Fall of the Republic of Venice

The years 1492-94 became a turning point in world history, in the history of Italy and the history of Venice. The discovery of the New World in 1492 will soon affect the economy of all countries of the world. In 1494, King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, setting off a long series of military conflicts that turned Italy, previously an active subject of European politics, into a passive object, into a theater of operations where such powerful national powers as Spain clashed. and France. Spain, having gained the upper hand, imposed its guardianship on a number of small Italian states. Only Venice still manages to maintain its independence. “Perhaps never before has the attention of mankind been offered such an amazing example of historical inconsistency as Venice of the late 15th - early 16th centuries showed us. This power, essentially the same as other states of its time, stubbornly strives to go against the times and desperately tries with all its might to preserve the irrevocably passing past. It wins the struggle, which initially seemed hopeless, and continues its timeless existence until the end of the 18th century” (R. Roshno).

The invasion of Charles VIII into Italy and his victorious march to Naples itself, which most of all resembled a military parade, did not directly affect the Republic. As Philippe de Comyn writes in 1494, the Venetians were more inclined to "help" his sovereign than to "hinder" him. Indeed, Venice is trying to remain neutral, fearing that if the crusade conceived by the French king ends in failure, losing its positions in the Mediterranean, but even more afraid that in the event of military successes of this king on the continent, she will acquire an overly powerful neighbor: “ it is dangerous to enter into an alliance with such a great monarch,” writes Domenico Malipiero, “because with our support, he would not become our neighbor.”

Thus, in 1495 the Republic, following the logic of events, adjoins the existing anti-French coalition. In the Battle of Fornovo, the allied troops, most of whom were Venetians, won, but they did not intend to prevent the return of the enemy troops to France. Taking advantage of the situation, the Venetians capture Brindisi, Trani and Otranto. Having made an alliance with the rebellious Pisans, they help them defend themselves against Florence, whose rivalry in the Mediterranean is becoming dangerous for the Republic. The battles continue until 1498, however, without much result.

Louis XII, the successor of Charles VIII, is also eager to get involved in the Italian adventure; with him the Republic in April 1499 signs the Treaty of Blois. In case of victory, the King of France retains the long-desired Duchy of Milan, and promises the Venetians Cremona and the territories east of the Adda River to its confluence with the Po. In September, the Republic captures Cremona and announces its victory to the whole world, thus strengthening its "reputation". In this act, the passion that Machiavelli called "the passion for domination" was fully manifested. Indeed, taking advantage of the fall of Cesare Borgia, which occurred shortly after the death of his father, Pope Alexander VI, the Venetians wasted no time in taking a number of cities in the Romagna: Faenza, Rimini and Fano.

For refusing to let Maximilian of Austria, who was heading to Rome for the coronation, through their territories, the Venetians had to enter into an armed conflict with the empire. Soon they capture Gorizia and Trieste and manage to keep them for themselves even when signing a peace agreement in June 1508. Never before has the Terrafarm of the Republic been so vast!

The successor of Alexander VI on the throne of St. Peter - Julius II, nicknamed "terrible", on the one hand, demands the return of Romagna from Venice as a territory belonging to the Church, and on the other hand, wants to curtail the claims of the state in relation to the Venetian clergy (we are talking about tithe and appointment bishops). December 10, 1508 France, the German emperor, Spain, Florence and Ferrara conclude an alliance, called the League of Cambrai (in March 1509, Julius II joined it). Its goal is the dismemberment of the Venetian possessions on the mainland. Upon learning of this, Doge Leonardo Loredan, speaking before the Great Council, declares that in the event of a defeat, “we will lose a beautiful state, and hence the Great Council, and our entire free city, and calls on citizens to unite.

April 27, 1509 Julius II subjects the Republic to an interdict, but the authorities forbid the publication of a papal document in all territories subject to them.

On May 14, 1509, due to strife between the two condottieri placed at the head of the army, the Venetians suffer a crushing defeat at Agnadello. When the news of this reached Venice, “everyone,” according to Sanudo, “froze as if dead and plunged into great sorrow”; “everyone sobbed, Piazza San Marco was empty, the heads of the Collegium could not find a place for themselves, but our doge was most saddened; heartbroken, he sat in silence, and one might have thought that he had died. “Venice burst into tears and plunged into despair,” one of the French songs will say, which mentions the troubles of the Most Serene, where crowds of refugees poured after the defeat.

Soon Verona, Vicenza and Padua opened their gates to the imperial commissioners; the Neapolitan king regained the ports in Apulia; the Duke of Ferrara reoccupied Rovigo, Monselice and Polesine; the papal legate again entered into the confluence of the cities of Romagna. Only Treviso and Friuli resist. Coalition troops approach almost to the very shores of the lagoon. On February 24, 1510, Venice was forced to agree to the demands of Pope Julius II.

October 5, 1511 Venice enters the Holy League - an alliance created by the pope against France, joined by Spain and England. April 11, 1512 the French win at Ravenna, but lose the Milan region.

Gradually, thanks to the support of Francis I, who, having won a victory at Marignano (September 1515), recaptures Milan, the Republic regains its lost territories; the allies of the Venetians in this struggle are also peasants living on the mainland. Waging war involves a heavy burden of loss and expense. If we take, for example, Brescia, then the picture will look like this: from 1509 to 1512. it is in the hands of the French; in 1512 she returns to Venice for two weeks; then, from February 9 to October 28 of the same year, it is again French, and then until May 1513 - Spanish; in June, the region again passes to Venice; in the same month and until May 1516, it falls under the rule of Spain and only then finally departs to the Republic.

In 1517, all her mainland possessions returned to Venice; from the end of the 15th to the beginning of the 16th century. it does not openly express its territorial claims.

Until 1529, Venice remains true to the alliance she concluded with the French. The defeat of the army of Francis I at Pavia, which happened on February 25, 1525, plunges its citizens into confusion. Here is what the historian Paruta writes about this: “The great and outstanding victory of the Spaniards gave rise to great doubts and anxiety among the Venetians, for the French forces were defeated, and the other Italian powers were so weak and intimidated that only the citizens of Venice were able to defend the freedom of Italy from the might of the Empire."

