Ways to transfer the meaning of words
1. Metaphor- transfer of the naming of one object to another based on the similarity of their external or internal features, the shape of objects, their location, etc.
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This is the most common means of generating new meanings - most of our everyday concepts are inherently metaphorical. For example, the direct meaning gold
– yellow precious metal, used as a measure of value and in precious items. Metaphors: gold hair
– transfer of the name by color similarity; his hands are gold!
– transfer of the name by value. Or moo
- direct meaning make sounds, shout (about a cow, a bull); figurative metaphorical, based on sound similarity - slurring, making slurred sounds. Of all the types of polysemy, the metaphor is most often found in the speech of lawyers: gross violation of public order, severe (soft) punishment, edged weapons, harmful consequences etc. These are metaphors that have lost their figurativeness and perform only a nominative function. Figurative metaphors are generally unacceptable in an official business style.
Metaphors are language And artistic (individual). The language metaphor reflects social experience, has a systemic nature of use, is reproducible and anonymous ( green youth, velvet of the southern sky). Artistic metaphor is individual, non-reproducible, has authorship and performs figurative aesthetic functions ( Elevator right next to the room spat out a batch of passengers(Kalinin)).
2. Meton And mia- transfer of the name of one subject ͵ feature, process, etc. on the other by adjacency. The basis of metonymy is causal, investigative, spatial, temporal, etc.
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relationships arising from the contiguity of phenomena.
So, a figurative metonymic meaning for the word gold (direct meaning see above) will be coins or articles of this metal. Eg: everything was stolen from the apartment gold (ᴛ.ᴇ. gold jewelry, products); gymnasts at the championship got gold (ᴛ.ᴇ. gold medals). Or prosecutor's office – the building in which the authority exercising supervision over the observance of the law is located; metonymic transfer - employees of this body.
3. Syn e kdoha- the transfer of the meanings of the word, through which the whole (something more) is revealed through its part (something less).
Face – 1) front of human head- direct meaning (for example, ruddy face); 2) person, personality- synecdoche (for example, face who committed the crime is liable). Or: characteristics of the offender: hair black, curly(razᴦ.); Defendant Ivanova testified that her cohabitant Yakovlev often spoke of her son: “I don’t need an extra mouth” .
Polysemantic words can function in the text without a special stylistic task, or they can perform the following stylistic functions.
1. Update- such a deliberate use of the potential of the language, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is perceived as unusual and therefore attracts attention. This stylistic device is often found in puns, jokes. Eg:
One Russian monarch, while visiting the railway, asked the railwayman where he was coming from.
- From depa! came the answer.
- Fool! Is the depot bows down?
– All bows down before your imperial majesty!
2. personification- ϶ᴛᴏ such a metaphor in which objects, natural phenomena and concepts are endowed with signs of a living being: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff(Lermontov); Sleepy birch trees smiled, silk braids unraveled(Yesenin).
3. Comparison- ϶ᴛᴏ comparison of two objects or phenomena that have a common feature, to explain one to the other: Golden boats of the clouds(Block).
The use of a polysemantic word without taking into account its semantic possibilities leads to a violation of the accuracy of speech, ambiguity, which is unacceptable in procedural acts. Often such mistakes lead to comedy that is inappropriate in official business speech: Lashukov, with an unidentified person, robbed Yushko(need to: Lashukov and unidentified person or Lashukov together with an unidentified person); on the way, we were confused - I went to Surikov, and they drove on(need to: lost each other); the victim Ryumina testified that various passers-by covered the faces of the perpetrators with their heads, and therefore she could hardly see anything(remove first word) faces and form persons).
§ 2. Homonyms. Their functions in speech. Semantic errors associated with their use
Homonyms should be distinguished from polysemantic words, which outwardly resemble polysemantic words in pronunciation and spelling, but have nothing in common in meaning.
Homonyms(from Greek. homos- "same" and onyma- “name”) - words that are the same in sound and / or spelling, but not related in meaning: block(union) and block(the simplest machine for lifting weights); key(spring) and key(a metal rod of a special shape that serves to unlock the lock).
Unlike polysemantic words, homonyms - ϶ᴛᴏ different words that match.
There are full and incomplete homonyms.
At full(lexical) homonyms, all grammatical forms (cases, singular and plural) are the same: vulture(bird), vulture(long narrow part of stringed instruments), vulture(seal, stamp).
Incomplete(partial, lexico-grammatical) homonyms have a different number of grammatical forms: words onion(weapon) and onion(plant) the singular forms are the same, and only the first word of this pair has a plural form.
Along with homonymy, they usually consider related phenomena related to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language.
Ways of transferring the meaning of words - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Methods of transferring the meaning of words" 2017, 2018.
Depending on the basis and on what basis the name of one object is assigned to another, three types of polysemy are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
All meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected (although sometimes not all at once).
In a multi-valued word, the main (initial, primary) meaning of the word and the meanings derived from it are distinguished. New meanings arise in the word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequence) from one object of reality to other objects.
The two main types of name transfer are
1) by similarity (metaphor),
2) by adjacency - the real connection of objects (metonymy).
