Oral presentation of the text. Effectiveness of oral presentation

Slide 7

ORAL SPEECH

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1. Those who speak see and hear each other.

2. They say, on the go, correcting only those mistakes that they notice.

3. The speaker sees the reaction of the interlocutor

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH

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1.TEMP (speed)

2.VOLUME (strength of sound)

• Fast
• Very fast
• Fine
• patter
• Slowly
• So slow

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HIGH LOW

Hello. I'm listening to you.

Peacock at home?

No, he hasn't come home from school yet.

Possible options: calm - sharp

angry - timid

confident - frightened.

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Non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication are very often used in conversation,

supplementing and clarifying what has been said

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A gesture is a movement that expresses or accompanies speech.

Mimicry is a movement of the face that expresses the inner state of mind.

The reaction of the interlocutor is a manifestation of attitude towards something or someone

Non-verbal means

Gesture Mimic

The reaction of the interlocutor

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Please be quiet...

In the museum, cinema and tram

About what we talk about to each other

But often we do not notice one thing,

That, as in a dense forest, we scream.

That we went to visit yesterday,

That dad gave me a bike

Grandpa's bones were broken by the rain,

And by the way, it's still not raining.

Please be quiet!

Please be quiet!

Shh! Shh! Chhh!

What public place

Fate did not bring you today, -

Remember, no one cares

Know everything about your personal affairs.

Prepare to read individual lines of the polylogue.

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HOW TO BEHAVE DURING A CONVERSATION

1. Speak calmly

2. Don't wave your arms.

3. Watch what words you choose.

4. Know how to listen to another.

5. Speak clearly, don't rush. Change your intonation so that your speech is not monotonous.

6. Don't talk for too long.

7. Never allow yourself to be rude to people.

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WRITTEN SPEECH and its varieties

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Letter Personal diary

Statement Essay

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WRITTEN SPEECH

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1. The one who writes does not see or hear the person to whom he is addressing.

2. They write, correcting all errors when checking.

3. The writer does not see the reaction of the interlocutor, he can only predict

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Speech situation

• Where are we talking?
• With whom?
• For what purpose?

In a formal setting

In an informal setting

With one person

• Communication
• Message
• Impact
• With a large audience

Choice of speech style

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Speech styles

The artists are talking in the dressing room

Your friend is talking to you

Style is simple

And not any other.

Reading a story or a verse

novel, poem, play

Know their style

The style is very interesting.

Still have style

Articles in a political magazine

Newspaper essays, notes -

Remember this style too.

Open your biography

And the rules when we teach

We use style

Colloquial

Art

journalistic

Official - business

Slide 17

Speech styles (where? with whom? why?)

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Book Spoken communication (colloquial words, incomplete sentences, dialogue)

message (terms)

ARTISTIC - impact (figurative words)

OFFICIAL - BUSINESS (message) (special words and turns)

PUBLICISTIC communication of information, impact (socio-political vocabulary, combination of solemn vocabulary and colloquial means)

Slide 18

Conversational style

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Features of conversational style

The goal is communication

Scope of use - communication with close and well-known people,

the sphere of domestic relations and the oral form of professional.

Style features

We don't always know what we're talking about.

We don't know what words we'll choose.

We need to see and hear the participant in the conversation.

Language means: the composition of book words is limited, a lot of vernacular

words, a large number of interjections, particles, the presence of incomplete and short

sentences, richness of intonations.

Slide 19

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ARTISTIC STYLE OF SPEECH

The sphere of use is the language of fiction.

The purpose of use is the creation of an artistic image, emotional and aesthetic impact.

Language tools:

1. Epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc.

2. Stylistic figures (figures of speech): anaphora, antithesis, union, gradation,

inversion, parallelism, rhetorical question, reversal, default, ellipsis, epiphora.

The artistic style is distinguished by figurativeness, the wide use of figurative and expressive means of the language.

Slide 20

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Artistic speech style

1. Designed to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact, and all linguistic means included in a work of art are subject to the tasks of this style.

2. The main function is aesthetic.

3. To the means of artistic expression

include RHYTHM, RHYME, INTONATION, SOUND

4. A characteristic feature is the combination of different styles of speech, the combination of the words "high" and "low",

the presence of colloquial vocabulary, sometimes - vernacular, dialectisms, professionalisms.

5. Type of speech - reasoning, reasoning with elements of description, description.

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Journalistic style

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Publicism is a special type of literary works that highlight, explain

topical issues of socio-political life, moral problems are raised.

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The sphere of use is the style of radio, television, newspaper, magazine articles.

The goal is to transfer information with simultaneous impact on the reader, listener.

Genres: information, critical note, reportage, interview, article,

review, sketch, essay, feuilleton.

ORATORIC SPEECH, JUDICIAL SPEECH. REPORT.

slide 23

Features of the journalistic style of speech

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1. LOGIC.

2. IMAGE.

3. EMOTIONALITY.

4. EVALUATION.

5. CALL.

6. SOCIO-POLITICAL VOCABULARY

The most important quality is PUBLIC AVAILABILITY:

It is designed for a wide audience and should be understandable to everyone.

EPITHETS are used to influence the imagination and feelings of the reader,

COMPARISONS, METAPHORS, colloquial words, phraseological units

slide 24

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OFFICIAL - BUSINESS STYLE

Sphere of use - used in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities).

The goal is to communicate and inform.

Main genres: laws, orders, resolutions, protocols, acts, certificates, instructions, announcements, business papers (statement, report, memorandum ...)

Language features:

1. Officially - business vocabulary

2. Stable, standardized turns of speech

3. Accuracy that does not allow any other interpretation.

Slide 25

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Formal - business style of speech.

Scope of use - legal, service, industrial relations.

The purpose of use is communication, information.

Main features:

1. Accuracy, not allowing a different interpretation.

2. Non-personal character.

3.Standardized, stereotypical construction of the text.

4. Must be prescriptive.

Language features.

1. Vocabulary - the widespread use of standard turns of speech. special terminology.

2.Syntax - complicated simple sentences.

3. Types of speech - there is almost no narration and description.

4. All documents are devoid of emotionality, there are no pictorial

language means.

slide 26

Scheme of the scientific style of speech

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speech situation:

PURPOSE - COMMUNICATION, TRANSFER OF INFORMATION

Style features: logical presentation, abstraction and generalization,

accuracy, conclusiveness, unemotionality and objectivity

Slide 27

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Stylistic experiment

1. Read the text twice. On the first reading, use the first synonym given in brackets, and then read the text with the second synonym. What happened?

2. What is the difference between the two spoken texts?

By the stream (grew, waved) the beautiful Rose. On a branch in front of her (sat, perched) Nightingale. With admiration, he (looked, stared) at Rose, (singing, praising) her beauty. Nightingale (trills, squeals) sounded over the stream, and he (seconded, agreed) to them with a quiet (murmur, gurgle).

But autumn came. (Fallen, fell off) the petals of a beautiful Rose. Brook (carried away,

dragged) them into the distance, and (silenced, died out) the nightingale's song.

A. Smirnov.

Slide 28

Stylistic experiment

Agafonova E.E.

Task: 1. In this text there are synonyms for the word eyes:

eyes, peepers. For what purpose did the author use them?

2. How do adjectives and verbs change when they are next to these synonyms?

3. What, in your opinion, will people be - the owners of eyes, little eyes, peepers?

There were eyes: black, beautiful. Look - and look, and ask. And there were little eyes: gray, roguish - they kept sniffing around, not looking directly at anyone.

Eyes asked:

What are you running? What are you looking for?