In May 1526, Venice joins the alliance concluded in Cognac against Charles V. However, the forces of the emperor outnumber the forces of the allies, and in 1527 the troops of Charles V begin the siege of Rome, thereby causing outrage throughout the Christian world. In December 1529, in Bologna, the Republic signed a compromise agreement with the emperor. By relinquishing the cities of Romagna and Puglia, which she recaptured in 1528, she gives Charles complete freedom of action in Italy, and he, in turn, does not encroach on her own independence.

After 1535, i.e. after the death of the last Sforza, when the emperor becomes the ruler of Milan, Venice makes an attempt to prevent Spanish domination. In 1539, delivering a sermon in the church of the Frari affairs, Bernardino Ochino declares: “I look around all of Italy: there is no longer any fortress or city in it, which would not tremble, would not bow; and only this city still stands, proudly raising its head.

Throughout the second half of the 16th century, after the Spanish background passed to Philip II in 1557, who became the ruler of Spain, Naples, Milan, Franche-Comte and the Netherlands, Venice tries to stay away from hostilities that flared up again between Spain and France . The Franco-Spanish conflict ended in 1559 with the signing of an agreement in Cato Cambresi, according to which Italy came under the rule of Spain. Italy - but not Venice. The Serene Highness and her possessions on the mainland remained in the end the only truly free lands from any dependence.

However, the Republic began to suffer tangible losses. Recalling the traditional rite of betrothal of the Doge to the sea, Du Bellay writes: “These old cuckolds marry the sea, and it betrays them with the Turks.” As early as 1538, in his “Regrets”, the French poet ironically looks at Venice, faced with infidels and their victories in the eastern Mediterranean.

In August 1499 and June 1500, the fleet of the Most Serene, defeated by the Turks, could not prevent their capture of Lepanto. In 1502, Girolamo Priuli notes in his Diary: "The city of Venice is in an extremely difficult situation, for it is consumed by the fear of losing its overseas possessions, from which honors and benefits for the state stem." In 1503, Venice cedes Modon and Coron to the Turks and makes peace with them.

Turkish expansion continues during the reign of the sultans: Selim (1512-20) and Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-66). In 1516, the Turks were advancing in Egypt and Syria, in 1522 - on Rhodes and the coast of the Maghreb. In 1517 the Venetian fleet was attacked. The stubborn resistance of the defenders of the fortress of Corfu forces the infidels to retreat, but Nafplio and Monemvasia on the east coast of the Peloponnese are lost to Venice.

In 1571, after a long and stubborn struggle, Venice loses Cyprus. Nicosia and Famagusta plundered; Venetian officers and the conductor Marcantonio Bragadin were executed after severe torture.

The Christian world is outraged, and in May 1571 an agreement is made in Rome against the infidels; it is signed by Venice, Spain and the Papal States. The allies gather in the summer in Messina, the command is entrusted to Don Juan of Austria, Agostino Barbarigo and Sebastiano Venier, who led the Venetian fleet. On October 7, near Lepanto, the allies meet with the Turkish armada and inflict a crushing defeat on it. The losses of the infidels amount to more than 200 ships and 20 thousand people. Returning home, the Venetians celebrate their victory with a number of magnificent festivities and the construction of various monuments: a solemn procession in the church of Santa Giustina with the participation of the Doge and the Signoria is now becoming an annual event; the portal of the Arsenal is being rebuilt and decorated; the temple of Santi Giovanni e Paolo is being built; in the Doge's Palace, the voting room and the meeting room of the Collegium are decorated with paintings glorifying the valiant Venetian fleet.

But although in the funeral word pronounced in the Cathedral of San Marco in memory of those killed at Lepanto, Paruta declares with feeling: “We considered the Turks invincible, but this battle taught us that the Turks can also be defeated,” the triumph of the Christians was rather moral, than strategic importance. In March 1573, Venice, signing peace with the Sultan, confirmed its renunciation of Cyprus.

The 16th century on the shores of the lagoon ended with yet another tragedy. In 1575-77. a terrible plague epidemic claimed more than 50 thousand lives; among her victims is the painter Titian. In 1577, in fulfillment of his vow, the Doge laid the first stone of the future church of Il Redentore, built according to the design of Palladio and consecrated in 1592.

In the 16th century, Venice's economy stagnated. Back in 1490, Marino Sanudo describes a charming picture of prosperity on the berets of the lagoon “Everyone buys and lives like real lords ... And although nothing grows in this city, nevertheless, everything is in abundance in it, because everything comes here from everyone cities and parts of the world, especially what is consumed for food ... And all because everyone here is rich. However, after some time, a series of bankruptcies began in Venice: Balbi in 1495 (200 thousand ducats), Alvise Niketa in 1497 (10 thousand ducats), Alvise Grimani in 1498 (16 thousand ducats), Andrea Garzoni (150 thousand ducats) and Tommaso Lippomano (120 thousand ducats) in 1499. These bankruptcies were the first signs of an impending crisis in the Venetian economy. Similar things happen at the same time in other cities of the peninsula. What are the causes and background of this crisis?

In his Annals, Domenico Malipiero brings the news of the discovery of America by Columbus: “The armada of the Catholic king found a new country and conquered it on his behalf ... There she discovered deposits of various metals; the land in that region is extremely fertile; the rivers there are so rich that gold can be caught in them. Spices grow there... They found wood, aloe, cinnamon there.” A short time later, Vasco da Gama, having reached the Malabar coast, brought spices by sea to Lisbon, and he did not have to pay any duties, nor pass through Egypt or Venice. In August 1499, the news of the new journey reached Venice and caused considerable anxiety there. In 1502, a special commission was created, the task of which was “to prevent the king of Portugal from intercepting our gold and silver and destroying our trade and our prosperity,” and a proposal was submitted to the Senate: to dig a canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red seas. In 1506, the Council of Wise Men for Commercial Affairs was created, whose task is to consider the problems of foreign trade.