Let us characterize these types of transfer.
Transfer by similarity – Metaphor- objects that are somewhat similar to each other begin to be called by one word.
Similarities between objects can be
1) external:
a) shape: road tape, pot-bellied teapot;
b) color: copper hair, collect chanterelles,;
c) location: throat of the bay, a chain of mountains;
d) size, quantity: a sea of tears, a mountain of things;
e) degree of density: wall of rain, jelly roads;
f) degree of mobility: quick mind, the car crawls;
g) the nature of the sound: rain drumming, creaky voice;
2) functional: car wipers, marriage fetters;
3) in human perception: a cold look, a sour expression.
Move by adjacency – Metonymy- two phenomena that are really connected with each other (spatially, situationally, logically, etc.) receive one name, are called by one word. The connection of phenomena is:
1) spatial - the room and the people in it: the class was late, the audience applauded;
2) temporary - action and subject - the result of this action: deluxe edition, a set of tools;
3) logical:
a) the action and the place of this action: entry, stop;
b) the action and the people who produce it: defense, attack (defenders, attackers);
c) material and product from this material: wear gold, furs, win gold, silver, bronze;
A variation of this type of transfer is the transfer of the name from part to whole and from whole to part - Synecdoche:
1) from part to whole: an extra mouth (= person), a herd of a hundred heads of cattle (= animals), a hotel room (= room), the first violin, the first racket were added to the family;
2) from whole to part: neighbors bought a car (= car); but a whole class of mechanisms is also called a machine: washing, sewing, and other machines.
The degree of figurativeness and prevalence in the language of different figurative meanings by origin is different.
Some figurative usages are not used by us in speech and exist only in the text of a certain author. These are individual (author's) metaphors and metonyms: the copper intestines of a car (I. Ilf and E. Petrov), the cheekbone of an apple (Yu. Olesha). Their figurativeness is maximum, the use is connected only with the author's text; these figurative meanings are not reflected in dictionaries.
Other metaphors and metonyms are common, they are not “tied” to a specific text and are used by native speakers in different situations (usually in colloquial speech): forest wall, sea of tears, screen star, sawing (scold). Their figurativeness is less than that of the authors, but is clearly felt by native speakers; they are reflected in the dictionary and are marked portable.
The third type of figurative meanings is characterized by the fact that their figurativeness is not felt (in linguistics they are called “dry”): a chair leg, a mushroom cap, tractor caterpillars, the sun has set, the clock is running. These meanings are the main, dictionary names of a certain object, feature or action: figurative in origin, they are direct from the point of view of functioning in the modern language and do not have figurative marks in the dictionary.
Thus, a word can have several direct meanings - the original and figurative ones that are figurative in origin (“dry”).
Consider, as an example, the structure of the meanings of the word head: 1) a part of the body of a person or animal, 2) mind, reason (He is a man with a head), 3) a person as a carrier of ideas (He is a head!), 4) the front part of something (head columns, trains), 5) a livestock counting unit (a herd of 100 heads), 6) a food product in the form of a ball, a cone (a head of cheese, sugar) [Litnevskaya, 2006: 157]. The original and direct meaning of this word is ‘part of the body of a person or animal. Based on the similarity (metaphorical transfer), the meanings 4 and 6 are formed: “the front of something” (similarity in location) and “a food product in the form of a ball, cone” (similarity in shape). Moreover, both of these meanings are also direct and are used in a neutral style of speech. On the basis of adjacency (metonymic transfer), on the basis of the original meaning, a figurative meaning 2 "mind, reason" is formed. On the basis of meaning 2, a figurative meaning 3 “a person as a bearer of ideas” is formed - the name of the whole in part (synecdoche). On the basis of 1 initial value, a direct value 5 “a unit of livestock counting” is formed - also a transfer from part to whole (synecdoche). Thus, the word head has 4 direct meanings that do not have figurative meanings - meanings 1, 4, 5, 6, and 2 figurative meanings - meanings 2 and 3.
The transfer of the name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. The following types of transfer of the meaning of words are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche (as a special type of metonymic transfer), expansion or narrowing of the meaning. Metaphor- transfer based on similarities between objects: 1) in shape (neck of a bottle, eye of a needle, bow of a boat), 2) in size (horse dose, pole = lanky person), 3) in color (golden curls, earthy face), 4 ) by emotional impression (ram = stubborn, stupid person, bitter smile, pure thoughts), 5) by the function performed (pen - initially from a bird, then - metal, wipers - in a car).
Metonymy is the renaming of objects based on their relationship in space or time. Types of metonymic transfer: a) receptacle (drink a whole glass = liquid in it; attentive audience = listeners), b) material / product (bronze exhibition = items made from it; buy wool on a dress = wool fabric), V) process - result (jam = sweet jam made from fruit or berries; provide written translation), G) external expression (jaundice, blush to be ashamed, tremble = be afraid), e) the author is an invention (cambric, guillotine, raglan, x-ray, revolver, olivier), f) locality is a product (boston = fabric, panama, tokay = wine sort by the name of the province in Hungary).