Eyes darted, fussed, they say:

Yes, so-so, little by little, little by little, it’s impossible - for mercy, it’s necessary -

you know.

And there were peepers: dim, impudent. They stare and stare. Eyes asked:

What are you watching? What do you see?

The peepers squinted, shouted:

How dare you? Who are you? Who are we? Yes, we are you!

The eyes were looking for the same beautiful eyes, they did not find them and closed.

F. Sologub.

Slide 29

Types of speech

Agafonova E.E.

• Narration
• Description
• reasoning

What happened?

Several drawings (photos)

One drawing (photo)

adjectives

No drawings

photos.

slide 30

Types of speech. Narration.

Agafonova E.E.

Narration is a story, a message about some event in its temporal sequence.

Compositional features:

1. Narrative-type works can begin immediately with a plot and even with a denouement of an action (i.e., an event can be transmitted in direct, chronological order and in reverse, when we first learn about the denouement, and then about the action itself).

2. The expressive and pictorial power of the narrative lies in the visual representation of the action.

3. A special role belongs to verbs denoting successive events that help the story unfold.

Slide 31

Agafonova E.E.

Narrative is a story, a message about some event in its

time sequence.

The main thing is the order of the action and the development of the plot

The expressive and pictorial power of the story is

primarily in the visual representation of the action, movement of people and phenomena in time and space.

A special role belongs to VERBS, especially the forms of the past tense of the perfect form (they, denoting the sequence of events, help to unfold the narrative).

You can put a question to the text - narration

WHAT HAPPENED?

The method of photographing is SEVERAL PHOTOS.

slide 32

Narrative and its structure

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• introduction
• tie
• denouement
• CULMINATION
• Conclusion

Slide 33

Description and its structure

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Description - a verbal image of any phenomenon of reality by listing and disclosing its main features.

The purpose of the description is to make the reader (listener) see the subject of the description, present it in his mind.

Composition Description:

1. General idea of ​​the subject.

2. Separate signs of the subject. (description of parts, parts)

Language features:

1. Wide use of words denoting qualities, properties of objects.

2. The use of imperfective verbs in the form of the past tense,

and for special clarity, figurativeness - in the form of the present tense.

3. Definitions, nominal and incomplete sentences play an important role.

slide 34

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The objects of description, depending on the situation and goals, can be very different.

Slide 35

Agafonova E.E.

Reasoning and its structure

Reasoning is a verbal presentation, clarification, confirmation

any thought.

Reasoning is a very important type of speech: in order to convince of something, one must be able to reason, prove, think logically, draw reasonable conclusions. This skill is necessary to refute the point of view of an opponent with whom you do not agree.

Composition

1. Thesis (an idea is expressed)

2. Arguments (proof or refutation of this idea).

Convincing, accompanied by examples

3. Conclusion (conclusion)

slide 36

Agafonova E.E.

Reasoning and its characteristic features

It is important that

a) the thesis was provable and clearly formulated

b) the arguments were convincing, they should be enough to prove your thesis

c) between the thesis and arguments, as well as individual arguments, a logical and grammatical connection was established

d) each argument confirmed exactly the thesis you put forward, and not something else (a fact is the most indisputable evidence).

e) for the grammatical connection between the arguments, as well as between the thesis and the arguments, introductory words were used: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, thus

Genre forms of reasoning

Letter Article Review Report Polemic dialogue

Slide 37

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Used resources

1. Rosenthal D.E. Practical style of the Russian language. Moscow: Higher school, 1998.

2. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. M.: Education, 2001.

3. UMK on the Russian language, edited by Babaitseva V.V. 5-9 grade. M.: Bustard, 2008

View all slides

Not many people can feel confident performing in front of a large crowd of people, and especially if all these spectators are strangers to you. Most of the speakers in oral presentations it becomes embarrassing when, looking up, they see hundreds of eyes looking at them. At the very beginning of their speech, a trembling in their voice is already becoming noticeable, which clearly indicates that they are becoming uncomfortable in front of all this audience. The ability to perform in front of a large number of spectators is a very rare gift. Nervousness and excitement very often take precedence over composure and calmness.

If this is very similar to you, then don't worry, many of us have the same problem. We get nervous even when we have to address a group of our own friends, let alone a group of strangers. The best solution to this problem is to prepare for oral presentation. Your preparation depends very much on your belief in yourself. Here are some tips to help you make the most of yours:

1. Organization: It's a good idea to organize your oral presentation, dividing it into several parts:

a) Carefully plan the entire presentation process and pay special attention to the most important details, while not forgetting to indicate possible solutions to the problems identified in the presentation;
b) State the main topic presentations clearly and clearly;
c) Give a couple of examples related to the main topic of the presentation, proving the relevance of this topic today;
d) Express your point of view with a specific approach to the problem;
d) Finally presentations you must draw accurate and understandable conclusions;
f) Be sure to allow extra time for questions.

2. Use of visuals: tell and show. Try to find the brightest, most colorful and memorable effects in order to convey your point of view to the audience. For this you can use:

Visual design always serves to complement the information you intend to convey. oral way. Relevant paintings, drawings and photographs are sure to end up capturing the attention of your viewers. The following tips will be helpful to you when choosing how to visually design your oral presentation.

Always try to keep the visuals simple and relevant to the theme. presentations.

Make sure that it will be easy for each and every one of your viewers to understand them. Never put everything you have to say into visuals in order to read it later.

Try to get your audience interested by giving them copies of the most informative and important slides that will get the general idea of ​​your presentations.

3. Talk to the audience in such a way that they are interested in your next word. Try to put yourself in their place and decide for yourself what you would be interested in hearing on this oral presentation. Try to avoid monotony at all costs. Try to always speak in a sparkling voice.
Even if everything presentations different, and each of them has its own specific properties and features that are unique to it, we can give you some general tips that will be valid for any kind of presentation and will no doubt bring something special to your

Describe a time when you were making an oral presentation or preparing a written proposal.

Therefore, producers must master the art of drafting and presenting proposals orally. The proposal in writing must be a marketing document and not just a technical document. The oral presentation is designed to instill in potential buyers a sense of trust in the product, to emphasize the fact that the production capabilities of the supplier compare favorably with its potential of its competitors.

An invitation to special programs such as oral presentations and concerts.

Discuss the structure and scope of an oral presentation.

In many cases, they limit their participation in the project to familiarity with the written report and oral presentation. They evaluate the quality of the entire project against the report and

What is the purpose of an oral presentation What rules to follow in an oral presentation

The course takes the form of lectures/discussions. It contains small group problem solving, brief review analysis, an individual marketing study project, and oral presentations.

Chapter 6. RULES OF ORAL PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT

When preparing for an oral presentation,

The purpose of the offer is to guarantee the sale of consulting services. An offer is a written description of the work that the consulting firm is going to do and the terms on which it will do it. It may also contain arguments in favor of such work and the benefits that the client can derive from this. If the meeting is successful, the proposal may simply be a written confirmation of what has already been agreed upon at the meeting. In other cases, quite a lot of work may be required after the proposal is submitted. For example, there may be questions that need to be answered, there may be a need to change the offer or clarify what exactly the client wants. Some clients may wish to make an oral presentation after a written offer has been made. Some may have an elaborate decision-making process to approve or not approve a proposal.

Based on this, manufacturers of industrial products must master the art of drafting and oral presentation of proposals. A written proposal should be a marketing, and not just a technical document, inspire confidence, emphasize the fact that the manufacturer's production capabilities distinguish it from competitors. A necessary element of any presentation is not only providing information about products, but also asking various questions.

