Having become acquainted with how complex the process of perception is, we can easily understand that it proceeds differently for different people. Each person has his own individual "manner" to perceive, his usual ways of observing, which are explained by the general features of his personality and the skills that have been created in the course of his life.
Let us list the most characteristic signs in which individual differences in perception and observation can be expressed.
Some people are inclined in the process of perception and observation to pay attention mainly to the facts themselves, others to the meaning of these facts. The former are mainly interested in description, the latter in explaining what they perceive and observe. Perception and observation of the first type are called descriptive, the second type - explanatory.
These typological differences are largely explained by the peculiarity of the relationship between the two signal systems. The inclination and ability for an explanatory type of observation are associated with the relatively greater role of the second signal system.
There is a very important difference between objective and subjective types of perception. Objective perception is a perception characterized by accuracy and thoroughness, which is little influenced by the observer's preconceived thoughts, desires and mood. A person perceives the facts as they are, without adding anything from himself and little resorting to conjecture. Subjective perception is characterized by opposite features: what a person sees and hears are immediately joined by images of the imagination and various assumptions; he sees things not so much as they really are, but as he wants them to be.
Sometimes the subjectivity of perception is expressed in the fact that a person's attention is directed to those feelings that he experiences under the influence of perceived facts, and these feelings obscure the facts themselves from him. It is not uncommon to meet people who, no matter what they talk about, most of all talk about their own experiences, about how they got excited, frightened, moved, and very little can be said about the events that caused all these feelings.
In other cases, the subjectivity of perception is manifested in the desire to form a general impression of the observed fact as soon as possible, even if there were not sufficient data for this. This feature is clearly revealed in experiments with a tachistoscope, when a word is shown for such a short period of time that it is obviously impossible to read it in its entirety. For example, the word "desk" is shown. With an objective type of perception, a person first reads "kont"; at the second indication, he can already read “offices” and, finally, after the third indication - “desk”. The process of perception is quite different for a representative of the subjective type. After the first showing, he reads, for example, “basket”, after the second - “castor oil”, after the third - “desk”.
In characterizing individual differences in perception and observation, the feature called observation is of the utmost importance. This word denotes the ability to notice signs and features in things and phenomena that are essential, interesting and valuable from any point of view, but little noticeable and therefore eluding the attention of most people. Observation is not limited to mere ability to observe. It involves curiosity, a constant desire to learn new facts and their details, a kind of "hunting for facts." Observation is manifested not only during those hours when a person is specially engaged in observations in a laboratory, museum, at an observation post, etc.
We call observant a person who is able to notice valuable facts “on the go”, in any situations of life, in the course of any activity. Observation implies a constant readiness for perception.
Observation is a very important quality, the value of which affects all areas of life. It is especially necessary in certain types of activity, for example, in the work of a scientist. No wonder the great Russian scientist I.P. Pavlov made the inscription on the building of one of his laboratories: “Observation and observation”.
Without observation, the work of a writer-artist is impossible: it enables the writer to accumulate those stocks of life impressions that serve as material for his works.
Review questions
1. What is perception and how does it differ from sensation?
2. What are the physiological basis of perception?
3. List the conditions on which the grouping (grouping) of individual spots and lines in visual perception depends.
4. What is the significance of past experience for perception?
5. What is called an illusion?
6. Explain the illusions depicted in fig. 12 and 13.
7. What is called observation?
8. List the conditions on which the quality of observation depends.
Chapter V. ATTENTION
General concept of attention
Attention is the focus of consciousness on a particular object. The object of attention can be any object or phenomenon of the external world, our own actions, our ideas and thoughts.
I am reading a book and am completely occupied with the content of the story; I hear conversations going on in the room, but I don't pay attention to them. But then one of those present began to tell something interesting, and I notice that my eyes are automatically running over the lines of the book, and my attention has turned to the conversation.
And first and then I simultaneously heard the conversation and read the book. But the organization of my mental activity was completely different in both cases. At first my consciousness was directed to understanding what was being read; the content of the book was in the center, and the content of the conversation was on the periphery, on the edge of consciousness. Then consciousness went to listen to the conversation; the conversation became the center of consciousness, and the reading of the book was at the edge of it. My attention, we say, has shifted from reading a book to listening to a conversation.
As a result of the direction of consciousness on a certain object, it is recognized clearly and distinctly, while all other stimuli acting at the same time are experienced more or less vaguely and indistinctly. At the time when my attention was occupied by the book, I perceived its content with complete clarity, but I heard the conversation vaguely, as they say, "out of the corner of my ear." If I were suddenly asked what the conversation was about, I would probably be able to reproduce only fragments of phrases that were little connected with each other. But the matter immediately changed as soon as my attention shifted from the book to the conversation. Now I perceive the content of the conversation with complete clarity, and from the book only vague shreds of thoughts reach me, although my eyes continue to read.