Columbus' voyage did not go unnoticed for Lisbon and for the development of its economy, especially since Portugal is much closer to London and the cities of the Hansa than Venice, for which the economic downturn that occurred as a result of this voyage turned out to be much less serious than she herself thought, and as historians have long believed. On the one hand, having gained direct access to sources of spices, the Portuguese merchants threw a huge amount of them on the market, and the prices for spices crept down; but the Portuguese could not sell everything, much less manage the market, which the Venetians had long and successfully dominated. On the other hand, the new competitors of the Serene Highness did not have access to other overseas goods (silks, cotton, carpets, corals), the supplier of which was still the Mediterranean countries of the Levant. Delivery of goods from this region resumed after 1520, and by 1560 even doubled.

In 1532, the last convoy of Venetian galleys sailed from Venice in the direction of Aigues-Mortes and London, and in 1569 the same convoy followed in the direction of Alexandria. Thus, it existed until the end of the 15th century. Venice's distributive function steadily declined over the next century.

With continental trade, things are completely different, as evidenced by the opening in 1508 of the new German Compound (Fondaco dei Tedeschi), reconstructed after a fire that happened shortly before that. In 1509, merchants trading on the continent "go to Venice to buy, because there is nothing in other places ... If they want to stock up on spices or other necessary products, they have to go to Venice."

Venice is an important center of international trade, it also processes raw materials into finished products: gold and silver products, glassware and dishes, mirrors, lace, dressed leather, fabrics embroidered with gold and silver thread. Arousing admiration among foreigners, Merceria, the main shopping street of the city, is a kind of showcase where all the above-mentioned products are exhibited in abundance.

Moving away from the sea, Venetian capitalism turned its attention to the production of wool. In 1523, Venice produces 4413 pieces of cloth; in 1532 - 6336, in 1550 - 11,558, and in 1602 - 28,729 pieces.

Finally, on the shores of the lagoon, a completely new, modern production is established, namely, book printing. There are at least five dozen publishers-printers in the city. Each publishes about twenty books, of which a dozen go on the market in at least forty copies, and thus Venice publishes three times as many books as Florence, Milan, and Rome put together.

In the XVI century. the financial condition of the Republic is still unfavorable. As Martino Merlini writes, “silver cannot be found at all, for everything has been taken down to the mint; the same can be said about gold; never before has this city been as poor as it is now.” The reason is that the war with the Cambrai League cost the Venetian treasury more than a million ducats. On the other hand, if in 1504 the navy consisted of 125 ships, then forty years later there were 155 of them.

The growth of public debts and taxes leads the government to the idea of ​​the need to reorganize the tax system, which has always been focused primarily on direct taxes and only secondarily on duties on goods. In 1524, positions of bank inspectors were established, whose task is to control the activities of banks. During the second half of the XVI century. the idea of ​​budgeting is gaining momentum. In 1571, the main sources of income of the Republic are distributed as follows: 700 thousand ducats are given by Venice itself, 800 thousand - by land on the continent and 500 thousand - by the colonies. Gradually it becomes clear that from now on the colonies bring almost as much as they themselves cost the treasury, and the main income comes from continental possessions.

Indeed, in the sixteenth century in Venice (and other areas of the Italian peninsula) there is a kind of return to the earth. In 1586, 2670 thousand people live in the mainland possessions of the Republic, and therefore they are quite densely populated: Verona has 52 thousand inhabitants, Brescia - 43 thousand, Padua - 34 thousand inhabitants. The investment of the Lady in this region, which is the market for Venetian products, is constantly increasing. Owning land allows you to feel insured against the vicissitudes of fate, it is profitable and prestigious. From the end of the century, the first sales of communal lands begin and associations for land reclamation and rational land use are created. The patricians build villas and palaces on the banks of the Brenta, near Vicenza and Verona, and also in the Treviso region. At the beginning of the XVII century. The Venetians own 38% of the land in the territory of Padua, 27% in the territory of Rovigo and 18% in the territory of Treviso. The mentality of the ruling class, which has always been a class of merchants, is gradually becoming the mentality of large landowners, and this is a completely different way of counting and thinking. At the end of the XVI century. a sluggish economy gives rise to “fatigue” of minds, an inability to perceive a new situation and fit into it.

The 17th century, the century of Louis XIV, the great epoch in France, became for Italy as a whole a century of political enslavement and economic decline. The position of Venice was not so unambiguous.

Born near Ancona, the papal official Traiano Boccalini, a determined opponent of the agreement between the pope and Spain, fled to Venice in 1612, where he published his satirical notes that could not be published in any other city in Italy. In them, he states: “What can be compared with Venice, with this world-famous market, a city that quenches curiosity and provides food for the eyes ... a safe haven for those who are forced to leave their homeland, fleeing the wrath of the sovereign?”

At the beginning of the XVII century. such a judgment was shared by a number of intellectuals who became guests of the city in the lagoon. This, however, does not mean that the city has become a stronghold of heresy. Indeed, in 1605, Botero, a political writer from Piedmont, declared that “there is no other place where churches and sermons are so diligently attended, the clergy are so revered, the religious cult has such a worthy administration, and church holidays celebrated with such pomp." But although Venice does not question the adherence to Roman doctrine, she zealously asserts her jurisdiction over her own clergy. Therefore, it inevitably comes into conflict with the papal power, called the "war of interdicts"; This duel riveted the attention of all Europe. An unbending defender of papal authority. Paul V in 1605 expressed a desire to call to Rome and arrange an examination for the new Patriarch of Venice, appointed by the Senate. In the same year, the Council of Ten takes severe measures against two Venetian clerics guilty of serious crimes and refuses to hand over the guilty to the church authorities. As a result, the pope imposes an interdict on the Republic. In May 1606, a retaliatory step follows: the papal message is declared to have no place, and the priests are ordered to continue to perform the sacraments. In order to disobey such an order, some orders - including the Jesuits - chose to leave the Republic.