An individual assessment of each participant is carried out by the head of the game based on the results of the oral defense (presentation of the company) and taking into account the material contained in the final report on the activities of the enterprise submitted by the team.

Oral defense is made in the form of a company presentation, during which each participant makes a report in accordance with the nature of the role-based distribution of responsibilities between team members during the game.

In case of any personal invitation to a presentation, made orally or in writing, in accordance with the rules enshrined in the Code, it is necessary

A feature of trade eloquence (oral advertising, speaking at a presentation) is the use of psychological methods of persuasion. As an example, consider the following passage

The presentation can take various forms. When organizing it, they strive to use modern advertising technologies. In addition to the classical oral presentation of information using illustrative graphic materials in the form of posters, booklets, etc., multimedia presentations are increasingly being carried out based on the capabilities of a computer, television, and special projection equipment.

When reading a report, gestures should be used. Visual gestures clarify or enhance the oral transmission of information. Expressive (emphatic) gestures are used to emphasize what has been said. Suggestive gestures are symbols of ideas and emotions. Incentive gestures evoke a desired response from the audience for the speaker. The speaker is recommended to change the volume of the voice, timbre and articulation. The presentation should end with a strong ending. To highlight the importance of the presentation, it should be done in the client's organization with the highest level of leadership, as shown in the following example,

Images created for presentations should clearly confirm the oral presentation and greatly facilitate the perception of the material. The basic rules for creating presentations (these principles are suitable for 35 mm slides, transparencies and computer slide shows using multimedia tools) include

Along with the listed technical details, during the oral story, it is necessary to pay attention to HER, which will help draw the attention of the audience to the speaker. These rules include fluent speech, eye contact, volume and modulation variations, and the use of facial expressions and gestures in the presentation. In addition, one should not forget about the formation, sympathy for the audience, that is, the person conducting the presentation should try to arouse sympathy for himself in the audience. This can be achieved, for example, by using events from one's own life in the course of the story. In addition, during the presentation, it is necessary to lighten the atmosphere somewhat with the help of some humorous remarks and try to involve the audience in the discussion process as actively as possible. If the presenter is familiar with the people in the audience, it is recommended to address them by their first names. The next step is to try to discuss the proposed material after the presentation and document the results. After the presentation and discussion, it is possible to express critical comments from the project team or the audience as a whole 9. Direct marketing can also be carried out in non-personal communication - for example, in a direct response TV advertisement (on the screen or in the ad, the coordinates for the order are given -

Stages of new product development. Methodology for analyzing the success or failure of a new product AIBO - Sony company (computer-based oral presentation). Nidan situation (business game) 4

In order for each of the participants to have the opportunity to take an active part in the design of a comparative study on the study of social changes in post-socialist countries, the school practiced five main forms of teaching lectures, seminars, mini-conferences, project games and personal consultations with school professors. Students made oral presentations during workshops and mini-conferences. At the end of the school, each of the participants wrote a short essay related to the main topic of the school. Despite the fact that the school was held for three weeks, and the working day lasted from nine in the morning to four in the evening, which is quite a long time by ordinary standards, the time flew by unnoticed. This was facilitated by the fact that the classes were interesting and very informative, the forms of education were diverse, and in their free time, from four in the evening to nine in the morning during the week and around the clock on weekends, students had time to relax and gain strength to continue their studies. Excursions along the Adriatic coast, basketball matches and regular visits to cozy bars in Igalo and the old town of Herzog Novi contributed to the accumulation of forces.

Speech with a presentation of the strategy / vision. Subjects may be told that they have an hour to prepare a presentation to the Board of Directors (a) on the company's mission, vision, and strategy, and (b) in connection with this, on their work group's mission and strategy. Candidates are left in a room with a projector, flipcharts, pens, and a variety of presentation materials. Presentations are coded on preparation, oral presentation skills, Impact and Influence and Team Leadership.

People often ask how to make oral presentations. You may be asked to research the subject and use the presentation as an introduction to the discussion for other participants.

Before preparing a presentation, it is important to decide on the goals. Exist three main objectives of oral presentations. Think about what you want to achieve:

• inform - provide information for use in decision-making;
• convince - to strengthen or change the listener's opinion about the topic;
• build a connection - send messages that have the simple purpose of building a good relationship between you and the listener.

Preparation

A successful presentation requires thorough basic research. Research as many sources as possible, from newspaper clippings to the Internet. When you've completed your research, start writing your speech, keeping in mind the difference between spoken and written language. Use simple, direct sentences, active verbs, adjectives, and the pronouns "you" and "I."

Structuring the presentation

A good presentation starts with a short introduction and ends with a short conclusion. The introduction is used to greet the audience, to introduce your topic/subject, to mark the boundaries of your speech. The introduction may include a story, an interesting statement, or a fact. Plan an effective start; use a joke or anecdote to build trust. The introduction also needs an object, that is, a presentation task. It also makes the audience aware of the purpose of the presentation.

The following is the main part of the presentation. All you need at this stage is a plan. There are several options for structuring a presentation:

1) Graph: Arrangement of key points in sequential order.

2) Climax: The main points are presented in ascending order of importance.

3) Problem/Solution: Problem presented, solution proposed.

4) Classification: important elements are the main points.

5) From simple to complex: ideas are listed from simple to most complex; they can be presented in reverse order.

After the main part comes the conclusion. A strong end to a presentation is just as important as a strong start. You should summarize the main points. At the end of the presentation, you can ask if you have any questions, provide a summary, and thank the participants for their attention.

Every successful presentation has three essential objectives: to educate, to entertain, to explain.

The main purpose of creating a presentation is to convey information to your listeners, to capture and hold their attention. An adult audience has a limited attention span of forty-five minutes. At this time, she will absorb about a third of what you said, and a maximum of seven ideas. Limit yourself to three or four ideas and highlight them at the beginning of your speech, in the middle and again at the end repeat your message. You should know that your presentation is so good that all you need to do is look at your notes during the presentation.

How to build a presentation. - How to follow the rules. - Whether to read a pre-prepared text. - How to use visual material. - How to control the purity of language and gesture. - How to control the attention of the audience. - Is it worth it to entertain the audience. - How to interact with the audience. - How to ask questions and oppose the speaker - How to act as an opponent

We come to the sixth chapter of the book about simple things that are easily swallowed, but digested with great difficulty. And this time we will talk about the rules of the oral presentation of the project.

It is assumed that by this point we have come a long way: prepared a study, collected data, analyzed them, and wrote the final text. Now we need to convey these results to specialists. And just then a seminar is planned, or we need to answer to the customer, we are invited to speak at a conference, or a dissertation defense is coming soon - in a word, we will have to go out in public, speak to a professional audience. What should be taken into account when preparing such a presentation? Please do not say that this is an individual matter and that everyone has their own style. Of course, you cannot forbid to shine with individuality (for those who have it). But the individual style of speech, if the elementary rules of the presentation are not observed, begins to look like an inappropriate eccentricity. It is these rules that will serve as the subject of further discussion.

How to build a presentation

Of course, there is no single speech scheme, but its main elements should be taken into account. The first element is establishing initial contact with the audience (we will return to this point). It is best to do this when posing the problem. Next, we must describe the main parameters of our research program (goals and objectives, object boundaries, main hypotheses, etc.), i.e. that which constitutes the introductory part of any written text. Then we clearly postulate the main thesis and begin to unfold our argument. The arguments, in turn, are illustrated by the analyzed data. Let's not forget about the reflective assessment of our own position and final conclusions. In general, oral presentation reproduces the logic of the written text, but at the same time provides additional opportunities for influencing the audience.