In the phenomena of attention, the selective nature of consciousness is revealed: if a person pays attention to some objects, then he is thereby distracted from others.
Attention cannot be called a special mental process in the same sense as we call perception, thinking, remembering, etc., special processes. At every moment of his life, a person either perceives something, or remembers something, or thinks about something or dreams about something. But there cannot be a moment when a person is busy with the process of attention. Attention is a property of the psyche, it is a special side of all mental processes.
and ways of observing. We are talking about their allocation in the statistics. We propose to first consider the types of observation that are used in this branch of knowledge. The need to choose a data collection option in it is determined by the fact that there are several types of observation. They differ mainly in the way in which facts are taken into account over time. From this point of view, the following types of observation are distinguished: systematic, periodic and one-time.
Systematic, periodic and one-time observation
Systematic observation, which is carried out continuously and as signs of the phenomenon of interest appear, is usually called current. It is carried out on the basis of primary documents containing the necessary information for a fairly complete characterization of the phenomenon.
Periodic monitoring is carried out at regular intervals. An example is
If the observation is carried out from time to time, there is no strict periodicity, or it has a one-time character, we are talking about a one-time observation.
Non-continuous and continuous observation
Types of observation in statistics are distinguished taking into account the difference in information in terms of the completeness of coverage of the population. Distinguish in connection with this discontinuous and continuous. The latter is called one that takes into account all units of the studied population, without exception. However, it is not always expedient and possible to organize it, especially when it comes to product quality control. Continuous observation in this case leads to the fact that the mass of products of enterprises is excluded from the sphere of use. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out partial (non-continuous) observation. It takes into account only a part of the units of the population and gives an idea of the phenomenon as a whole, its characteristic features.
Continuing to consider the forms, types and methods of observation, we note that non-continuous observation has the following advantages:
1) much less communication and labor costs are required compared to continuous, since the number of surveyed units decreases;
2) it is possible to collect data according to a wider program and in a shorter period of time in order to comprehensively disclose within the given limits the features of the population of interest to us, to carry out its deep study;
3) non-continuous observation data are used to control materials obtained from continuous;
4) this species must be representative (representative).
Selection of units in non-continuous observation
Non-continuous observation is deliberately oriented towards taking into account a specific part of the units, which makes it possible to obtain generalizing stable characteristics of the population as a whole. In the practice of statistics, various types of observation methods are used. At the same time, the quality of a non-continuous one, of course, is inferior to the results obtained with a continuous one. However, in some cases only partial observation is possible.
The units to be studied are selected in such a way that, based on the data obtained from them, a correct idea of the phenomenon of interest as a whole is formed. Therefore, one of the main features of non-continuous observation is that the selection of population units is organized in the following ways:
monographic;
main array;
Selective;
Questionnaire.
Main array way
The selection of units of a certain population, which prevail according to the trait under study, involves the method of the main array. However, it is not so often used when a non-continuous view is used, and this method of observation does not ensure the selection of precisely those units that would represent the totality as a whole, all its parts. Selection with the help of the main array is made when the most significant, largest populations are taken, which prevail according to the trait under study in their total mass.
Selective observation
In order to obtain a characteristic of the population as a whole in terms of its units, which is used based on the principles of sampling. In this variant, the random nature of the selection guarantees the safety of the results obtained and prevents their bias.
Monographic description
Let us supplement the types of observation with a monographic description. It is a specific kind of observation in statistics. This is a detailed study of a single typical object that is interesting from the point of view of the population as a whole.
These are the main types of non-continuous observation.
General population and sample
The generalizing indicators of the population in the sampling method are established on the basis of some part of it (rather small - about 5-10%). At the same time, the set from which the selection of this part of the units is carried out is usually called the general set. The part of the units that was selected is called the sampling set (in other words, the sample). When using the sampling method, research is carried out with minimal costs of funds and labor and in a shorter time. This reduces registration errors and improves responsiveness.
Application of the sampling method in practice
Describing the main types of observation, one cannot but dwell in more detail on the selective one, which is very popular. It is only possible when only destructive can be realized. This type is common in departmental and state statistics (the study of the budget of the families of employees, peasants, workers, as well as housing conditions). It is also popular in trade (the effectiveness of new forms of its conduct, the demand for goods from the population), etc.
The sampling method is, in fact, a large one that differ significantly from each other. As a rule, they are based on the principle of random selection from the general population.
Examples of using the sampling method
Examples of types of observation allow you to visually demonstrate their use. Here are some examples of sampling, and you will better understand its features. It is he who is most theoretically developed today from discontinuous ones, since he is based on the principle of random selection. Each unit in the population at random selection has the same probability of being included in the sample. In a lottery draw, for example, this principle applies because there is an equal chance of winning for all tickets. The draw also uses random selection. If 1,000 out of 10,000 schoolchildren are selected for the purpose of studying their performance, then this can be done as follows: write the names of the schoolchildren on separate sheets of paper and blindly pull out 1000.