The inspirer of the "protest" of the Most Serene was the servant Paolo Sarpi, appointed in January 1606 as an expert of the Republic on religious affairs. Representing the Venetian side, he supports the position according to which “sovereigns, by divine providence, which no human power can change, are called upon to establish worldly laws in the territory subject to them and within their jurisdiction.” The Roman side, however, adheres to the thesis of the absolute power of the pope, who has the right to dictate worldly laws to states, and - consequently - to cancel them. The "message war" that began between the two capitals was gaining momentum.

In Europe, no one wanted to bring matters to an armed conflict. France becomes the initiator of the negotiations in the person of Cardinal Joyeuse. Formally, Venice retains its prerogatives. The pope agrees not to use the interdict any longer as a means of state pressure. And although this manifestation of the independence of Venice was called the "swan song" of the Republic, nevertheless, it won her the admiration of many political thinkers and intellectuals of the time, as well as the fierce hatred of the papists. And yet unorthodox-minded individuals are gradually leaving the city ...

In secular affairs, Venice in the first half of the 17th century. also faces many challenges. The claims of the Habsburgs force her to take measures to ensure her safety. In 1616-17. on the borders of Friuli, she is opposed by the Austrians. An exhausting, but essentially inconclusive conflict, called the "Gradisca War" (roughly meaning "War of Laces"), ends in 1617 thanks to the mediation of the Spaniards. In 1623, the Republic forms an alliance with France and Savoy against Spain in order to protect the Valtellina valley, through which passes an important trade route to Central Europe. When the struggle for the inheritance of the dukes of Mantua begins, on April 8, 1629, Venice, together with France, the Papal States and Mantua, create an anti-imperial league. On May 25, 1630, the Venetian army was defeated, and the conductor fled shamefully from the battlefield. However, this single sad fact only emphasized the obvious incompatibility of the Venetian continental army with the armies of the major European powers. Since that time, in her European policy, Her Serene Highness begins to be openly guided by the principles of neutrality.

Venice experiences the most complications at sea. In the 17th century the war with the corsairs becomes one of the main components of the Mediterranean trade, a kind of its "leading industry". Berber, English and Dutch corsairs, knights of Malta and Slavs - Uskoks from the Croatian coast violently attack ships, capturing not only goods, but also people in order to sell them to slave traders.

The light and fast pirate ships of the Uskoks, which were secretly supported by the Habsburgs, caused the Venetians especially big troubles. According to the peace treaty signed in Paris after the Gradisca War, the Austrians undertook to put an end to piracy. Such a condition testifies to the loss of the Venetian fleet of its former power. "Venice is no longer able to wage war," writes one of Sarpi's students in 1617. The conclusion is reasonable, but overly pessimistic. This is evidenced by the results of military operations against the Turks. Accusing the Venetians of complicity with the Knights of Malta, who attacked Turkish ships, the Sultan in 1645 launched an attack on Crete and captured Chania. A conflict flares up that has dragged on for more than two decades; during this time, many bloody battles take place, in which generals and admirals differ, Christian states are outraged by the onslaught of the infidels, but, nevertheless, they rarely provide military assistance to Venice. On September 6, 1669, Francesco Morosini was forced to enter into negotiations with the Turks and then leave the island. This loss was not so much economic as moral and strategic value.

On the occasion of the attack on Vienna, undertaken in 1683 by the infidels. The Serene Highness enters into an alliance with the pope, the emperor and the Polish king. After a series of expeditions, she regains the Peloponnese. In January 1699, the Treaty of Karlovitsa recognizes the gains of the Republic in Morea, but obliges it to leave Lepanto and part of the Cyclades that remained under its rule, but neither the heroic defense of Candia nor the conquest of the Morea return Venice to the arena of big European politics.

In domestic politics, Venice also has enough difficulties, as evidenced by a number of events: several trials against politicians accused - falsely or not unreasonably - of conspiring with foreign countries, a constant threat to public safety due to the actions of thugs, whose services are now and then resorted to nobles , and the lack of firmness in the actions of the police punitive apparatus; the struggle waged by the patrician Renier Zeno against the Corner clan and its head, Doge Giovanni Corner (elected in 1625), accused of violating the doge's oath. In a word, there were good reasons to talk about a social crisis and the oblivion of civic virtues, although the latter were awakened when the Republic experienced difficult moments in the international arena.

In 1630-31. plague raged in Venice, claiming more than 46 thousand lives. This tragedy contributed to the deepening of the crisis in the economy of the Republic, already weakened by the fight against pirates and the endless military spending that fell upon it in the 17th century. At the end of the XV century. the city, according to Niccolo Contarini, was "prosperous as never before." In 1597, the Venetian consul in Aleppo was absolutely sure that his fellow merchants were superior to their competitors in everything. In 1610, the Senate rejected a proposal to grant freedom of trade to foreign merchants. But already in the month of July of the same year, "wise men of trade" reported that western trade and shipping had completely withered, and "Levantine trade was weak," and thus "one of the main trade branches of the city had practically disappeared."

The competition for dominance in the waters of the Mediterranean is intensifying. On the one hand, France, Holland and England receive significant fiscal privileges at Turkish customs, on the other hand, in the 17th century. large European trading companies arise and develop: the English East India and the Dutch West India companies (1617).

Venetian luxury goods production is also under pressure from foreign competitors, in particular French manufactories, although until the 18th century. actually Venetian products are in great demand in Europe. Based on a list of books banned by the Catholic Church (the so-called Index), dated 1595, 80 Venetian printing houses out of 125 had to close. From this we can draw a conclusion about the significant development of the publishing business in the Republic.

Continuing to neglect the investment of maritime trade, the capitalists are increasingly turning towards the Terrafarm. An example is Angelo Bragadin, who occupied at the beginning of the 17th century. podest post in Brescia. By tirelessly buying up fields and vineyards, he reduced his trading operations to a minimum, acquiring only a few bales of cotton and silk. The value of his property was distributed as follows: land was valued at 30,000 ducats, urban real estate at 20,000, and only 6,000 was invested in trade with the Levant.

Since 1550, in Polesina and the surroundings of Verona, they began to grow corn - a new, high-yielding crop. From the beginning of the XVIII century. it becomes the staple food of the Veneto peasants, and its plantations are replaced by meadows and forests. The state is also taking the initiative. In 1662 it abolished import duties on goods, but in 1684 it abandoned this measure as ineffective.