We understand that we are not able to squeeze into one performance everything that we have managed to accumulate and that we find interesting. We have to choose the main thing. And immediately proceed to the presentation of the main provisions, because we do not have time for a long run. But no matter how cruel the regulation is, there are things that cannot be bypassed. What are these things? First, the description of the sample and how the data were collected should not be thrown away. Yes, it takes precious time and, quite possibly, not everyone present is interested. We still have to do it- Second: you can not throw away links and expressions of gratitude. It is necessary to mention the fund that financed us; colleagues who worked with us; specialists who helped us; a leader who, risking his good name, became the "manufacturer" of our product. In a word, even in a short five-minute speech, we are forced to insert a fairly large number of introductory sentences and technical details. But nothing can be done. If we think that the time limit is too strict, there is almost always a choice - we have the right to politely refuse the proposed speech.

Success largely depends on the form of presentation of the material. We can build a speech in the style of "police protocol", clearly revealing point by point. However, another approach is also possible, which is sometimes called problematic. With this approach, firstly, all the questions raised are not answered, and secondly, an element of intrigue or even intellectual provocation is included. We throw in a problem and then unroll the structure of the argument without announcing the final conclusion (if any at all) beforehand. Between these extreme forms of presentation of the material, of course, there are many intermediate forms.

There are three elementary requirements for any public speaking, which add up to the following rule.

Rule 57. The speech must be understandable to the audience, concise and complete.

First of all, it is necessary to abandon the esoteric and purely bird language, which is obviously not understandable to those present. This does not mean that you need to "adapt to the audience", allowing it to relax. You need to try to raise the bar, but in such a way that the listeners follow it, but at the same time do not lose sight of it. Unless, of course, we want more than just to demonstrate how smart we are.

Don't overload your presentation. And since time is strictly limited, the temptation to say as much as possible arises quite often. We start talking quickly, then even faster, throwing out heaps of thoughts and facts, forgetting that perceiving something by ear is already a difficult task. And this, by the way, is one of the greatest difficulties of speaking on the results of empirical research.

I think many will agree that it is most difficult to present empirical results. On the one hand, when you have an original factual base, the report looks more solid. The data itself serves as a kind of justification for our coming to the podium. And some of the audience may be interested in the data as such, outside of our efforts to interpret it. On the other hand, the more solid the empirical base, the more difficult it is to present the results in a correct way. For the minimal description of this base, without which it is impossible to move on, takes up a significant part of the precious time. Yes, and throwing people with numbers is also not good, because this can violate the limits of normal perception.

Finally, the performance must be complete, or at least it must appear to be finished. We have to omit important meaningful and digital fragments and tell much less than we would like, but at the end of the presentation there should be a period or, in extreme cases, a semicolon. Leaving listeners in the most interesting place is ugly.

How to follow the rules

One of the first problems that arise before every speaker at a seminar, conference or defense is the observance of the rules. Regulations are a boring but fundamental thing. If we are invited to speak in a public space, the first question we ask the organizers is very simple: how much time will we have? For the allocation of ten minutes puts us in one framework, thirty minutes - in others, one and a half hours - in the third. And the nature of the speeches in these cases varies greatly.

Regulations are also tough. And the more serious the event, the more strictly, as a rule, it is observed. Therefore, you should calculate the time in advance.

I remember a specific case when I led a section at a conference. Each speaker had a standard 15 minutes at his disposal. And so one of the speakers, who did a very laborious and professional job, spent about 12 minutes approaching the problem. When he began to present the results, it turned out that there was no time to unfold them - the time was over. The author was in obvious confusion and had to stop in mid-sentence. This is a truly shocking situation, but it could have been easily foreseen. It was necessary to be prepared. If a person does not have enough experience in performing under pressure, you need to practice and "drive" the material before the start of the performance in order to try on the time frame (I myself have done this many times). It is also advisable to mark what will have to be thrown away if there is still not enough time. Experienced speakers no longer need such preparation, although they still have to figure out “on their knees” what to include and what to throw out of the speech.

Monitoring compliance with the regulations is an honorable duty of the leader, which he performs with more or less zeal. Sometimes, in order to facilitate his (her) hard work, control is shifted to specially trained persons. So, for example, I had to deal with an interesting experience of controlling the time of speeches at the annual conference of the International Society for New Institutional Economics (I ^ 1E) in Washington, when an assistant girl was sitting in front of the podium with two cards, one of which was yellow, the other red like in football. When two minutes remained before the end of the speech, a warning yellow card was thrown out, when the time was up, a threatening red card appeared, and the speaker had to quickly turn off his reasoning. By the way, I managed to apply this wonderful "semaphore" system at a conference on economic sociology in Moscow six months later, and it worked perfectly. But, firstly, such an effective signaling scheme is still rare. And secondly, any scheme of external control does not eliminate the need to independently control the time during the performance.

I would like to give a simple advice - do not give time control into the wrong hands. Because the host's sudden message that there is one minute left can have a discouraging effect. And instead of ending the performance on a high ringing note, we will begin to rush, crumple and mumble. Some of us have a good sense of time, some not so much. But that doesn't matter. To avoid surprise, you need after all little - just put a watch in front of you. At the same time, there is no need to constantly monitor the clock, you just need to make a small mark on the margins - the time when, according to the regulations, it is supposed to end. And this will help us leave the podium with our heads held high, without waiting for irritated torment in the hall and a menacing hiss: "Your time is up." Hence the rule

There are frequent cases when, having received a polite notice about the need to hastily end the speech, the speaker begins to whine: "Maybe one more minute, or two more..." Otherwise, he will use a populist Russian trick - appeals to the audience: Let's ask colleagues if they will give me more time, otherwise I will have to cut everything off at the most interesting place. And, of course, there will always be kind people in the audience who will begin to "buzz": "Well, of course, let's give it." It seems to us that it is not quite decent to behave in this way. A professional should not stoop to primitive blackmail, begging for extra time. The upper class is to speak as much as others, but to be able to say more.

In addition, we act incorrectly in relation to other speakers and to the host (usually a respected person). Do we think that we are smarter and better than others? Moreover, by our behavior we substitute the leader as a person responsible for the regulations. For if he remains deaf to hints and persuasions and does not provide additional time, then we expose him as a "beast" and a formalist. And if, nevertheless, the host will meet us halfway and allow us to go beyond the limits of the regulations, he becomes defenseless in front of other speakers. All of them will also be entitled to request additional minutes. And it will be almost impossible to refuse them: how is it that someone was refused, and someone was not. This means that we are irresponsibly destroying the whole scheme of regulations and letting the organizers down.

There are people (especially those with high status positions) who believe that they are above the rules and can ignore the host's timid complaints about lack of time. This is as indecent as the references to their inexperience.

Cheap speculation is not uncommon, such as: "Unfortunately, due to lack of time, the most significant results of my work were left behind the scenes." All this leaves listeners deeply dissatisfied, with an underlying feeling that they have wasted their time without getting to know the main point. And we sign our own unprofessionalism. After all, if we failed to say the main thing, then the question arises: what, excuse me, were we talking about then?

