), buried not only without a coffin, but even without underwear. Naked, with a tag on her toe. Russian literature never stopped for a moment! - and from the side it seemed like a desert. Where a friendly forest could grow, after all the felling, two or three randomly bypassed trees remained. The lecture ends with an appeal to writers all over the world: "One word of truth will pull the whole world." Solzhenitsyn himself in his entire life and work is guided by the fundamental principle that he formed and became famous - "to live not by lies."
Another winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature from the third wave of emigration is the poet Joseph Alexandrovich Brodsky (1940- 1998).
His work in our country was unknown to the general public, but he was known in the circles of the intelligentsia. His poems were not published. The poet was convicted of "parasitism" and exiled to the north, and in 1972 he was expelled from the USSR. During the period of persecution, when there was a threat of expulsion, one of his friends, the writer V. Maramzin, trying to help the poet, collected everything he had written here and that his friends had. It turned out five volumes of typewritten text, which he handed over to samizdat, for which he was arrested and sentenced to 5 years in prison on probation. Maramzin left the USSR, lives in Paris, where a number of his works were published (the story "The Story of the Marriage of Ivan Petrovich" and a number of others in the tradition of Kafka, Platonov, absurd literature: "Blonde of both colors", "Funnyr than before", "Pulling" and etc.). As for the works of I. Brodsky, in the second half of the 90s. publication of his works in seven volumes. A number of works dedicated to the poet appeared: the books of L. Batkin “The Thirty-Third Letter”, N. Strizhevskaya “On the Poetry of Joseph Brodsky”, a collection of interviews by V. Polukhina “Brodsky Through the Eyes of Contemporaries” was republished, and in 1998 another book - "Joseph Brodsky: Works and Days", compiled by L. Losev and P. Weil.
The fate of the famous, talented writer is dramatic - Viktor Platonovich Nekrasov the author of one of the most truthful books about the Patriotic War - the story “In the trenches of Stalingrad” (for which he received the Stalin Prize), the novel “In his native city”, etc. world ”splendid essays“ On both sides of the ocean ”, how the persecution, searches in the apartment, detentions, refusals to publish, etc. began and intensified. Nekrasov was forced to go abroad. He was deprived of Soviet citizenship. He lived in Paris, collaborated in the magazine "Continent", where he published a number of things. He was very worried about his emigration. He died in September 1987 in a hospital in Paris. The same sad fate befell the talented poet-singer Alexander Galich, who was forced to leave the country and also died in Paris.
Another talented writer Vasily Aksenov, whose creative destiny began, it seems, safely. Since 1959, he has been successfully publishing his stories, novels, novels, winning the appreciation of the reader. Popularity brought the story "Colleagues" (and the film of the same name based on it), sincerely describing the life and thinking of Soviet youth. Since 1965, Aksyonov increasingly turned to the forms of the grotesque, absurdity, and irreality common in modern world literature. This was reflected in his works “It is a pity that you were not with us” (1965), “Overstocked barrel” (1968), “My grandfather-monument” (1972), “Search for a genre” (1978). In 1978, Aksenov was one of the initiators of the creation of the Metropol almanac, published without the permission of censorship (initially in eight copies). The persecution of the authorities began. In 1980 Aksenov went abroad and lived in Washington. Printed regularly. In 1980, his novel "The Burn" was published (now it is also published in our country), the anti-utopia "Crimea Island", which became widely known in many countries. In 1989 he finished the novel in English "Egg Yolk".
Were expelled or forced to leave such well-known writers as Vladimir Voinovich - author of the anecdote novel "The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of a Soldier Ivan Chonkin", originally published abroad (we published in the journal "Youth" No. 12 for 1988 and No. 1-2 for 1989). in particular, the novel "Moscow, 2042" is a dystopian novel, a warning novel that depicts the gloomy future of the Soviet Union, which awaits it if perestroika fails. Georgy Vladimov, the author of "Faithful Ruslan", the largest literary critic and writer Lev Kopelev, the philosopher and writer Alexander Zinoviev, the author of the magnificent satires "Yawning Heights" and "Homo Sovetikus", were forced to live and work abroad.
The literature of the third wave of emigration is represented, in addition to those mentioned above and widely known in the world, also by many names that were almost or completely unknown to us. Only at the end of 1991 was the anthology of the Russian abroad "The Third Wave" published, which gives a certain idea of some of them. These are S. Dovlatov, F. Berman, V. Matlin, Yu. Mamleev, S. Yurienen, K. Kostinsky, O. Kustarev, E. Limonov, I. Ratushinskaya, Sasha Sokolov and others. Of course, it is difficult to judge them on separate, as a rule, small works placed in anthologies. These may not be first-order values, but authors who are trying to “declare themselves”.