So, under the pressure of the increased competition of the Atlantic ports, the ports of Holland and the Mediterranean ports of France and Italy, Venice plunges into apathy. The importance of its port is gradually reduced to the level of local or regional, and its international role is gradually forgotten. It fades into the background “The branches and the crown still bear fruit,” notes one Venetian merchant in 1667, “but the roots have been rotting since the beginning of the century.”

Summing up the 17th century, we can say that the Republic retains its attractive, albeit one-sided image of a city-state: moreover, due to intricate and slow bureaucratic procedures, it is not able to quickly solve complex problems, vigorously and effectively carry out reforms.

The ignominious fall of the Republic in 1797 greatly darkens the image of Venice that took shape during the 18th century. First of all, we are talking about the fact that in the field of foreign policy this century began for the Most Serene (who now could be considered as such only outwardly) very sadly.

After the death of Charles II of Habsburg, who left no direct heirs, the War of the Spanish Succession begins. The France of Louis XIV opposes Austria, whose allies are England and Holland. Hostilities continued from 1701 to 1714. Despite the pressure from the belligerent countries, Venice remains neutral, but cannot prevent the enemy armies from violating its borders on land and at sea. During the signing of the Utrecht and Rastatt peace treaties (which in no way affected the territorial integrity of the Venetian possessions), the Ambassador of the Republic in his reports calls the line pursued by him a policy of armed neutrality, which Her Serene Highness will adhere to throughout the entire 18th century .; but the same ambassador, with astonishing perspicacity, remarked that the great powers did not intend to reckon with his fatherland.

In the East, the hostile attitude of the Turks does not allow Venice to remain neutral. December 9, 1714 The Turks declare war on the Republic. From June to October of the following year, i.e. in about a hundred days, Aegina, Corinth, Nauplion, Coron, Modon and Malvasia, as well as Suda and Spinalunga in Crete, fell into the hands of the aggressor. However, at the beginning of 1716, the resistance forces on Corfu, led by Marshal Schulenburg and Andrea Pisani, stopped the Turkish advance. The Treaty of Pozharevatsky signed in 1718 confirmed the loss of the Seas by the Venetians, retaining for them a number of positions in Dalmatia acquired during the war. From now on, the boundaries of the Venetian empire were finally determined; the centuries-old enmity between the Venetians and the Turks ceased; now Venice will live in peace - until the invasion of Napoleon.

Several expeditions sent against Barbary corsairs and pirates of all stripes in 1765-86, of course, do not count. Some expeditions ended successfully, but these successes are ephemeral; their main point is to make public opinion believe that the fleet and the state still retain their former power.

The openly proclaimed policy of neutrality puts the Republic in a position of isolation and costs her dearly. But she is also aware of what her leaders and envoys have already understood, namely, that from now on Italy is dominated by foreign powers (including Austria), and the only way to move forward is the way of non-intervention. . The Republic realizes that it has been reduced to the level of a regional state. As for domestic politics, the 18th century for Venice became a similar paralysis. Of course, there was no shortage of reform proposals, both institutional and administrative. In the 1760s patrician Angelo Quirini, carried away by the works of philosophers, reproaches the government for the power that it has endowed with state inquisitors (he considers it excessive). On August 12, 1716, he was arrested and sent as an exile to Verona. During one of the discussions that flared up in the Great Council, a number of minor and middle nobles demanded that the powers of the Council of Forty and the lawyer of the Commune be strengthened, but the opinion of the conservatives prevailed. It should be noted that the opposing sides both referred to the need to return to the old traditions...

In 1775-82. disputes still do not subside; the patricians Giorgio Pisani and Carlo Contarini, expressing regret over the deficit of the public treasury and the impoverishment of the masses, present a program that provides for the restoration of the former power of the Great Council, the reduction of the powers of the Council of Ten and state assistance to the impoverished patricians. In 1779, speaking before the Great Council, they set out what difficulties the Venetian economy was facing, talking about the extortion and inefficiency of the administration. They seek the appointment of "correctors", but they are limited to the adoption of very modest economic and regulatory measures. On May 31, 1780, Pisani and Contarini, accused of malice against the republican institutions, were expelled from the city: one to Verona, the other to Cattaro.

Stagnation is also observed in the administrative sphere. And although advisers and experts also work there, who are not devoid of either insight or innovative ideas, however, most of their proposals, after a long study, and sometimes even approval, are not implemented. Local officials resist any innovation, as do the indecisive and slow representatives of the ruling class, stagnant in their inertia. In other words, the old Venetian state was not amenable to reform, because it was impossible to preserve the old institutions and at the same time carry out reforms that would inevitably endanger the very existence of these institutions. In addition, there was no alternative political force, since there was no sufficiently developed bourgeois class, homogeneous and prepared ideologically and politically.

In the economic sphere, the situation was also not the best. At the end of the century, the total volume of trade was still quite high (20 million ducats), but, for example, the French trade turnover for the period from 1770 to 1790 tripled. The Venetian port competed with Livorno, Genoa, Trieste and Fiume (Rijeka), and it is gradually becoming a provincial staging post. Of course, some measures were taken to maintain the former greatness: new magistracies were created, large ships were built, well-armed, with a large crew, proposals were listened to (and then rejected) aimed at reforming the tax and customs systems, etc. Thus, the project to create a Chamber of Commerce on the model of the French was rejected due to the lack of support from companies and officials.