Many presenters don't ask the presenter for anything directly, trying to prolong the moments with simple speculative tricks, such as announcing "I'm done now" or "I need less than one more minute" and then continue talking as if nothing had happened. There are real aces in this area. I remember how one of the representatives of the older generation (a well-known researcher) managed to outright outplay me (by that time already a fairly experienced presenter) with the help of a virtuoso technique of dragging out the performance time. In conditions of very strict regulations, he managed to speak an extra 3-4 minutes, and I could not do anything, because each of his phrases was built as the last one and began with the words:

"My final thought is that..." or "And in conclusion, we emphasize once again that..." At the same time, intonation these phrases were really presented as final ones. It's just that the last phrase was followed by the most recent one, followed by the most, most recent, and so on. Not all of us possess such virtuoso techniques, and it is better to use them with moderation. By the way, at a serious event, and even if, say, an American comes across as a host, such tricks will not help us, we will simply be "removed" from the stage, and that's it. So let's not forget about the next rule.

Rule 59

At the same time, there is a set of innocent tricks that allow you to extend the performance without breaking the rules. For example, it is known that the time of questions and answers is sometimes regulated more flexibly than the time of the main speech. And we need to end the report in such a way that people have a desire to ask questions, and precisely those that will allow us to continue the interrupted conversation. This is not so difficult to do, as a polite (and interested) audience often easily picks up the game, helping us achieve our desired goal.

An important question related to the form of the presentation is to read or not to read a pre-prepared text. Here we have at our disposal a wide range of possibilities - from complete improvisation to verbatim reproduction of written material. Regarding improvisation, I would like to recall the well-known saying:

"Impromptu is good when carefully prepared." In other words, if we are going to perform in front of decent people, but the source text is best to have. And since we do not always have the full text of the speech in reserve, we must arm ourselves with at least a well-structured plan, and preferably a detailed plan. It will help us to comply with the semantic framework, and not go beyond the boundaries of the regulations. And then we improvise as much as we want.

As for the literal reading of the text, I have always considered “that, to put it mildly, extremely undesirable. However, after some time, I was not without surprise to learn that such behavior is not something reprehensible, and at quite decent conferences, speakers do it without embarrassment at all. It is even considered that if a colleague has the full text of a speech, this is evidence of solid preparation. There is nothing wrong with the fact that the speaker reads the paper. But if we constantly improvise (and even if it's not bad), people may inadvertently think that we simply did not bother to put in the effort to prepare.

Having learned about this, I stopped snorting at the appearance of the next "reader", but I secretly did not change my opinion. Because if the speaker or lecturer does not take his head off the paper, the audience will certainly fall asleep. Such an outcome is guaranteed regardless of the quality of the text. Firstly, the listener immediately comes up with the salutary thought that since there is a certain text, then it can be read calmly at leisure, without straining in attempts to understand the ornate constructions by ear. And secondly, the speaker loses the most precious thing - live contact with the audience, including visual ("eye") contact, voluntarily refusing the advantages of oral presentation, the possibility of emotional impact on people.

The ideal variant of preparing a speech, in our opinion, is expressed by such a rule.

Rule 60. You need to have as much detailed text as possible, but do not read it, or at least pretend not to read it.

It is possible to reproduce the content as close as possible to the text, but to translate judgments into a more lively, conversational manner and thus establish contact with those present who follow not only the course of our thoughts, but perceive the person as a whole. The free form of presentation not only demonstrates the ease of our handling of the material, but also helps to keep the attention of the listeners,

How to use visual material

It is impossible to eliminate the limits of perception, but it is quite possible to significantly expand these limits. First of all, we can start with material more or less known to the audience, which we think people will happily pick up. Thus, we will quickly introduce them into the necessary context.

But the main thing, since many people do not perceive well by ear, we need to use other methods - let them see our material. Here we can offer:

* drawing on the board or posters;

* slide show;

* distribution of materials.

Ever since Soviet times, we have become more accustomed to drawing on a board or posters, which is primarily caused by our poverty - a long absence of projectors, normal access to copiers. Of course, the board has its advantages. When we finish drawing a formula or diagram right in front of an astonished audience, we encourage listeners to follow the flow of our thought. (However, modern multimedia equipment will soon deprive the board of this advantage as well.) If we are not plotting any intrigue, then everything necessary should be drawn on the board in advance, before the start of our speech, so as not to waste the elusive minutes and not stand with our backs to the audience (The matter, of course, is not in the rules of politeness, but in the inevitable loss of contact).

And what, in fact, needs to be demonstrated, besides tables and diagrams? It is necessary to write the names of the researchers we refer to, especially if these are foreign names with non-obvious spelling. I can never get used to this simple rule. And I feel wrong.

Now about using slides. Visual material has recently been used more and more often. And at many events it is already inconvenient to go to the microphone without slides. The slides show not only complex diagrams and tables. Many also highlight the conceptual and semantic material - the structure of the speech, the main arguments and conclusions. Since the audience hears and sees our calculations at the same time, the path to effective perception is shortened.

At the same time, of course, we must refrain from using too intricate schemes and complex tables. Half of the audience will not see them, and the other half will not fully understand. And although our comments push the process of understanding, the visual range must also be transparent and differentiated. The main points and numbers must be highlighted so that they are visible even to a person in the last row.

From this point of view, charts and diagrams are often more effective than digital tables. After all, individual numbers rarely play a fundamental role. Much more important is the trend or configuration of the phenomenon, which is shown by graphs, charts, histograms and other figures.

Note that while we are accustomed to show slides using conventional projectors, they are already departing into yesterday. Multimedia projectors are replacing us, allowing us to display information directly from our computer, which greatly expands the demonstration possibilities. Soon (much earlier than we think today) it will no longer be possible to do without such a technique.

There are, of course, some difficulties. If the pictures change too quickly, then the audience will not keep up with us and their eyes will start to ripple. If the pictures are left for too long when we have already moved on to another story, the audience's attention is scattered, people continue to copy something from our scheme and miss the further train of thought. In addition, we are often not able to provide perfect visibility due to technical reasons. Some begin to stretch their necks, others change seats, the third obviously cannot see anything, they fall out of active communication. From this point of view, there is another effective way - to use handouts.

If the audience is not too large and we have the opportunity to multiply the main tables, diagrams, and principal conclusions in advance, we can greatly simplify our task. Handouts have many benefits. First, there is no need to squint, trying in vain to see our scribbles on the board or small numbers of tables on the screen. Secondly, the material does not need to be redrawn, you can listen and watch at the same time. Thirdly, notes can be made on the handed out sheets. Fourth, this material can be taken with you (and people appreciate it).

The culture of using handouts is absolutely not developed in our country, which is also explained by our poverty. Now the situation with access to office equipment is improving. In addition, no one expects that we will distribute the full text, because it can be sent to those who wish by e-mail. We are talking about several pages of informative or illustrative material.

Of course, there is a negative side to using all kinds of visual materials. There is a partial dispersion of attention, because, along with the speaker, there is another source of information. And defocusing may occur, people will stop listening to us and start looking at the pictures. Therefore, it is necessary not to overdo it so that the design side does not clog the content side and does not "obscure" the personality of the speaker,

How to control the purity of language and gesture

The difficulty of any presentation is that you need to control too many little things at the same time - to keep track of time, the attention of the audience. In addition, we must also control the language we speak and the gestures with which we accompany our speech.

For some colleagues, the use of such words and sounds develops into an acute, and then into a chronic disease. For most, things are less dramatic (by the way, teaching experience is a reliable medicine). But the clogging of the tongue is like a runny nose: it seems to be nothing terrible, but it is impossible to get rid of.

In addition to the purity of the language, one also has to control the purity of the gesture. Here, most of us are complete amateurs. For example, I am used to controlling my speech, but I rarely think about the nature of the gestures used. I am somewhat comforted by the fact that in my case they are quite stingy. But I know a couple of gestures behind me in which there is nothing indecent, but which I cannot get rid of for many years in a row.