Synecdoche- transfer based on communication: part - whole (A lone sail turns white, a detachment of a hundred sabers).
Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche are called tropes - a stylistic device based on
the use of the word in a figurative sense to achieve greater artistic expressiveness.
The consequence of the figurative, figurative use of the word is the expansion of its meaning (paint -1) make beautiful, decorate - make red - change color, dye) or narrow it (beer - a drink in general - a barley malt drink with a low alcohol content), as well as the development of an abstract , abstract meaning (understand - meant to take, catch).
32) Relationships of words by meaning (semantic fields, synonymic series, antonymic pairs).
Words in a language are not in a disorderly, chaotic state; they can be grouped based on different principles. The largest groupings of words according to the semantic principle are lexico-semantic fields. They are structured in a certain way: it has a center, a core, near and far peripheries. They consist of lexical units related to different parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives), phrase combinations. But all of them have a certain common semantic component, on the basis of which they are included in this lexical-semantic field. For example, LSP "Emotions", "Space", "Color", etc.. Smaller associations - lexico-semantic groups- include lexical units that belong to one part of speech, but also have a common component in their composition (for example, LSG “verbs of motion”, etc.). If the functional principle is taken into account (i.e., by role in a combination or sentence), then the field can be lexico-functional. Grouping words by similarity in meaning gives us synonymous rows. Synonyms are words that are different in sound, but close in meaning, which can be used one instead of the other. There are three main types of synonyms.
1) Logical, or absolute synonyms - express the same concept (airplane - plane, crocodile - alligator, linguistics - linguistics). There are not very many of them, otherwise the language would be too overloaded with redundant vocabulary.
2) Semantic synonyms - close in meaning, but different in sound (blizzard - blizzard - blizzard - blizzard, elderly - old).
3) Contextual, or speech - words and expressions that can be used one instead of the other only in a certain context (rotosey - hat - crow, coward - hare). Synonyms allow us to convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts and feelings. As a rule, they are used in different styles of speech: look (neutral), contemplate (poetic),) hatch (colloquial). Some of them are more frequently used, others less. Sources of synonymy can serve as: 1) dialect, professional and slang words (house - hut (northern) - hut (southern), speed - tempo (music), fake - linden (thieves' jargon), 2) borrowings and tracing paper ( alphabet - alphabet, abstract - abstract), 3) taboo - a ban on the use of certain words associated with religious or mystical ideas (brownie - the owner, they did not use the names "devil" and "devil" so as not to call out, instead of a name they gave a nickname or two godfather names - secret and explicit), 4) euphemisms - words associated with the socially accepted ban on the use of rude and obscene words (pregnant - in a position, crazy - not in itself).
The grouping of lexical units based on the opposition of their meanings gives us antonymous pairs. Antonyms are words that sound different but have opposite meanings. They form pairs of words that are polar in meaning, which coincide in terms of use and are used in opposition within the same utterance (Komissarov). There are only words in the content of which there are qualitative signs. For example, adjectives: old - young, healthy - sick, nouns: friend - enemy, night - day, truth - lies. They can be formed from single-root words with the help of prefixes opposite in meaning or a negative particle-prefix non-: enter - exit, surface - underwater, deep - shallow (shallow), friend - foe.
Polysemantic words have several synonyms: quiet voice - loud voice, quiet sadness - deep sadness, quiet driving - fast driving, quiet street - noisy street, quiet person - violent person.
Linguistic antonyms are opposed by speech, contextual ones (human blood is not water).
33) The connection of words by sound. Homonyms. Paronyms.
The problem of homonymy is closely related to the problem of polysemy, but it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish one from the other. Prof. Akhmanova suggested taking into account the relationship between the word and objective reality. If each of the meanings exists on its own, regardless of each other, then they are independent names of different objects of the surrounding world and belong to homonymous words. If one of the meanings acts as a derivative in relation to the other, the identity of the word is not violated, then we are dealing with different meanings of the same polysemantic word.
The semantic independence of homonyms is supported morphologically and syntactically. So, many homonyms belong to different word-formation nests (marriage - marriage - marriage - extramarital ...; marriage - defective - scammer - to reject). They also differ in syntactic properties (leaving/removing from home - care (courting) for the sick. The sources of homonymy are: 1) disintegration (splitting) of synonymy (shop (= bench) and shop (= small shop); 2) word formation (buy from "bath" - buy from "buy"); 3) the historical change in the sound image of different words (lynx (beast) from "ryds" = blush, red and lynx (horse running) from "rist"); 5) borrowings (club (smoke) and English club). There are several types of homonyms:
A) lexical or proper homonyms- different, in meaning, but coinciding in spelling and pronunciation in all forms (key - from the door, spring, violin, answer);
b) homophones, or phonetic homonyms- different in meaning, spelling but coinciding in
sound (ball - score, burn - burn, English / Iower (flower) - flour (flour);
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V) homographs, or spelling homonyms- different in meaning, sound, but the same
writing (atlas - atlas, dear - dear);
G) homoforms, or morphological homonyms- coinciding in sound, spelling in one
or several grammatical forms (my (- command adverb to the verb "wash") - mine (= belonging to me).