Non-repeating and re-selection
Both non-repeated and repeated can be random selection. In practice, non-repetitive is most often used, that is, the unit that fell into the sample is not returned back to the general population, which means that the number of the latter is constantly decreasing. Lottery draws follow this pattern. The selected unit, when re-selected, is returned back to the general population. Consequently, the number of the latter remains unchanged during the sampling process. If we turn to our example with schoolchildren, we can note the following: in this case, if a sheet with a surname was included in the number of randomly selected ones, it would again come back and again could fall into the sample.
Selection methods by experts
It is very important that no factors, such as the commission organizing the survey or individuals, be able to influence. In other words, it is necessary that the principle of random selection be respected. However, in practice, its implementation is often difficult. There are areas of statistics in which expert selection methods predominate. This situation is due to various circumstances. For example, it takes place when selecting goods for the calculation of price indices or when forming the composition of "baskets" for assessing the cost of living. In such cases, the rejection of the random selection method can significantly increase the accuracy. However, in this case, the objectivity of the study is lost, and sometimes various types of observation errors occur, since everything depends in this case on the qualifications of the expert.
Mechanical (systematic) selection
Often in practice, mechanical (systematic) selection is used. For example, out of 10,000 schoolchildren, a thousand should be selected. In this case, they do this: all the guys are arranged in alphabetical order, and then every tenth of them is selected.
Since the interval in this case is equal to 10, a 10% selection is made (10000 divided by 1000). If the third student is in the top ten (you can choose him by drawing lots), in this case the 13th, 23rd, 33rd ... 9993rd will be selected. With systematic selection, as we see, the general population is mechanically divided into a number of groups, and one unit is taken from each (in our example, one student). It should be noted that mechanical (systematic) selection is always non-repetitive. It should also be emphasized that the selected units with it are distributed evenly throughout the entire population.
Methods of Observation in Statistics
It is necessary to distinguish between methods and types. The latter we have just considered, we now turn to the study of methods. The fact is that the varieties of observation can also be distinguished regardless of the ways and sources of obtaining primary information. From this point of view, a distinction is made between documentary observation, questioning and direct observation.
Direct observation is such an observation that is carried out by counting, measuring the values of certain signs, by taking instrument readings by the persons who carry it out (they are called registrars).
Due to the fact that it is impossible to apply other methods and types of statistical observation, quite often it is carried out using a survey on a specific list of questions. Answers are recorded in a special form. There are, depending on how they are received, correspondent and forwarding, as well as a method of self-registration. Let's briefly describe each of them.
Forwarding is carried out by a special person (forwarder, counter) orally. This person completes the survey form or form.
The correspondent method is organized by sending survey forms to a certain circle of persons prepared in an appropriate way (they are called correspondents). These people, according to the agreement, must fill out the form, and then return it to the organization. The self-registration survey checks whether the forms have been completed correctly. As with the correspondent method, the questionnaires are filled in by the respondents themselves, however, the collection and distribution of them, as well as the control of the correct filling and instruction, are carried out by counters.
Forms of observation in statistics
Considering the forms, methods, types of statistical observation, we did not talk only about the forms. There are three of them: a register, specially organized monitoring and reporting. As you can see, the types and forms of statistical observation are not the same thing. You should understand the difference between them.
Reporting is the main form of observation. With its help, state statistics bodies receive information from organizations and enterprises in the form of reporting documents signed by responsible persons.
Specially organized observation is the collection of information organized by the statistical authorities to study phenomena not covered by reporting or for a deeper study of reporting data, their clarification and verification. It is carried out in the form of various surveys and censuses.
We have described almost all the main methods, types and forms of statistical observation. Only the last form remains - registers. It takes place in the case of continuous monitoring of processes that take place for a long time, which have a certain beginning, development and end. The facts of the state of the units of the population are continuously fixed. In statistical practice, business registers and population registers are distinguished. The latter represent a regularly updated and named list of the country's inhabitants. The register of enterprises contains enterprises with various types of economic activity and the values of certain characteristics for each unit.
So, we have considered the forms, methods, types of statistical observation. Of course, we touched on them only briefly, but we noted the most important.
The technique represents a specific set of operations and tools that allows characterizing one or another side of the object under study in accordance with the research method.
Methods of psychological research can be divided into two groups; methods of a high level of formalization, standardized (tests, questionnaires, psychophysiological methods) and methods of little formalized, clinical (observation, surveys, analysis of activity products).
All methods are subject to the following requirements:
1) how wide is the range of differences (differentiating possibilities) revealed by the method;
2) what is the degree of stability, stability of the results obtained (reliability);
3) to what extent the psychological indicators of the methodology correspond to the characteristics of human behavior (validity);
4) how subtly the technique reacts to the slightest changes in the estimated property that occur during the study (accuracy).