Meanwhile, the audience pays considerable attention to them. One day, at the end of a graduation party at the university, one of my students, having courage, decided to hook me in the following way. She claimed that she had been following my gestures during the lectures for a whole year and made a number of fundamental conclusions on this basis, which actually reveal my essence and turn out all the ins and outs. You can't say that I was completely shocked. Moreover, the conclusions were never presented to me (either the student was bluffing, or the conclusions were so sad - I don’t know). But the very fact that people draw conclusions based on our poorly controlled gestures was curious to me. Moreover, as is known, in psychology there are special methods that allow initiates to build all sorts of theories on this score.

By following the purity of speech, we can consciously go for some violations, which I-call "" "interruptions." They mean dosed inclusions of non-standard words and gestures used to attract, concentrate the attention of the audience or in order to "break through the gloss of perception" (as journalist A. Fadin said). They may include non-standard words and gestures.

Non-standard words (products of word creation or different types of slang) may go beyond the scope of scientific vocabulary or even the literary canon, but it is desirable that the vocabulary be normative. The use of profanity (accidentally or to gain cheap popularity) is a shameful thing. And when something close to profanity occasionally flew off my tongue, I was embarrassed. In addition, if we suddenly allow ourselves to create words, we should not forget about ordinary literacy.

Non-standard gestures are also acceptable, if you do not go beyond the bounds of decency. One of my first scientific supervisors, the head of a large political and economic school, N.A. Tsagolov was an excellent orator who knew how to keep large audiences in suspense. Among other things, he had a good command of non-standard gestures. At the age of 80, having a very solid appearance, he often began to bang his fist on the pulpit, hid behind the podium, then slowly crawled out from behind it, etc. Of course, gestures alone will not get you far, but as an auxiliary means, they should not be neglected.

We add that all these tools serve one big goal - to keep the attention of the audience.

How to control audience attention

The solution to this problem begins with establishing initial contact with the audience. If, immediately after going to the microphone, we begin to report on our results in a patter, looking somewhere at the wall, the audience will join us in mind and heart, at best, somewhere in the middle of the performance. They say that in accordance with the English academic style, it is customary to begin a speech with some kind of joke. And it's not a stupid idea. For, firstly, we mean that a living person has come, and it is possible that something interesting will be told. And secondly, according to laws that are not entirely clear, people are getting more quickly involved in work. Listeners wake up or quickly switch from the last performance, which was devoted, as a rule, to completely different things. The opening words are a green launch rocket that attracts the attention of those around you.

How to speak? First of all, you need to control the volume. Not everyone is able to scream at the top of their lungs, and they feel sorry for themselves a little. But the principle here is simple: you need to focus on the most distant people in the audience - they should be at the limit of good hearing.

Next, it is important to maintain eye contact with the audience. The worst thing is when the speaker does not look at the audience at all, focusing on inanimate objects that do not distract his (her) attention. This is a known losing position and a hard habit that is quite difficult to get rid of. A common method is to have one pair of sympathetic eyes in the audience and address the speech to one person. This is a more acceptable method and also quite comfortable psychologically. But the best way is to follow a different rule.

Rule 62. During the entire speech, we must see everyone and everyone.

If, sitting on a chair, we are not able to see everyone, we will have to get up. If the goal is not achieved even while standing, you have to move slightly around the audience (not everyone likes this, and I, for example, do not like it,

but what can you do). Why is this needed? Including then, in order to take timely measures against those who prevent us from speaking, regardless of whether we speak to students, professors or customers.

By the way, the decisive factor in this regard is not the size of the audience and not the number of people sitting in it, but its configuration. In the amphitheater, all problems are solved simply. If the audience is spread out wide, it's also not scary, you just need to look around from time to time so as not to leave "dead" zones that are not covered by our attention. The worst option is when the audience is quite large and elongated. Additional efforts are needed here. So, you can urge those present to move closer. To not have to shout and to see everyone.

Now suppose the audience behaves quite "decently", but we see that one listener still tries to start a conversation with a neighbor. What to do? Pretend that we do not notice anything, relying on the conscience of the violator? Practice shows that conscience by itself rarely awakens. Making harsh remarks every time, interrupting himself and distracting the entire audience because of one unruly listener? I also don't want to. We spoke so gloriously and sublimely and suddenly - bam! - a formal remark. Sometimes you can’t do without it, but parting with calls for silence is still undesirable. To scare whisperers with scary faces? Everyone will notice it, but not everyone will appreciate it. And then let's imagine that some respectable professor or, even worse, our supervisor, took up the conversation. Will he (she) also be ordered to make comments? How to be? Another rule comes to the rescue.

Rule 63. In the case of conversations in the audience during our speech, it is necessary, if possible without interruption, to put the violators of the silence in an uncomfortable position.

There are several simple means that we are able to apply without losing face and dignity. The first means: without ceasing to speak, without changing the tonality and expression of the face, we begin to look intently, without breaking away, at the source of the noise. After all, this will not prevent us from continuing our thought. If a person sees that we are looking at him, and he has preserved the remnants of conscience, then he will most likely shut up. If our quiet and gentle, but persistent look is not caught by the object of our attention, the neighbor (ka) will intercept it and push the speaker with his elbow. If, even at the same time, the conscience of the noise producer does not wake up, or he is already wound up and cannot stop (there is also such a disease), you have to interrupt your speech. But do not make comments. Instead of this, we will only politely ask if a person has some unsolvable question in the course of our reasoning. Are we speaking too fast or perhaps not clearly enough, and does he/she need any further clarification? Thus, we transfer him (her) from the category of violators, demonstrating a lack of interest, to the category of slow-witted ones who need props. As a rule, the listener will quickly realize and refuse such a "service". If the attack of chatter does not let go, then you will have to bring reserves into battle - to beat for pity, referring to chronic throat diseases and the physical inability to speak in parallel with someone else. If this last resort does not help in the fight against an individual violator, it means that among those present there is an extra and random person. We'll have to endure, but continue to take care that he does not end up in this audience next time.

So far, we have been talking about a simpler option, when the noise source is identified, and the speaker is alone. It becomes more difficult when the noise is generated by several sources in different parts of the audience, which may well be caused by ordinary listener fatigue. If nothing is done, the rumble gradually increases and threatens to block our acoustic power. The first, instinctive reaction of the speaker is to amplify the sound. We begin to involuntarily force the voice, trying to outshout other people's voices, to suppress the noise that has arisen. And in this competition with the audience, an inevitable loss awaits us - apart from a strained throat, no other result is achieved. The rustling and whispering ones are multiplying, the rumble is growing, driving us into a dead end. Therefore, it is necessary to act contrary to instinct - not to raise, but to lower your voice, and lower it in proportion to the growing rumble. The moment those present can no longer hear our speech, they will notice a change in the situation, and some will be affected. Someone will become uncomfortable, but someone interested will still want to listen to the end and help us restore elementary order in our ranks. You can't do without the loyalty of the audience itself.

What if it doesn't help? To spit on everything and say, as you say, so that only enthusiasts who have lost their way in the front rows can hear? You can use a stronger remedy - a long pause up to a complete stop. We just stop talking and stand in silence. We're wasting time, but we're not losing people's attention. It looks, of course, impudently, but it is quite appropriate. People will be forced to shut up, whether it's first-year students or members of the Academic Council. If this is a speech at a conference or seminar, then such a stop automatically forces the presiding officer (having hitherto been inactive and idle) to recall his duties. We say to him (her) without words: "Dear leader, you are planted here to keep order, but they prevent me from speaking." And no nonsense and loss of face on our part.