Adjacent to homonyms paronyms- words similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, which are mistakenly used one instead of the other (subscriber (- subscriber) - subscription (= right to use something for a period of time), parliamentarian (= member of parliament) - parliamentarian (= negotiator), hidden (= secret) - secretive (= taciturn).
Question34. Phraseology.
Stable combinations of words that are close or equal in meaning to one word are called phrase combinations. Being ready-made stamps, they are not newly created, but only reproduced in speech situations. In the sentence, they act as one member (beat the buckets = mess around (predicate), sleeveless = carelessly (circumstance), elephant in a china shop = clumsy person), (subject, object), raven's wing = black (definition). Some of them turned into frozen sentences: Here is the sky, grandmother, and St. George's day! Hold your pocket wider!
According to the degree of cohesion of the components, there are three main types of phrase combinations (the classification was proposed by Academician V.V. Vinogradov):
1) phraseological combinations- semi-free combinations, in which only one word is limited in its use to lower the gaze / gaze, eyes, bloody nose / face);
2) phraseological units- stable combinations in which the meaning of the whole can be derived from the meanings of its constituent members (slaughter without a knife, take the bull by the horns, blood with milk, wash your hands);
3) phraseological fusions, or idioms- the most lexicalized turns of speech, in the meanings of which there is no connection with the meanings of their members (upside down, give a rattling, get into a mess. The boundaries between the types of phrase combinations are mobile: with increasing lexicalization, the combination more and more turns into an idiom.
Phraseology - 1) a section of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development, 2) a set of phraseological units of a given language. The phraseology of any language is distinguished by a pronounced national specificity. Sometimes you can find similar phraseological units (There is according to smoke without fire. - There is no smoke without fire.). But more often a literal translation is impossible (You can "t make an omelet without breaking eggs. - You can’t even pull a fish out of the pond without difficulty).
35) Borrowing.
Borrowings are an important source of vocabulary enrichment. There are no languages in the world that do not have borrowings. Sometimes there are more borrowings than native words (for example, in English, up to 75% of borrowings from Romance languages, due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Great Britain). Borrowings are the consequences of economic, political, cultural and 1 scientific ties and contacts between peoples. Foreign words usually come along with borrowed objects and concepts.
The sources of borrowings are determined by the historical fate of the native speakers of a given language. So, in the vocabulary of the Russian language, there are: 1) Old Slavonicisms (leader, head, citizen), 2) Greekisms (alphabet, letter, history), 3) Latinisms literature, republic, notary), 4) Turkisms (chest, bazaar, treasury) , 5) Anglicisms (station, leader, football), 6) Germanisms (sandwich, paragraph, watch), 7) Gallicisms (luggage, jacket, compote), 8) Italisms (opera, tenor, mandolin), 9) Polonisms (bun , flask, harness), etc.
The degree of assimilation of borrowed words largely depends on the method of borrowing. In this regard, there are: 1) oral and written, 2) direct and indirect borrowing. Oral borrowings in the process of direct contacts between peoples, as a rule, take root more easily and the Bastres adapt to the peculiarities of the phonetic system and the grammatical structure of the language. Alien sounds are often replaced by their own. For example, the Greek words pharos and seuk-la in Russian began to sound like a sail and lights. Words borrowed in a book way are usually mastered slowly and for a long time constitute various kinds of exceptions to pronunciation, grammatical and spelling norms and rules. For example, coat, coffee (do not decline), parachute, jury (written with violation of spelling).
Words can be borrowed directly or through an intermediary language. There are many borrowings in Russian directly from Turkic (Tatar), Finnish and other languages of neighboring peoples. Grecisms and Latinisms were borrowed through Old Slavonic, Germanisms and Gallicisms - through Polish.
The question of the use of foreign vocabulary has always been the subject of lively debate. During the period of rapid growth of national self-consciousness, the desire to expel all foreign words from the native language (purism) sharply increased. In the history of Russia, Acad. Shishkov, a contemporary of Pushkin, who in his struggle with borrowings reached the point of absurdity (instead of the word horizon - eye, instead of galoshes - wet shoes). But prominent representatives of Russian culture have never thoughtlessly rejected foreign words, primarily scientific and socio-political terms. The necessary borrowings only enrich the language, bring new knowledge. At present, many scientists are fighting for the ecology of the Russian language, against the importunate introduction of the English language (its American version) everywhere - signs, curses. In France, even a special law was passed to protect the French language from the aggression of American English.
36) Internationalisms, barbarisms, tracing papers.
Internationalisms - words of the international lexical fund, functioning in many languages, coinciding or close in their phonetic appearance and meaning. They are borrowed by several languages from any one as a result of the growing role of cultural and economic ties between peoples. Usually denote concepts from the field of science and technology, culture and politics, philosophy and economics. Many of them are terms. So, international words include: from the Dutch language - most nautical terms (skipper, yacht), from Italian - musical (soprano, solo, sonata, aria, opera, cello), from English sports (football, boxing, match, game) , from Russian - sovietisms (satellite, five-year plan, district committee, Komsomol).