The Venetian industry is beginning to lose its positions under severe pressure from competitors - states with a large population, richer in raw materials and with a less costly production base. Decreased wool production the production of silk and linen is somewhat increased, but this growth is insignificant; glass production is stagnant; paper production is reduced, printing houses and publishing houses not only reduce output, but also lose in its quality (with the exception of the Remondini de Bassano enterprise). And only "tourism" continues to successfully develop

The Byzantine period ended in 1204, when, after the defeat of the Byzantine Empire and the division of its territory, Crete was given to Bogiface of Montferrat, who sold Crete to the Venetians for 1000 silver thalers along with other territories. Before the Venetians took possession of the island, Genoese pirates led by Errico Pescatore managed to capture it. They built fortresses at strategically important points, fortified the walls of Khandak, and up to 1212 managed to resist the Venetians, who in the end nevertheless won. The Cretans resisted, continually responding with uprisings and various movements for independence. One of these uprisings was crowned with success and the proclamation of Crete as an independent "Republic of St. Titus". However, the Venetians soon gained the upper hand again. Crete was divided into four administrative regions, the residences of which were located in the main cities, and into many provinces (castellania) with centers in powerful Venetian fortresses. Heraklion was renamed Candia, and continued to be the capital of Crete. The city walls were rebuilt, and in addition such buildings as the Doge's Palace, the Basilica of St. Mark and the Loggia - a meeting place for aristocrats.

Icon. Michael Damaskinos.

After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, many representatives of the Greek aristocracy and intelligentsia fled to Crete, which was under Venetian rule, thereby contributing to the flourishing of Byzantine culture and art here. Then a new direction appeared in painting - the so-called "Cretan school" with a tangible influence of the painting of Byzantium and the Italian Renaissance, whose representatives were Michael Damaskinos, Klondzas, John Kornaros. In recent years, Cretan literature also reached Venetian rule, the outstanding works of which are "Erophila" and "Panoria" by Vincenzo Hortadzisa, "The Sacrifice of Abraham" and the famous "Erotokritos" by Vincenzo Kornaros.

The Renaissance gave the world a large number of truly talented artists, sculptors and architects. And walking around Venice, visiting its palazzo and churches, you can admire their creations everywhere. With this material, with brief notes for the memory of some of the artists of the Venetian school, found on the Internet, I conclude the review of our trip to Venice.

It is believed that the heyday of the arts, called the Renaissance or the Renaissance, originates from the second half of the XIII century. But I will not aim at a complete review, but will limit myself to information about some Venetian masters, whose works are mentioned in my reports.

Bellini Gentile (1429-1507).

Gentile Bellini is a Venetian painter and sculptor. Bellini is a famous creative family, his father Jacopo Bellini and brother Giovanni Bellini were also artists. In addition to being born in Venice, no other information about the artist’s youth and early stages of the artist’s work has been preserved.

In 1466, Gentile Bellini finished painting the Scuola San Marco, begun by his father. His first known independent work is the painting of the doors of the organ of the Cathedral of San Marco, dated 1465. In 1474 he began work on large monumental canvases at the Doge's Palace. Unfortunately, they died in a fire in 1577.

From 1479 to 1451 he worked in Istanbul as a court painter to Sultan Mehmed II, created a series of paintings in which he tried to combine the aesthetics of the Italian Renaissance with the traditions of oriental art. After returning to his homeland, the artist continued to create genre and historical paintings with views of Venice, including in collaboration with other masters.

Paying tribute to the undoubted talent and influence of the painter, the specialists of the London National Gallery believe that he is noticeably inferior to his brother Giovanni Bellini.

Paying tribute to the undoubted talent and influence of the painter, the specialists of the London National Gallery believe that he is noticeably inferior to his brother Giovanni Bellini.

Bellini Giovanni (1430-1516).

Giovanni Bellini became a recognized master during his lifetime, had many prestigious orders, but his creative life, as well as the fate of his most important works, is poorly documented and the dating of most of the paintings is approximate.

Several Madonnas belong to the early period of the artist’s work, one of them, the “Greek Madonna” from the Brera Gallery (Milan), adorned the Doge’s Palace, and came to Milan “thanks” to Napoleon. Another theme of his work is the Lamentation of Christ or Pieta, the artist's reading of this scene became the prototype of a whole series of paintings with a half-figure of the dead Christ towering over the sarcophagus.

Between 1460 and 1464 Giovanni Bellinion was involved in the creation of altars for the church of Santa Maria della Carita. His work "Triptych of St. Lawrence", "Triptych of St. Sebastian", "Triptych of the Madonna" and "Triptych of the Nativity" are now in the Accademia Gallery, Venice. The next major work of the master is the polyptych of St. Vincenzo Ferrer in the Cathedral of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, consisting of nine paintings.

Over time, by the 1470s, Bellini's painting becomes less dramatic, but softer and more touching. This was reflected in the painting of the altarpiece from Pesaro with the scenes of the Coronation of Mary. Around 1480, Giovanni painted the painting "Madonna and Child with Six Saints" for the altar of the Venetian church of San Giobbe (Saint Job), which immediately became one of his most famous works. The next major work of the artist is a triptych with the Madonna and Saints Nicholas and Peter in the Cathedral of Santa Maria dei Frari.

1488 is dated "Madonna and Child with Saints Mark and Augustine and kneeling Agostino Barbarigo" for the church of San Pietro Martire in Murano. Researchers consider it a turning point in the work of Bellini, the first experience of the master in the field of tonal painting, which will become the basis of the work of Giorgione and other later Venetian masters.

The continuation and development of this creative line is the painting "The Holy Interview" (Venice, Academy Gallery). On it you can see how the light snatches the figures of the Madonna, St. Catherine and St. Magdalene, united by silence and sacred thoughts.

Giovanni Bellini also painted portraits, they are few in number, but significant in their results.

Giorgione (1476-1510).

Giorgio Barbarelli da Castelfranco (Giorgio Barbarelli da Castelfranco), better known as Giorgione (Giorgione) another famous representative of the Venetian school of painting was born in the small town of Castelfranco Veneto near Venice.

His creative path turned out to be very short - in 1493 he moved to Venice, becoming a student of Giovanni Bellini. In 1497, his first independent work appeared - "Christ Carrying the Cross", in 1504 he performed the altarpiece "Madonna of Castelfranco", the only painting for the church, in his native city of Castelfranco. In 1507-1508 he was involved in the fresco paintings of the German Compound. He died in October-November 1510 during the plague.

From the earliest works of the master, the main feature of Giorgione's art is manifested - a poetic idea of ​​the wealth of life forces lurking in the world and man, the presence of which is revealed not in action, but in a state of universal silent spirituality.