If there is no one to rely on, a long pause will still work and many will fall silent, and the remaining talkers will have to be "finished off" one by one.

Seasoned speakers have many ways to control attention (in addition to the content side of the speech, without which all these games lose all meaning). Among the most trivial instruments we find variation in the volume of the performance. Even if we. we speak loudly, clearly and articulately, but on one note, like a sexton, then people begin to slowly take a nap. Therefore, you need to play with loudness. Especially if we want to say something important. At this point, you can raise or lower your voice - the result is basically the same. Subtle variation is more effective than straight force.

It is necessary to play not only with volume, but also with intonation, and the way statements are presented. For example, the most common way of presenting one's own thoughts is to speak as if we - so smart - have comprehended the objective truth and now we will open it in front of an astonished public. We do not just speak, but "push through" our position, giving our voice extraordinary persuasiveness, we find all sorts of means to objectify statements. I know very well that I myself often sin in such a manner of speaking. In and of itself, this is neither good nor bad. It is bad when everything is always served in the same manner, even if it is worked out to the smallest detail. In this regard, it is by no means harmful, for example, after a set of the most peremptory statements in form, to suddenly doubt (or pretend to doubt), to put some difficult question for oneself and not find an answer to it, to turn to the audience for help (even if we do not intend to wait for an answer).

You can resort to the help of a variable gesture. For example, stand up (even the most inattentive will notice this), point out in a Leninist way to an incomprehensible distance, slam the table with your hand, or, approaching a randomly selected person, suddenly turn to him personally. All these "tricks" are capable, albeit not for long, but shake the audience. The main thing is not to abuse external effects and not turn the performance into a clownery.

Rule 64. The main way to control the attention of the audience (except for the content of the speech) is to vary the forms of presentation of the material.

By the way, how is it better to perform - sitting or standing? Many prefer to stand and even claim that they cannot speak otherwise. For example, I prefer to sit (provided I can see the audience well), but I understand the advantages of a "standing" position well. When we stand up, there is an additional effect on the audience. "Speaking from above", "hanging" over the audience generates an additional element of subordination and makes it possible to exert a kind of pressure on the listeners. Therefore, if it is important for us to produce an enhanced effect or to "push through" some undisputed thought, then it is better to speak while standing. If we are confident enough in ourselves and are not afraid of losing control over the audience, then we can not get up from the chair.

Should the audience be entertained?

I have already mentioned the existence of the art of "interruptions" \, which are designed to switch the attention of the audience or simply allow it to relax a little, so that later they can attack the proposed material with renewed vigor. To this end, all sorts of examples are given, or stories appropriate to the occasion are told. At one time, at the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University, Professor E. Krylatykh, who taught a rare, boring subject - national economic planning, interrupted in the middle of each lecture and told students some anecdote, and rather frivolous (on the verge of a foul, but this verge without passing). This was done intentionally so that the listeners could rest a little. The students already knew about it and every time they expected the next joke. While partly supporting this initiative, I do not believe that the ideal option has been chosen. Since the anecdotes were not even remotely related to the content of the lecture, it all seemed like a sweet but somewhat artificial lecturer's device. And the true art, apparently, lies in the fact that our ideas are not perceived as technical methods, but are woven into the fabric of a general conversation and help to cling to the idea. Therefore, understanding the importance of "interruptions", I prefer instead of anecdotes - fictitious stories that are not directly related to the case, to tell "tales", i.e. real life stories that illustrate our idea and allow us to convey it to the audience in a freer, non-conceptual way. And at the same time relieve excess stress.

Capturing the attention of an audience today is by no means an easy task. Listening to other people has always been considered difficult. And the current listener is fed up with all sorts of information and does not start at half a turn. Therefore, of course, special efforts are needed to stimulate the interest of those present. But it is desirable to maintain a sense of proportion in this noble cause.

Rule 65. Performance should not turn into an entertainment show.

A similar trend has been observed in recent years. I recall a specific case when, at a scientific conference at one of the universities in Washington, a speaker - a very experienced journalist - for half an hour (with a time limit of 20 minutes) influenced the audience with the help of videos he shot in Moscow. The video was accompanied by contemporary music, and, for example, M.S. Gorbachev moved to the beat of rap tongue twisters. Everything was very lively, and those present, including me, had a wonderful rest. But when the speech ended, the question arose: what, in fact, did the author want to say with all this?

Examples of such performances began to occur more and more often, especially since the technical capabilities are expanding. Soon every spoken word will be accompanied by colored pictures, people will start (already started) to compete in the number of presentation "bells and whistles". On the ideological side, this trend is supported by postmodernist attitudes towards the fundamental lack of depth, the merging of expert and everyday knowledge, and the graceful gliding over the surface of poorly compatible styles of thinking.

The temptation to look fashionable and beautiful is great. But it's easy to get lost along the way. The fact is that professionals tend to be very friendly in the audience and ruthless on the sidelines. This should be borne in mind so as not to delude yourself unnecessarily. Keeping the attention of the audience throughout the performance is undoubtedly important, but the task does not end there. Attention must be maintained at least for some time after the performance, listeners must take something out of the audience other than memories of a pleasant time.

How to interact with the audience

Another important question is how to interact with the audience during the speech? Much depends on the degree of interactivity of this performance. Here we have a wide range of opportunities at our disposal - from an uncompromising monologue to a collective discussion of the issues we have proposed. And, of course, there is no option suitable for all occasions. Everyone solves this problem based on the formulation of the problem and the desire to talk something with their colleagues or students. If our goal is not to report the finished material, but to unleash an active discussion and draw those present into a discussion of a topic, we can portray a short quasi-speech (give an introductory), and then, allowing ourselves to be interrupted by questions, let people speak , gently correcting the discussion and bringing it back to the chosen subject. But in any case, we still need to set some meaningful framework so that the discussion does not turn into a shaking of the air.

An important part of the problem is how to deal with questions that arise in the course of our presentation. Answer right away, put it off until later, don't answer at all? Some speakers propose to interrupt them anywhere, even in the middle of a statement. Others suggest putting all questions at the end. It seems to me that the questions are better differentiated. Short clarifying questions are best answered immediately, while large meaningful questions are "hanging" and returning to them when we deem it appropriate.

Many people think that they are obliged to answer all the questions asked. Meanwhile, this is not at all necessary. It is necessary, of course, to observe the rules of elementary courtesy, but the selection of questions is an inviolable right of the speaker. And if we don’t know the answer or are not ready to answer right away, it’s wiser to admit it right away so as not to end up in a stupid situation. If the question is ridiculous or completely irrelevant to the topic, it is better to ignore it, closing with polite ritual phrases like: "This is a very difficult question, I need to think, now I'm not ready to answer you" (although we are not going to think about this question). If the question concerns technical details that you do not want to spend classroom time on, you can suggest moving its discussion to the sidelines. It is important not to let the questioner confuse us, to lead us astray from the chosen path. In any form of interactivity, the speaker must remain the master of the situation.

If questions are asked after the speech is over, then we have two options. You can answer each question immediately or all at once. If we want a more lively, interactive mode, then we choose the method of immediate responses. As for "collecting" questions, this method is more formal, but rather advantageous for the speaker. For there is time to regroup questions, building them into a logical chain that is convenient for us. We get at least a minimum time for reflection, and we can also "forgetfully" omit some absurd question. In addition, this method is more economical in time and does not allow turning the end of the speech into painful dialogues, when our answer generates the next question, the next one, and so on, leading to a long infinity.