A special way to enrich the vocabulary is tracing, i.e. literal translation of foreign words and expressions. There are lexical and phraseological tracing papers. Lexical, in turn, are divided into derivational and semantic. Derivative tracing paper is a morphemic translation of a foreign word. It is not the word itself that is borrowed, but its structure and meaning (fr. impression - Russian impression, lat interjectio - Russian interjection). Semantic tracing paper is the original word of a given language, which borrowed a figurative meaning from a foreign synonym. In Russian, the majority of semantic cripples appeared under the influence of the French language. For example, the word "influence" by analogy with the French "influence" fixed the meaning of "impact" and gradually lost the meaning of "infusion". Phraseological tracing paper is a word-for-word translation of a foreign-language stable turnover (Russian cold war - English cold war, Latin pater familias - Russian father of the family).
barbarisms- foreign words or turns of speech, built on the model of another language and perceived as alien to native speech. They can function in the language along with their equivalents: chao (= bye), merci (= thank you), pardon (= sorry), o "key (= okay, okay).
37) Active and passive vocabulary of the language.
Speaking about the active and passive vocabulary of a language, you need to pay attention to: 1) differentiation of vocabulary on a stylistic basis, 2) historical changes in the composition of the language throughout its development.
The stylistic stratification of vocabulary is the opposition of words according to the sphere of their use. All words are divided into book and colloquial. Book vocabulary is used in literary and written and in elevated colloquial speech - scientific, journalistic, in business and official documents, in the language of works of art. There are three semantic-stylistic categories among book vocabulary: 1) terminology, 2) historicisms (words denoting the realities of past eras) and exoticisms (words describing the life of other peoples), 3) poetic vocabulary. colloquial vocabulary is used in casual conversation, usually on everyday topics. It can be conditionally divided into the following categories: 1 ) is simple orechia (potato, brainy - the most extensive category of colloquial vocabulary), 2) in ulgar isms, jargon (outside the literary vocabulary), 3) slang, 4) dialectisms (to create local flavor in a literary work).
The chronological stratification of the vocabulary involves the allocation of archaic words and neologism words against the background of commonly used vocabulary. (See Question 38 for more). Thus, the active vocabulary includes stylistically neutral, commonly used words, the passive vocabulary includes various stylistic marked lexical units, as well as obsolete (archaisms) or words that have not yet become the property of the general population (neologisms - the names of technical inventions, scientific discoveries, socio-political and economic realities, etc.).
38) Archaisms and neologisms.
The language is not in a frozen state: some words go out of use, some new ones appear. The obsolescence and withering away of some words is the natural desire of every language to get rid of redundant lexical units. Obsolete words differ in 1) the degree of obsolescence (the time they fall out of the active stock) and 2) the reasons for their obsolescence. Among them are historicisms and archaisms.
historicisms- words that have gone out of active use due to the fact that the objects they call have disappeared (altyn, visor, boyar, chain mail, quiver). Historicisms do not have realities, so their meaning is incomprehensible to modern native speakers.
Archaisms- old-fashioned designations of existing objects and concepts. There are lexical and semantic archaisms. Lexical archaisms, in turn, are divided into: proper lexical, lexical-derivative, lexical-phonetic. Actually lexical archaisms are words displaced by synonyms of another root (actor - actor, neck - neck, interpreter - translator). Lexical-word-building archaisms - words replaced by words of the same root, but with other affixes (disaster - disaster, difference - difference, feeling - feeling). Lexico-phonetic words differ from the words that displaced them only in separate sounds (heroism - heroism, clothes - clothes, full - captivity).
Semantic archaisms are obsolete meanings in the system of lexical meanings of modern words (belly - life, vegetate - grow, grow).
To designate new objects and express new concepts in the language, new words are also needed. Such words are called neologisms. The main reason for the appearance of neologisms is the change in socio-economic relations, the development of the material and spiritual culture of society, as well as the desire of people to most vividly express the shades of thoughts and feelings. New words are created daily and hourly. However, only some of them become the property of the national language, the rest are content with the position of occasionalisms, i.e. are used only in a specific context: for Mayakovsky - sickle, moldy (about a passport), limp, Komso-boy, color sea. Others entered not only the everyday life of their native language, but also went beyond it: midget (Swift), utopia (Thomas More), robot (Chapek), bungling (Saltykov-Shchedrin), industry, future (Karamzin).
New words can be created: 1) by various word-formation methods (see question No. 45), 2) by rethinking words, 3) by borrowing from other languages (see question No. 35), 4) by tracing foreign words (see question No. 36 ).
Rethinking is a semantic way of enriching the vocabulary. There are two types - expansion (capture - capture + charm) and narrowing of the meaning (beer - any drink, now - only “low-alcohol drink made from barley malt). With the expansion of the meaning, the word becomes more common, with narrowing - it specializes, it becomes less common.
39) Lexicography.
Lexicography is an applied linguistic discipline dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. All dictionaries can be divided into dictionaries of concepts (encyclopedic) and lexicons (linguistic).