Giorgione paid great attention to the landscape, which was not just a background for the figures in the foreground, but played an important role in conveying the depth of space and creating the impression of the picture. In the later works of Giorgione, the main theme of the artist's work was completely determined - the harmonious unity of man and nature.

The artistic heritage of Giorgione had a great influence on many Italian artists, some of Giorgione's unfinished works were completed after his death by Titian.

Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570).

Jacopo Sansovino is a Renaissance sculptor and architect. Born in Florence, worked in Rome, made a huge contribution to the architecture of Venice.

In 1527, Sansovino left Rome, intending to go to France, but lingered in Venice. Here Titian took him into circulation, and the contract for the restoration of the main dome of the Basilica of San Marco forced him to abandon his plans. Soon Sansovino became the chief architect of the Republic of Venice.

Sansovino made a huge contribution to the architecture of Venice. Under his leadership, the building of the Library Marchian on St. Mark's Square, Loggetta, the Church of San Gimignano, the Church of San Francesco della Vigna, the Church of San Giuliano, the facade of the Palazzo Corner on the Grand Canal, the Tombstone of Doge Francesco Venier in the Church of San Salvador were built.

As a sculptor, Sansovino sculpted the statues of Mars and Neptune, installed on the main staircase of the Doge's Palace. Sansovino died in November 1570 in Venice.

Titian (1490-1576).

Titian Vecellio (Tiziano Vecellio) - Italian painter, the largest representative of the Venetian school of the High and Late Renaissance. The name of Titian is on a par with such Renaissance artists as Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.

Titian painted pictures on biblical and mythological subjects, he became famous as a portrait painter. He was commissioned by kings and popes, cardinals, dukes and princes. Titian was not even thirty years old when he was recognized as the best painter in Venice.

This master deserves much more than a few lines in this article. But I have an excuse. First of all, I write primarily about the Venetian artists, and Titian is a phenomenon not only of Italian, but also of a global scale. Secondly, I write about worthy Venetian artists, but whose names may not even be very well known to a wide circle, but everyone knows about Titian, a lot has been written about him.

And it would be strange not to mention him at all. I chose the pictures at random, I just liked them.

Andrea Palladio (1508-1580).

Andrea Palladio, real name Andrea di Pietro, is a late Renaissance Venetian architect. The founder of the direction "Palladianism", as an early stage of classicism. His style is based on strict adherence to symmetry, taking into account perspective and borrowing the principles of classical temple architecture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Probably the most influential architect in the history of architecture.

Born in Padua, in 1524 he moved to Vicenza, worked as a carver and sculptor. As an architect he worked throughout the region. He got acquainted with many outstanding monuments of Roman antique and Renaissance architecture during trips to Verona (1538-1540), Venice (1538-1539), Rome (1541-1548; 1550-1554) and other cities. The experience and creative principles of Palladio were formed both as a result of the study of Vitruvius and the study of architecture and treatises of architects of the 15th century. Since 1558 Paladio has worked mainly in Venice.

In Venice, Palladio, commissioned by the Church, completed several projects and built a number of churches - San Pietro in Castello, the cloister of the church of Santa Maria della Carita (now the Academy Museums), the facade of the churches of San Francesco della Vigna, San Giorgio Maggiore, Il Redentore, Santa Maria della Presentazione, Santa Lucia. Palladio designed the facades of contemporary churches following the example of ancient Roman temples. The influence of temples, usually in the form of a cross, later became his hallmark.

Palladio built palazzos and villas in and around the city. Designed by Palladio always takes into account the peculiarities of the environment, the building should look equally good from all sides. In addition, the architecture of Palladio provides for porticos or loggias, giving the owners to contemplate their lands or surroundings.

The early Palladio is characterized by special windows, which are usually called Palladian in his honor. They consist of three openings: a large central opening with an arch on top and two small side openings separated from the central one by pilasters.

In 1570, Palladio published his Four Books on Architecture, which had a great influence on many architects throughout Europe.

Palm the Younger (1544-1628).

Giacomo Palma the Younger (Palma il Giovine), a well-known Venetian artist with a significantly developed technique, no longer had the talent of his predecessors. Initially worked under the influence of Tintoretto, then for eight years he studied Raphael, Michelangelo and Caravaggio in Rome.

Nevertheless, he is a Venetian artist and his paintings adorn the palazzos and temples of Venice, they are in private collections and in museums around the world. His best works are "Christ in the arms of the Blessed Virgin" and "Apostles at the tomb of the Virgin Mary."

Tiepolo (1696-1770).

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo lived and worked in a different era, but also left a mark on the culture of Venice. Tiepolo is the largest artist of the Italian Rococo, specializing in the creation of frescoes and engravings, perhaps the last of the galaxy of great representatives of the Venetian school.

Tiepolo was born in March 1696 in Venice, in a family far from creativity. His father was a skipper, a man of simple origin. He managed to study painting, art historians note that the Renaissance masters, in particular Paolo Veronese and Giovanni Bellini, had the strongest influence on him.
At the age of 19, Tiepolo completed his first painting commission - the painting "The Sacrifice of Isaac."

From 1726 to 1728, Tiepolo worked on commission from an aristocrat from Udine, painting the chapel and the palace with frescoes. This work brought him fame and new orders, making him a fashionable painter. In later years he worked extensively in Venice, as well as in Milan and Bergamo.

By 1750, pan-European fame came to the Venetian painter, and he created his central European work - painting with frescoes of the Würzburg residence. Upon his return to Italy, Tiepolo was elected president of the Padua Academy.

Tiepolo ended his career in Spain, where in 1761 he was invited by King Charles III. Tiepolo died in Madrid in March 1770.

And I am completing a series of articles about Venice, its sights and works of art. I really hope that in the near foreseeable future I will visit Venice again, use my notes and more than make up for what I did not have time to do on this trip.

Venice is a city in northern Italy, geographically occupying a group of islands. The climate in Venice is temperate, similar to the climate of the Crimea, the summers are hot and the winters are mild.

The history of Venice is full of ups and downs. Today we will learn how the city on the water arose.