Observation Method is one of the data collection methods along with other methods (survey, experiment, analysis of activity products, etc.). Observation was and is now the main method of psychology, sociology, social anthropology.
E.V. Morozova offers the following definition of the method of observation: "... a method of visual recording of various human states, social and natural phenomena, physical phenomena. Its functional purpose is to penetrate into the content, the variety of internal and external relations of these objects through external characteristics. In each individual case, the qualitative features of the observer and the fixed object determine a specific measure of cognitive reliability.».
E.A. Klimov believes that the method of observation in psychology is a system of provisions on the essence and specifics of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations as a method of scientific research, on the instrumental equipment, on the structure and types of activities of a psychologist in the role of an observer».
The method of observation is understood as "a subject-represented system of means and processing of empirical data, which is adequate to a certain limited range of tasks."
The concept of observation is widely used in communication, therefore, everyday, everyday understanding of observation is common. The observer-researcher differs from the observer in the everyday sense of the word primarily in that it has a cognitive goal, makes the observation process indirect, has clear tasks, plans the observation according to the appropriate procedure, fixes the observation, and can check the information received (for validity, etc.). etc.), i.e. control surveillance.
Thus, it is necessary to highlight the main differences between scientific (professional) observation and ordinary:
1) scientific observation has goals and objectives;
2) scientific observation is planned according to a premeditated procedure;
3) data obtained as a result of scientific observation are recorded in protocols according to a certain system;
4) the information received should be controllable for validity and stability.
Scientific observation is possible only through the allocation of certain units of activity, which are assigned a specific name. These units are:
a) limit the process of observation to a certain framework;
b) allow you to choose a specific description language and a method for fixing observational data;
c) allow to systematize the process of observation.
In the field of psychology, observables are:
1. The behavior of individuals.
2. Someone else's activity, external forms of its course.
3. Linguistic consciousness of other individuals, expressed in their speech.
4. Expressive forms of emotional states.
5. Personality traits, manifested in her actions, the biographical path of the personality, etc.
As a subject of observation in the field of psychology, one usually singles out:
a) verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior - of an individual, a group or several groups in a certain social environment and situation;
b) speech acts, their content, sequence, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of semantics, vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, synchronization;
c) expressive movements, expression of the face, eyes, body, sounds;
d) movements, movements and immobile states of people.
Composition of the observation procedure:
1) definition of the purpose and objectives of the observation (what is the observation for, for what purpose is the observation used?). The goal determines the direction of observation;
2) choice of object, subject and situation (what should be observed, in what situation?);
3) choosing the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most provides the collection of the necessary information (how to observe: announcing this to the subject or covertly, included or not included observation, etc.?);
4) the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to record the observed phenomena: using shorthand, kinetography methods, audio, video recordings?);
5) detailed recording of the information received using the selected registration means;
6) monitoring the observation through referring to documents related to the researcher, checking the results of their own observations with the observations made by other researchers;
7) processing and interpretation of the received information (determination of the result, statistical processing of data or expert assessment, determination of conclusions from the information received);
8) drawing up a report on the results of the observation and the findings.
Types of observation
Varieties of the observational method are determined by the goals, object, situation of the study. The following types of observation are usually distinguished:
1. Objective - self-observation;
2. Field - laboratory;
3. Individual - collective;
4. Accidental - deliberate;
5. Systematic - non-systematic;
6. Complete - incomplete;
7. Continuous - selective;
8. Ascertaining - evaluating;
9. Standardized - not standardized;
10. Open - hidden;
11. Included - not included;
12. Direct - indirect;
13. Provoked - unprovoked.
objective- observation from the outside, i.e. observation of objects external to the observer. as independent; The method of research is used in all branches of psychology, especially widely in social psychology, in developmental psychology (zoo, comparative, developmental, primarily child psychology), in educational psychology and most branch psychological disciplines (medical, sports, political, etc.). n. psychology). As an integral element, it is included in almost all empirical methods of psychology. Synonym - external observation.
Introspection(introspection) - Observation of the subject for himself, for the acts of his own consciousness and behavior. As a leading method, it was used in the early stages of the development of npiu psychology, studying mainly the problems of general psychology, primarily mental processes. Currently, as an independent method, it is not often used. As the main element, it is part of autogenic training, autohypnosis, psychological training, where, according to the instructions, you need to monitor your feelings and behavior. Basically, self-observation acts as a component of various modern methods, in which a verbal account of one's impressions, reactions, actions is necessary, that is, in all "subjective" and in many "projective" methods. In an indirect form, self-observation is manifested in documentary sources subject to psychological analysis: in letters, diaries, autobiographies. Synonyms for introspection: internal observation and introspection(taking into account what has been said about it in the next paragraph).