Encyclopedic Dictionaries explain not words, but the content of the concepts they express. Encyclopedias are universal (which provide a systematic body of knowledge from various areas of society and science - for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia) and special (from any one branch of knowledge, for example, medical, mathematical, literary). The task of any vocabulary- explanation and interpretation of words, not the concepts they denote. There are monolingual (Russian-Russian), bilingual (Russian-English) and multilingual dictionaries. Monolingual dictionaries, depending on the purpose, are explanatory and specialized (literary and dialect, phraseological and terminological, spelling and orthoepic, grammatical and frequency, synonyms and antonyms, etc.), complete and short. Explanatory dictionaries contain information about the meanings of words in a given era, their use in speech, connection with language styles, along with spelling and pronunciation (dictionary of Ushakov, Dahl, Ozhegov and Shvedova, Evgenieva, BAS - a 17-volume dictionary of the modern Russian literary language and so on.). Historical dictionaries contain information about the development of a particular language (3-volume Sreznevsky Dictionary), about the origin of words - Fasmer's Etymological Dictionary, about the phraseological fund of the language - Molotkov's Phraseological Dictionary. There are very exotic dictionaries - for example, the dictionary "Russian Mat", dictionaries of jargons and slangs, an associative dictionary. Inversion dictionaries, or inverse dictionaries (useful when studying word formation), also began to be published. Dictionaries dedicated to the language of writers are being created (dictionaries of Shakespeare, Pushkin, Goethe).
Lexicography is in constant development, looking for new methods for a more complete description of the language of the people.
40) Grammar, its sections.
Grammar - 1) the science of the grammatical structure of the language, 2) the grammatical structure of the language itself. These concepts should not be confused.
As a science, grammar does not deal with words, but only with their forms. It groups words not by their lexical meanings, but by grammatical forms and categories. Acad. Shcherba proposed the following sentence, artificially composed by him: "The stalked kuzdra shteko butted the bokra and curls the bokra." This sentence is built according to the laws of the Russian language and is quite understandable from the point of view of grammar: you can disassemble the members of the sentence, determine which parts of speech they belong to, you can reveal the morphological structure of all words. But in the true sense of the word, this phrase cannot be called a sentence, since it does not fulfill its purpose.
communicative function - is not a unit of communication and messages.
The grammar consists of two interrelated sections: morphology and syntax.
Morphology is the study of the word, its structure and forms, the lexico-grammatical classes of words.
It studies the ways of forming different forms of the same word (shaping). By
word-formation traditions are also included in morphology.
Syntax is the doctrine of the sentence structure, compatibility and functions of word forms in speech.
These sections are explained by the fact that morphological and syntactic categories are closely intertwined. So, in the morphological characteristics of a word, its belonging to that
or another part of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.), to one or another morphological category (genus, animation - inanimateness, transitivity - intransitivity, etc.),
with a syntactic characteristic, its syntactic function is indicated (which member
sentence is - subject, predicate, definition, circumstance, etc.) and the method
connections with other words (management, adjoining, coordination).
Thus, both morphology and syntax study the forms of words, but in different aspects: morphology - from the point of view of their formation, meaning and correlation within a particular paradigm, and syntax - from the point of view of their functions as part of a phrase and sentence.
Question 41. Morpheme, its types.
The words of many languages of the world can be divided into separate elements that are carriers of lexical and grammatical meanings. The smallest meaningful part of a word is called morpheme. Morphemes are not equivalent in their role in the word and are divided into two large classes: roots and affixes.
The root is the main morpheme of a word, expressing its real (lexical) meaning. Words of the same root are related, because they all have a certain common semantic element - the core of their lexical meaning: water, water, water, underwater, submariner, splash down. It is impossible to consider the root as an invariable part of the word, because alternations can be observed in it: swim - swimmer, sit - sit - sit - sit down.
Affixes are auxiliary morphemes used to form related, words or grammatical forms of the same word. They express derivational and relational meanings.
By position in relation to the root, they are divided into prefixes (prefixes) and postfixes (suffixes).
and flexion). A suffix is an immutable postfix used to form new words.
Inflection (= ending) - a changeable postfix that serves to form grammatical forms
the same word. In some languages, there are infixes - affixes that stand inside
root.
By meaning, affixes are divided into derivational and inflectional. Derivational - express a derivational meaning and are used in the formation of related words from the same roots. Inflectional - express relational meaning and serve to form grammatical forms of the same word. Suffixes, as a rule, are derivational affixes, but they can also play the role of inflectional ones (for example, the past tense suffix -l - vari-l-a, bi-l; the infinitive suffix -t / ti-pe-t, ras-ti). The combination of the root and derivational affixes is called the basis of the word. Thus, to get the stem, you need to drop the ending. The stem of a word, consisting of only one root, is called a non-derivative (beg, water-a, good), consisting of a root and affixes, is called a derivative. The basis, consisting of one root, is called simple, of two or more roots - complex (meat processing plant, diver). A producing basis is also distinguished, i.e. the basis from which the single-root word was directly formed (water water, water underwater).