The name of the city comes from the Veneti tribe, who inhabited the territory of the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea at the time. This territory was captured by the Romans and named Aquileia. Later, Aquileia became the administrative center of the province of Venetia. In 402 the province was ravaged by the Visigoths. According to legend, Venice was founded by the inhabitants of the province, who fled from the Goths on March 25, 421. Settlement began with the Rialto Islands and continued during the decline of the Roman Empire. The main source of income for the inhabitants of the islands was fishing, salt mining and coastal swimming.

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While the tribes of the Huns, Lombards and Ostrogoths ravaged the cities of the Western Roman Empire, Venice, thanks to its isolated position and the fact that the inhabitants learned to build houses on stilts and live on water, avoided the fate of mainland cities. The invasion of militant barbarians led to the resettlement of wealthy mainlanders to the islands.

The result of this was a rapid increase in trade and transportation of goods, as the runaway nobility invested in these industries.

In the 6th century, Venice had the strongest fleet on the Adriatic, which supported Emperor Justinian in the war of the Eastern Roman Empire with the Ostrogoths. In gratitude, Byzantium granted Venice its protection and trading privileges. The Venetians elected the first Doge in 697. For more than 1000 years, 117 doges have been in power in Venice.

Due to its unique location, Venice was a trade and transport hub through which silk, rice, coffee and spices, which at that time cost more than gold, reached Europe.

Middle Ages and trade

The competent policy of Doge Pietro Orseolo II, the Morganist marriages, the help of Byzantium provided by Venice against the Saracens, further increased the privileges of the Venetian merchants. The "golden bull" given by Byzantium halved the duty from the Venetian ships coming to Constantinople. During the Crusades, Venice increased its wealth through loans to the crusaders and ship charters. With varying success for almost two centuries, Venice waged wars with Genoa, which were based on trade rivalry. In the 12th century, the first banks were opened in Venice. Venetian sailors were the first to insure their cargo.

In the XII-XIII centuries, the shipyards of Venice began to build large ships with a displacement of up to 200 tons.

To increase its economic power, the Venetian Republic annexed mainland territories, called terra farms. In 1494, the Venetian Luca Paciolli systematically described double-entry bookkeeping, which is successfully used in the modern world.

decline

From the 15th century, when great geographical discoveries were made, Venice lost its positions to Portugal, Spain, Holland and England. By the 18th century, Venice had lost its former power, most of the mainland possessions passed to Austria. But the city itself radiated splendor. During this period, gambling and prostitution became widespread in Venice.

On May 1, 1797, Napoleon declared war on Venice. The Grand Council decided to fulfill all the requirements, on May 12, Doge Ludovico Manin abdicated.

For the first time in over a thousand years, Venice lost its independence.

The city's economy was undermined by the French continental blockade. But time passed, in 1869 the Suez Canal was opened, a new port was built in Venice, and the city became a popular place to start traveling to the East. The tourist business is developing, annual international art exhibitions are held in Venice, since 1932 the Golden Lion International Film Festival has been held.

The last of the Italian cities, not earlier than the middle of the 15th century, Venice was imbued with the ideas of the Renaissance. Unlike the rest of Italy, she lived it in her own way. A prosperous city avoiding military conflicts, a center of maritime trade, Venice was self-sufficient. Its masters kept themselves apart to such an extent that when the Florentine Vasari in the middle of the 16th century began to collect material for the “Lives of the Most Famous Painters, Sculptors and Architects”, he was unable to obtain details of the biographies of people who lived a century earlier, and united everyone in one short chapter. .


Bellini. "Miracle at St. Lawrence Bridge". From the point of view of Venetian artists, all the saints lived in Venice and sailed on gondolas.

The masters of Venice did not seek to study ancient ruins in Rome. They much more liked Byzantium and the Arab East, with which the Venetian Republic traded. In addition, they were in no hurry to renounce medieval art. And the two most famous city buildings - St. Mark's Cathedral and the Doge's Palace - are two beautiful architectural "bouquets": the first one contains the motifs of Byzantine art, and the second coexists with a medieval lancet arch and an Arabic pattern.

Leonardo da Vinci, the great Florentine, condemned painters who were too fond of the beauty of color, considering relief to be the main advantage of painting. The Venetians had their own opinion on this matter. They even learned how to create the illusion of volume, almost without resorting to color and shadow, but using different shades of the same color. This is how "Sleeping Venus" by Giorgione is written.

Giorgione. "Storm". The plot of the film remains a mystery. But it is clear that the artist was most interested in the mood, the state of mind of the character at the present, in this case, the pre-storm moment.

Artists of the Early Renaissance painted paintings and frescoes with tempera, invented in antiquity. Oil paints have been known since antiquity, but painters were imbued with sympathy for them only in the 15th century. The Dutch masters were the first to improve the technique of oil painting.

Since Venice was built on islands in the middle of the sea, the frescoes were quickly destroyed due to the high humidity of the air. The masters could not write on the boards, as Botticelli wrote his Adoration of the Magi: there was a lot of water around, but little forest. They painted on canvas with oil paints, and in this they were more like contemporary painters than other Renaissance painters.

Venetian artists treated science coolly. They did not differ in versatility of talents, knowing only one thing - painting. But they were surprisingly cheerful and gladly transferred to the canvas everything that pleased the eye: Venetian architecture, canals, bridges and boats with gondoliers, a stormy landscape. Giovanni Bellini, a famous artist in his time in the city, was carried away, according to Vasari, by portrait painting and so infected his fellow citizens with it that every Venetian who reached any significant position was in a hurry to order his portrait. And his brother Gentile seemed to shock the Turkish Sultan to the depths of his soul by painting him from nature: when he saw his “second self”, the Sultan considered it a miracle. Titian painted many portraits. Living people were more interesting to the artists of Venice than ideal heroes.

The fact that Venice was delayed with innovations turned out to be a good thing. It was she who preserved, as best she could, the achievements of the Italian Renaissance in the years when it had faded in other cities. The Venetian school of painting became a bridge between the Renaissance and the art that came to replace it.