Field(natural)- observation of objects in the natural conditions of their daily life and activities. It can be fully realized in the form of objective observation. Observation of oneself in any case introduces an element of artificiality. Natural observation usually appears as an independent way of collecting data. Its combination with other empirical methods is possible when observation is the leading, main method, and other methods are auxiliary, accompanying and separated from it in time. Their simultaneous use inevitably affects the natural course of the life of the objects under study, and then it is no longer necessary to talk about this type of observation. It is also difficult to imagine the use of field observation within the framework of any other empirical method, since all of them, to one degree or another, intrude into the lives of the subjects under study and influence their behavior.
Laboratory(experimental) - observation in artificially created conditions. The degree of this artificiality can be different: from a minimum in a casual conversation in a familiar environment to a maximum in an experiment using special rooms, technical means and coercive instructions. In contrast to field observation, this type of observation is almost always associated with the application of other empirical methods: either as a concomitant of them, or as their integral component.
Individual- observation carried out by one observer. This observer can act as the only researcher within the framework of this particular study, or one of the group of researchers. In the latter case, he still performs the functions of the only researcher, but already within the framework of some stage or section of the overall study.
Collective- observation carried out jointly by several observers. At the same time, compatibility is determined, first of all, by the commonality of the study (single plan, goal, methodology), and not by the unity of the place and time of the observers, although it is usually assumed that several participants in its study will observe the same object at the same time.
Random- observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances. This type of observation is of particular value in the sphere of rare phenomena, which cannot be predicted. For example, the appearance of so-called UFOs or the command of people during sudden natural disasters. Therefore, it is important that the researcher be prepared in advance for such situations, so that he has a mindset for the unexpected. If he knows what and how to observe in such conditions, he can achieve significant success.
There are two types of random observation: worldly, committed by any person, including a specialist psychologist, for himself and the people or animals around him in everyday life, and professional, carried out accidentally in the course of professional activity. The second option is especially interesting, since it is in this case that the researcher is internally ready for unexpected phenomena. Thus, many discoveries have been made in science. For example, the conditioned reflex was discovered by I.P. Pavlov in the course of studying the physiology of digestion, that is, in studies with completely different goals.
Deliberate- a pre-planned observation that is part of the researcher's plan and pursues certain goals. It is clear that deliberate rather than accidental observations provide the bulk of scientific information.
Systematic- this is a deliberate observation, carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule. Systematicity here can be considered in two aspects: procedural and temporal. Procedural aspect implies a clear presentation of the goals and objectives of observation, a clear formulation of a working hypothesis, the certainty and orderliness of the observer's actions, the thoughtfulness of the entire system of recorded indicators of the behavior of the observed objects and environmental conditions. Temporal aspect systematicity lies in the planning and balance of multiple observations pursuing the same goal. At the same time, such multiple observations can be directed to the same or different objects, carried out by one or several researchers, and included in one or more research cycles. This aspect of systematicity is especially important in longitudinal studies and surveys.
Unsystematic- This is a non-strict observation without a definite plan. IN procedural aspect non-systematicity can be expressed in the uncertainty of the tasks of observation, in the unforeseen factors being recorded, in the absence of a clear algorithm for the actions of observers, etc. time aspect non-systematicity is expressed in the randomness of multiple observations, although the single (one-time) observations themselves can be systematic. In the ultimate expression, non-systematicity appears as "non-systematic", i.e., as a lack of integrity and structure of the research process, which usually results in the unreliability of its results, low scientific and practical significance, and, as a result, in unproductiveness and inefficiency.
Complete- observation, in which the maximum of information available to the observer is covered and recorded. It is used for the purpose of extremely thorough study of the object. Often, full observation is carried out as a forced measure in cases where it is not known in advance which factors of the situation and behavior of the observed should be recorded and which are not necessary, which are considered significant and which are not important, which can be expected and which cannot be foreseen. Such a situation usually accompanies preliminary, tentative studies preceding the main research cycle, in which the observation will already be more focused and specific, with a limited search field. Sometimes a researcher is forced to resort to full observation due to poor preparation and thoughtfulness of the study at its preliminary stages - posing a problem, putting forward a hypothesis and planning.
It is clear that the completeness of information is a relative matter, and its degree depends on the objective and subjective capabilities of the observer, as well as on his understanding of "absolute" completeness. Therefore, the "exhaustive" completeness of the observation characterizes rather the methodological inadequacy of a particular study, rather than its "empirical richness" and the breadth of the researcher's interests.
incomplete- observation, in which the attention of the observer is drawn to the optimal (less often to the minimum) number of parameters of the situation and the behavior of the observed. This range of information subject to registration is determined in advance, based on the tasks and conditions of observation.
continuous- continuous monitoring of the object without interruption. It is usually used for a short-term study of it or, if necessary, to obtain the most complete information about the dynamics of the studied phenomena.