42) Word form as a unit of morphology. Parts of speech.
word form- in the narrow sense - this is a word in some grammatical form, i.e. with a certain set of grammatical meanings characteristic of a given part of speech. In a broader interpretation, a word form is an expression by one or another formal indicator of the belonging of a given word in a given form to a certain grammatical category (= category) (for example, the category of a verb in Russian is represented by grammatical categories of number, person, gender, tense, mood, transitivity - intransitivity, pledge and aspect).
suppletivism- this is the formation of word forms from different roots: a person - people, I go - I went. Some forms are suppletive: 1) the gender of nouns - ram - sheep, bull - ko; 2) the number of nouns - child - children, 3) the tense of the verb - I go - walked. 4) the form of the verb to speak - to say.
No language uses only one way, but usually one way prevails. It depends on the structure of the language - synthetic or analytical.
46) Affixation and internal inflection.
The most common grammatical method is affixation - the articulation of the roots or stems of words with affixes (word-building or formative morphemes). If affixes are attached to the root from the outside, they speak of external inflections, if affixes change or break the root, then about internal.
Speaking of external flexion, confixation and circumfixation are distinguished. Confixation is when affixes are arranged in a continuous chain before the root (prefix - run away, run across, run, run, run in, etc.) or after it (postfixation -let-a-j -yy-y). In Indo-European languages, both are used, in Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian - only potfixation. Circumfixation - when affixes cover the root. In Russian, this corresponds to the suffix-prefix method: under-okan^nik, bare-trump-k-a.
Internal inflection is associated with tearing the root with affixes and is divided into transfixation and infixation. Infixation - when an affix is inserted inside the root. In ancient Indo-European languages there was an infix -p-: lat. vi-n-cio, but: vic-i. Transfixation - when affixes, joining the root, break it and break themselves (typical for Semitic languages). Usually Semitic roots consist of three consonants. The new grammatical meaning is conveyed with the help of different vowels inserted inside the root.
Apophony- a historical alternation of sounds used as a means of expressing grammatical meanings (both word forms and new words are formed): English. sing - sang - sung, song; Russian call - call - convene.
Question 47
The number of grammatical meanings available in the languages of the world is huge and cannot be accurately calculated, but the means of their expression are rather limited.
In some languages, to indicate new words or grammatical forms of the same word, the complete or partial repetition of a word or part of it is used. This method is called reduplication (doubling)(in Russian - white-white, barely, slightly).
Also widely used are official words(prepositions, postpositions, conjunctions, articles, particles, copulas). They cannot be members of a sentence and only perform a grammatical role. Prepositions, for example, by themselves or together with the ending serve as an indicator of the case form (especially important in languages where words are not inflected). In English, for example, the preposition to is an indicator of D.p., for / of - R.p., with / by - T.p., on / in / about - P.p. Postpositions are after significant words, for example, in the Finno-Ugric, Turkic languages there are no prefixes and prepositions at all, but only suffixes and postpositions. Conjunctions express coordinating relations between members of a simple sentence and, but, but, yes, etc.), and between parts of a complex sentence they can also express subordinating relations (when, if, although, to, etc.). There are articles in many languages, they express the category of certainty / indefiniteness, and sometimes gender and number. Particles serve to express different shades of meaning. For example, in Russian, the particle -sya / -s serves as the main means of expressing pledge relations. The ligaments, possessing forms of inflection, connect the predicate, expressed by the name or infinitive, with the subject (He will call me tomorrow. They were worried about his absence). In Russian, the link is usually used in the future and past tenses.
Addition as a grammatical method used to form new words by combining two or more roots. There are imaginary composites - they are formed by a simple juxtaposition of words (grain procurement, sofa bed, sale and purchase). Genuine compound words - those in which there is a change in meaning - wolfhound (large hunting dog), cutthroat (desperate person). In Russian, compound words with connecting vowels o / e - interfixes are most common. But there can be words without a connecting vowel - a two-year one. Among compound words, compound words stand out - salary, university, RF. Such words are called abbreviations. In other languages, this method is also used, for example, in Chinese it is the main one in the formation of derivatives.
suppletivism- this is the formation of word forms from different roots: a person - people, I go - I went. Some forms are suppletive: 1) the gender of nouns - a ram - a sheep, a bull - a cow, 2) the number of nouns - a child - children, 3) the tense of the verb - I go - went, 4) the type of the verb - speak - say.
No language uses only one way, but usually one way prevails. It depends on the structure of the language - synthetic or analytical.
48) Word order, intonation, stress as a means of expressing grams, meanings.
The number of grammatical meanings available in the languages of the world is huge and cannot be accurately calculated, but the means of their expression are rather limited.