Rule 66

Questions, especially do it immediately after the question is raised.

We add that it is desirable to announce our position on the order of questions and answers in advance before the start of the speech (if this is not provided for by the general regulations).

We add that our position on the order of questions and answers should be announced in advance before the start of the speech (if this is not provided for by the general regulations).

How to ask questions and oppose the speaker

To conclude this chapter, consider the case where we must respond publicly to someone's speech or submitted work. Our job is to ask competent questions or act as an opponent (discussant).

Let's start with a statement that is somewhat unexpected for many - is it worth asking questions to the speaker at all? How is it, you ask, is it possible to do without questions? My opinion is set out in the following rule.

Rule 67 Ninety percent of the questions asked by a professional audience are no questions.

The bulk of pseudo-questions fall into three categories:

* questions-judgments;

* questions-criticism;

* questions-requests.

A significant part of the so-called questions are thinly veiled judgments about what the author of the "question" thinks about what was said. In a radical (but common) form, questions-judgments look like this: a person states his position, and then "asks" what the speaker thinks about it. But, of course, many have learned to disguise themselves more skillfully and "pack" their opinions into rhetorical statements with an interrogative intonation.

Another option is not to express your opinion, but to ask a pseudo-question, from which it will become clear to those present that the speaker is talking complete nonsense, and somewhere nearby there is a "genuine solution" to the problem. This is a critical question. Most often, this means that the "questioner" is preparing to express his position in the subsequent discussion, and the pseudo-question is reconnaissance in battle, a kind of artillery preparation.

The question-request does not refer to what has already been said, but to what remains outside the scope of the speech. Actually, this is also not a question, but a proposal to tell something else on the declared subject.

As for the real questions, they do occur and are also divided into three categories:

# questions for clarification;

# Control questions;

# questions for problematization.

A question for clarification arises when we do not understand something and ask for additional clarification. The control question is connected with the test of knowledge and skills of the speaker. For example, we act as an examiner or supervisor and want to see how the speaker "gets out" of a difficult situation that has arisen.

The only form of the Question with a capital letter is the problematization question. It is designed to stimulate reflection on the position of the speaker, reveals some contradictions in it, or makes an attempt to bring the speaker to a different methodological plane. These are the questions that are rarely asked. For in order to formulate them, one needs not only the skills of reflective thinking, but also a clear understanding of the position of the speaker, a vision of different contextual frameworks in which this position can be formed. In a sense, you need to understand the situation at least as well as the speaker himself. Have at least a couple of people in the audience who can ask a problematic question. - great luck for the speaker.

I would formulate an important rule (apparently, many will disagree with it).

Rule 68. No need to waste time asking questions. It is better to immediately translate them into the form of an assertion.

You should not torture yourself and others, and also spend scarce time on ritual games. There is a more important point behind this: is it necessary to speak at all in the discussion? I contend that four out of five questions and comments are nothing more than "show off", the main purpose of which is to show one's awareness. To hint that everything said by the speaker is allegedly already known to us, plus we know much more. Well, such things have to be done (does the author of these lines deny this?). This is part of our professional positioning - to "shine" here and there, constantly reminding others how smart we are. But at least let's not deceive ourselves, let's think before we open our mouths - for what purpose are we going to ask our "question"? If we just want to speak out or show off, then please let it be so. But isn't it better to try to advance our understanding of the problem or turn the discussion in a direction that interests us? In this case, you need to move away from routine questions and comments in order to approach the matter more carefully. And to remain silent once again is not at all harmful.

How to act as an opponent

Now suppose that someone else is reporting, and we are going to act as an opponent. Not a formal opponent who strokes the speaker on the head and admires his (her) unthinkable accomplishments, but a person who wants to say something to the point, i.e. make critical remarks. How to build your presentation?

Many speakers in the discussion have a habit of immediately starting with evaluative critical judgments, implying that everything said above is no good. In general, a stupid and sticky habit is common to immediately enter into an argument, even if we agree with everything. It is no coincidence that response phrases in dialogues most often begin with the word "no", and then it turns out that the opponent says literally the same thing. Let's keep an eye on those around us (and let's start with ourselves) to make sure that such a manner is found all the time.

Another of our manners is the desire to have the last word for ourselves, even in cases where it does not play a special role. To say in the words of the hero from the famous monologue of A.I. Raikin (we quote not verbatim, but close to the text): "I listened to you all for a long time, stubbornly and attentively, and, finally, I say: well, you are all fools!" And proudly sit down.

We can flatter our ego and indulge our habits as much as we like. But we should not lose sight of a small detail: at the moment when we pronounce in our peremptory manner that everything said is no good, our opponent immediately "stalls", as if from a blow to the jaw. That is, he (a) completely stops hearing us and begins all his response phrases with an aggressive "no". And any of our arguments stop working, and the whole dispute is rapidly acquiring the features of a creative discussion in the style of "the fool himself." And, curiously, most often the disputants use different words to talk about the same thing. What to do, this is how the main part of our debate is structured. I would encourage you to follow this rule.

Rule 69. In any debate, you can not start reasoning with the word "no".

For those who have not yet given up the struggle to overcome bad habits, I will remind you of the canonical scheme of the opponent's speech. It is suitable for any discussion. Each performance must consist of three mandatory parts. In the first part, everything positive is highlighted that can only be drawn from the report made. Here it is necessary to emphasize all the points of our agreement with the author, to note the significance of the work done. And the more critical arguments we have prepared, the more convincing the first part should be.

The second part is actually content. For the sake of it, we generally perform. It includes a critical analysis of the results, which can go as far as the final judgment that nothing has been achieved and has not been. And what is done must be thrown into the wastebasket or redone again.

But this critical analysis is inevitably followed by a third, final part, which is basically a brief reproduction of the first part, its repetition - in essence and in tone.

What is all this for? The first part is needed to draw the speaker into the conversation, force himself to listen, not let him "go deaf" at the very first phrase and deprive him of the possibility of a sharp answer. The last part is needed in order to smooth the impression, get out of a difficult situation and help the speaker not to lose face. In addition, after a lulling peaceful ending, it will be more difficult for him (her) to rush at us in a sincere desire to suppress the source of unpleasant sounds. If there is no second part, then this is not opposition.

I will add that the proposed universal scheme only seems simple, it requires special training. When working on it, people often "break down", and again a booming "no, but ..." is heard under the arches.

We are well aware that the style of our performance is determined not only by the rules and canons. It implies the presence/absence of originality of thinking, as well as a sense of proportion, which does not allow originality to develop into originality. But these things go beyond the "simple", and apparently it is impossible to teach them. At least the author does not set himself such an impossible task.

Finally, we again give reminder questions that in this case you should ask yourself when preparing a speech.

* Did we manage to select the main thing when preparing the speech, was our speech overloaded with unnecessary details?

* Will we remember to describe the initial parameters of the project, refer to colleagues and sponsors?

* Do we fit into the performance schedule, do we have any time reserves?

* Do we have the text of the speech at our disposal and can we reproduce it without referring to paper?

* Have we prepared a sufficiently complete and colorful visual and handout material?

* How are we going to make initial contact with the audience?

* Will we be able to see everyone in the audience during the performance and will they be able to hear us?

* What specific methods of attracting and retaining the attention of the audience are we going to use?

* To what extent do we allow elements of interactivity in the process of speaking?

* Do we plan to ask questions to other speakers and what is the purpose of these questions?

* Are we able, if necessary, to observe the canonical scheme of the opponent's performance?