Sometimes continuous observation is interpreted as complete. It seems that it makes no sense to confuse these signs, it is better to adhere to a more traditional view: the parameter "solid - selective" reflects the "temporal strategy" of the study, and the parameter "complete - incomplete" - quantitative. From this remark it follows that any complete observation can be both complete and incomplete, and it is even more rational to carry out continuous observations according to the incomplete scheme. The reverse is also true: any complete and incomplete observation can be carried out both by continuous and by selective variant.
selective- observation carried out at separate intervals, chosen by the researcher at his own discretion. More economical than solid. It is advisable for long-term, long-term studies, as well as when filling individual gaps in knowledge about a generally known phenomenon. Naturally, the authors, who consider continuous observation as complete, identify selective observation with incomplete observation.
stating- observation, in which the observed phenomena and actions are only recorded and not subject to discussion or evaluation by the researcher during the observation. As a rule, these recorded facts have an unambiguous interpretation that does not require the current interpretation.
A kind of ascertaining observation can be considered the observation photographic, i.e., observation, accompanied by the most detailed registration of everything observed without the observer expressing his attitude to what is happening. In scientific circulation, the division of types of observation according to the form of recording into photographic, generalized And interpretive introduced by M. Ya. Basov. It seems that the leading criterion for such a delimitation is not so much the form of the record as its content. And then Basov's classification can be combined with the division of observation into ascertaining and evaluating.
Evaluative- observation, accompanied by the observer's assessment of the situation or recorded phenomena and facts. Such an observation is connected with the current hypotheses that combine the process of perception with explanation.
Standardized- observation carried out according to a previously developed scheme that prescribes the form of fixation and the list of parameters to be recorded. This is where observation forms are sometimes used. It is used when the process or phenomenon being studied is generally clear and it is only necessary to trace its elements, clarify the details, and obtain additional material. The advantage lies in the clarity and comparability of the data, in the possibility of quantitative assessments.
non-standardized unregulated observation, in which the description of what is happening is made by the observer in a free form. It is usually used during the exploration phase of the study, when it is necessary to form a general idea about the object and the patterns of its functioning. The advantage of the method is its ability to take a fresh look at the object, to see patterns and facts that were not noticed before. Linguistic variant of the name of the method - unstandardized observation.
open- Observation, in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research. At the same time, they usually know the observer, although there may be cases of his incognito. The relative freedom of action of the researcher here is combined with some difficulties of a psychological nature. By revealing the objectives of the study, the observer runs the risk of losing cooperation or influencing the further behavior of people, which may become unnatural.
Hidden- observation, which is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them. More common than open, although often associated with ethical difficulties. Skillfully and delicately solving these problems is a matter of qualification and moral principles of a psychologist. Many scientists consider this approach unacceptable, calling it a "method of deception." Particularly tangible troubles can arise if the subject himself subsequently or in the course of observation finds out that he is the object of covert observation. Despite the noted ethical problems, the main advantage of covert observation - the lack of influence of the observer on the subjects, determines the preferred use of this type of observation.
Included- observation, in which the observer is part of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside. Advantages: 1) immediacy and brightness of impressions; 2) the opportunity to better penetrate the atmosphere of the group and better understand the inner world of people. Disadvantages: 1) the danger of loss of objectivity in assessments due to the possible transition of the observer to the position of the observed (the effects of empathy and identification); 2) the difficulty, and often the impossibility of strict and complete fixation in the process of observation, which is fraught with gaps and inaccuracies in the subsequent report. Such a report, according to V. A. Yadov, becomes “a sociological essay, and not a strictly scientific treatise.”
Introspection should be considered as a specific type of participant observation.
Not included- observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. This type of observation is essentially an objective (external) observation.
Some situations of observation allow us to speak of intermediate between included and non-enabled forms of observation. For example, the teacher's observation of students and pupils. This intermediate variant is typical for the cases when elements of observation are included in other empirical methods. Such are the situations of psychological counseling, psychotherapeutic influences, formative experiments, psychological conversations, interviews, etc.
direct(immediate)- observation carried out directly by the observer himself.
indirect(indirect)- Surveillance through intermediaries. Usually, this means obtaining data from witnesses and participants in events of interest to the observer. Varieties of indirect observation can be considered the study of documents covering the events under study (reports, correspondence, etc.), a survey, and the study of biographical information. Mediation can be carried out not only by other people, but also by technical means. For example, automatically without the presence of an observer by a working video or sound recording equipment.
provoked- observation, during which the researcher provokes the observed to any actions and deeds. This technique is usually used to emphasize the phenomenon under study and to coincide in time with the observation procedure. In addition, some actions and deeds that it is desirable to study are deliberately masked under normal conditions, which makes them very difficult to observe. For example, fraud in trade.
unprovoked- observation, the procedure of which does not provide for a special provocative influence on the course of observed events.