The simplest, most economical and oldest means is word order. In those languages where significant words do not change (do not decline and do not conjugate), for example, English, French, partly German, word order is extremely important. The meanings and function of the members of a syntactic construction are determined by their position. A change of position entails a transformation of meaning in the entire structure. In languages of a synthetic structure (the so-called inflectional ones), the relations between words in a sentence are expressed by changing the grammatical forms of words, and changing the order of words plays a rather stylistic role. This word order is called free.
stress acts as an additional means of distinguishing grammatical forms and syntactic functions of words. In languages with single and fixed stress, it cannot be a grammatical mode. In the Russian language, where the stress is different and mobile, it serves: 1) to distinguish the lexical meanings of words - castle and castle, soar and soar, ugly and ugly; 2) the type of the verb - pour out - pour out, cut - cut, 3) the type and time - I recognize - I recognize, 4) the gender of nouns - peasants - peasants, 5) the gender and case of nouns - sides - sides, 6) case and number - mountains - mountains, hands - hands. An important role can be played by intonation. Not only sentences, but also their parts, and individual words differ in tone, melody. For example, in Serbian, the rise and fall of tone is a means of distinguishing between words and their forms. And in the language of the Indians living in Alaska, the tense forms of verbs are distinguished by the tone of the root vowel.
49) Analytical and synthetic languages.
In languages of the analytical system, syntactic relations are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by the order of words, functional words and intonation. There is a separation of functions: the lexical meaning is expressed by unchangeable significant words, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by purely external means (analytical, compound constructions). All languages of the isolating type are analytic. Prof. Polivanov attributed m agglutinative languages to them. Of the inflectional Indo-European languages, English, French, Danish, Bulgarian and some others are analytical.
In synthetic languages, syntactic relations are expressed by changing the significant words themselves, in the structure of which both lexical and grammatical meanings merge. The main grammatical methods are: affixation (including internal inflection), apophony and suppletivism. Typical synthetic languages were Greek, Gothic, Latin, Sanskrit, Old Church Slavonic, of modern ones - German, Lithuanian and most Slavic languages.
The name transfer mechanism is very simple - if necessary, to designate a denotation, you can use an existing word for this. When the weight-lifting device was created, its resemblance to the famous bird made it possible to use the name of the bird to refer to the technical device: crane, eng. crane and German Kran (from where the Russian crane comes from). As a result of the transfer of the name, the old word has a new (derived) meaning (i.e., when the name is transferred, the referents do not have common essential features, the volumes of the meanings of the words do not match).
There are two main types of name hyphenation − transfer by similarity and transfer by adjacency.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name to objects of a different kind or type according to the similarity of secondary features (color, shape, size, internal qualities, etc.).
The meanings of the following words developed by metaphorical transfer of the name:
Vulture vulture eagle - predatory man
Feeler insect antennae, tentacle - a careful question
Snail snail - slow person
branch tree branch - industry
bulb plant bulb - light bulb
star celestial body - famous actor, actress, singers, athletes
Eye eye - a hole in a needle for threading (and in Russian - an eye.
The side part of the building, according to the similarity of the position, m. called a wing. The names of body parts are transferred to different objects, and the parts of the body themselves can take on the names of objects. Many languages, for example, are characterized by such a metaphor - the head is called pot. In slang, you can often hear such transfers - carrot, ginger = red-haired boy, rat = who is spying and sneaking, nut, onion = head, saucers = eyes, hoofs = feet.
The metaphor is also based on an internal property (character traits, for example). A cunning person is called a fox, a clumsy person is called a bear. Such transfers sometimes turn proper names into common nouns: Herod "evil man" (after Herod, who ordered to exterminate all the babies of the country), king "by the name of Caesar", Don Juan, king (by the name of Charlemagne)
And vice versa, common nouns in proper names - a Pencil (pencil- the monument to J. Washington, shaped like a pencil).
The names of specific properties can be transferred to abstract ones, so there are figurative meanings of adjectives that we observe in such combinations - sweet life, bitter life, lofty thoughts (noble), low deed, dry presentation (compare: bitter weather, sweet sound = pleasant, gentle).
Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name to objects of a different kind due to the real connection between the objects (transfer by adjacency). With the development of meaning through metonymy, one and the same word can name a part and a whole, an object and its content, an object and the place of its location or production, an action and its result, an instrument and the result of its application, the creator and the thing created by him, etc.
English budget originally meant "money bag", then it began to mean "money spent by the government, budget."
cane reeds, reeds - a cane made of such material
coin wedge for minting coins - coin
Sable sable - sable fur, mink mink - mink fur
Silver metal - silverware, silver medal (a silver)
China(geograf name) country - porcelain from China
Tweed river - material originally from England
A Matisse– a painting by Matisse (originated from proper name)
Pereos, based on the generality of function, also belongs to metaphors.
Hand of a clock – the hand of a clock points to the figures on the face of the clock, and one of the functions of human hand is that of pointing to things.
Volt Italian physicist - unit of electrical voltage
Bobby founder of the modern English police system - English policeman
Winchester city in North America - rifle
A common type of metonymy in English is the naming of the result by action - washing 1) washing 2) linen (washed or prepared for washing, building 1) construction 2) building, growth 1) growth 2) tumor.
The same value can be the source for several derivatives. For example, from the meaning of the adjective tough hard, dense tough steak) derived values are formed persistent, hardy ( tough man), intractable (tough problem), stubborn (tough customer). Hard- in the sense of hard, hard hard hair was the starting point for the values difficult, demanding tension - hard work, harsh - be hard on smb.
Thus, the meanings of a word can be original and derived. Derived meanings are divided into generalizing and clarifying and figurative (metaphorically figurative and metonymically figurative).