In psychology the most common mistakes observations were highlighted by A.A. Ershov:
1. Halo effect. The generalized impression of the observer leads to a rough perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences.
2. The effect of indulgence. The tendency to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.
3. Central tendency error. The observer tends to give an average estimate of the observed behavior.
4. Correlation error. The assessment of one trait of behavior is given on the basis of another observed trait (intelligence is assessed by fluency).
5. Contrast error. The tendency of the observer to distinguish features in the observed that are opposite to their own.
6. Mistake of own impression. The first impression of an individual determines the perception and evaluation of his future behavior.
The problem of objectivity of observation M.Ya. Basov proposed the following solution to the problem of the objectivity of observational data: “Under ideal conditions, psychological research is when the observation of external data on the behavior of a person is supplemented by data from systematic self-observation, when there are two fixed series of observations - external and internal, which, when compared with each other, give the most complete and reliable result and serve as a means of mutual control.
T.V. Kornilova distinguishes two concepts of the objectivity of observation: 1) corresponding concept - the image of reality created by the observer is objective to the extent that it corresponds to it; 2) consistency concept- the objectivity of observation is the agreement of the majority of observers.
The reliability of observation is associated with the degree of stability of the results and with the degree of agreement of observers about the same object of observation. In addition to the reliability criterion, the observer agreement criterion is used, which is associated with the consistency of the results obtained by different observers in identical observation situations. The reproducibility of observational data means that similar data can be obtained by another observer.
The observer must decide whether his observational data can be generalized and transferred to other observed objects, i.e. assess the observation externalvadidity. He must make sure that the observation data is not a by-product of the observation process itself (the influence of perceptual errors, illusions, stereotypes), which determines internal validity observations.
extrasensory perception
Many psychologists believe that people are able to perceive objects and events or act on them in an unconventional way. This ability is called extrasensory perception. The study of extrasensory perception is a relatively new branch of psychology related to the field parapsychology. Parapsychology is the study of behavior that is inexplicable in terms of physics or psychology. Manifestations of such behavior are called "psy-phenomena". Parapsychologists are mainly interested in the following "psy-phenomena".
Telepathy. Telepathy means the same thing as mind reading from a distance, and is a major theme in many fantasy and science fiction books. Telepaths can communicate without speaking or even seeing each other - they know the thoughts of others directly. There are cases when identical twins have telepathic abilities in relation to each other.
Clairvoyance. Clairvoyance is the ability to perceive objects or events that are not available to the ordinary senses. A clairvoyant can describe a traffic jam 100 miles away.
Foresight. Foresight means the ability to know in advance what will happen next. Jeanne Dixon, who predicted the assassination of President Kennedy, became famous precisely because she had this ability. You may have a weak form of precognition called premonition, a vague feeling that something bad is about to happen to your close friend or relative. Premonitions can be very vague, but if this person then really gets sick, then you can take this as proof that you have the gift of foresight.
Telepathy (from the Greek thle - far, far and paqox - feeling): the transmission of thoughts and feelings at a distance.
Clairvoyance: The ability to perceive objects or events that are not accessible to the normal senses.
Foresight: the ability to predict future events.
Psychokinesis: the ability to manipulate physical objects without physical contact with them.
Psychokinesis. Psychokinesis is the ability to manipulate physical objects through a certain amount of mental effort. In demonstrations of psychokinesis, people bend forks and spoons with their eyes or make a long-stopped clock tick.
Do such abilities really exist? Although amazing things are sometimes shown on television and in nightclubs, the results of laboratory experiments are not so convincing. Psychic abilities are fickle - today a person has them, but tomorrow they don’t. People who claim to have such abilities claim that they cannot work in a sterile laboratory environment. In addition, many of the so-called "psychic" phenomena are quite understandable and are only tricks or the use of illusions.
Most psychologists question the existence of psychic phenomena, but data collection continues.
Control questions
Use the following questions to test your understanding of the material in the final section of this chapter. Find and mark the only correct answer for each question.
19. A man sorts through papers on his desk. Point out the difference between observation and interpretation. What is observation in this case?
A. The man lost the right paper.
b. The man sorts through the papers.
V. A man is looking for a lost paper.
d. The person is irritated by his own carelessness.
20. What are the three most common perceptual disorders?
A. Blindness, deafness and dyslexia
b. Deafness, dyslexia and delusion
V. Blindness, telepathy and psychokinesis
Dyslexia, clairvoyance and foresight
21. How do the blind manage to feel that they are passing through a doorway, for example?
A. They rely on interoceptive sensations and those exteroceptive ones that function normally.
b. They use psychic abilities.
V. They use electronic systems with electrodes implanted in the brain.
d. They rely on their previous experience.
For each concept in the left column, select the definition from the right one, taking into account that each concept corresponds to only one correct definition.
22. _____ Dyslexia a. The ability to foresee the future
23. _____ Psychokinesis b. Reading minds from a distance
24. _____ Parapsychology c. Semantic distortion of the received signal
25. _____ Clairvoyance d. The field of psychology that studies extrasensory perception
26. _____ Precognition e. Ability to manipulate objects without physical contact
27. _____ Telepathy e. Error of interpretation
28. _____ Illusion f. The ability to see something that is not visible to normal vision
Test yourself against the "Answers" section at the end of the chapter. If you had trouble answering these questions, reread the text again. If none of these questions caused you any difficulties, you are quite ready to move on to independent work.
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
Below is a list of topics for self-study.
1. Define perception.
2. Point out the differences between sensation and interpretation.
3. Give examples of sensory thresholds and subthreshold stimuli.
4. Describe the role of the brain in perception.
5. List the problems that arise in the study of subthreshold stimuli.
6. State the differences between intero- and exteroceptive sensations and name five interoceptive sensations.
7. Describe five ways to get attention.
8. Describe the role of distractions in pain control.
9. Explain how expectations are interpreted.
10. Describe how cultural factors influence perception.
11. Describe how needs, motivations, and emotions influence interpretation.
12. Define illusion and give three examples.
13. List seven ways to test and improve perception.
14. Consider three types of perceptual disorders and name possible ways to alleviate the situation of people suffering from them.
15. Define extrasensory perception.
16. Define the four branches of parapsychology and explain what they study.
17. What are the problems that arise in the study of extrasensory perception.
Below are the correct answers to all exercises and questions. If you answered a question incorrectly, reread the previous text, and then return to the question and answer it again - this time correctly.
Answers to exercises
2.1. A. The color and shape of the road sign and the type of letters that make up the inscription on it are your feelings. The meaning you give to this sign - "Stop the car" - refers to the interpretation.
b. If you were on foot, you probably would not have stopped, as the interpretation of the sign would have been different. You would decide that this sign does not concern you.
2.2. A. Subthreshold stimuli are below the sensory threshold in terms of intensity. It is possible that letters 0.5 cm high for students sitting in the front rows are not subthreshold stimuli. In addition, if the students followed the movement of the teacher's hand when he wrote on the board, they could guess the content of what was written.
b. The teacher did not take into account a number of factors. Check if your guesses are correct:
His lecture was long and monotonous; perhaps that is why the students glanced at their watches.
It is possible that students always look at their watches when the lecture comes to an end.
Nothing was said about the instructor's behavior; maybe he himself looked at the clock.
If any of the students who read the writing on the blackboard looked at the clock, it could affect the rest.
The expression "several students" sounds vague; maybe it was the smallest part of the group.
2.3. The following are some of the most typical impressions that people have while walking blindfolded:
A. “I watched my every step”, “I took every step very carefully to make sure that there was no step or some other obstacle ahead”, “I was clearly aware of my every movement.”
b. “I thought I was walking right along the edge, a. I ended up in the middle of the room”, “I kept drifting to the left; once I even almost crashed into a wall”, “I couldn’t go straight ahead in any way - I kept dodging to the right.”
V. “I was afraid to lose my balance, so I walked with my arms outstretched”, “I started to feel dizzy”, “I had everything in order with my balance.”
d. "Although I did not see anything, I felt that I was passing through a doorway", "I noted to myself the moment of transition from a spacious room to a narrow corridor."
“I was sure that I had been blindfolded for at least ten minutes, but in fact it turned out that no more than four minutes had passed”, “Time dragged on very slowly, second by second, and I was aware of each of them very clearly.”
2.4. Each of the impressions given refers to one of the following interoceptive sensations:
A. Feeling of movement
b. sense of direction
V. Feeling of balance
d. Feeling close to something e. "Sense of time"
2.5. A. Option 2. Due to the brightness of the colors and the extravagance of the cut of the clothes, it will stand out from the rest and attract attention, become more noticeable, as a result of which it will be recognized in the future.
b. Option 2. Hexagonal posters suspended from wires are more novel and therefore more likely to attract attention.
V. Option 1. Repetition is a very effective means of attracting attention.
d. Option 1. The contrast that occurs when moving from music to speech will attract more attention.
e. Option 1. If the applicant appears surrounded by people actively asking her questions, this will create the appearance of public interest in her and her high popularity.
2.6. The Mexican waiter and the Irish customer use different landmarks. The Mexican compares salsa with spicy dishes seasoned with a lot of spices, and the Irish - with her usual moderate, relatively insipid food.
2.7. a. Seal (seal), duck (duck) and whale (whale).
b. The subjects were warned about what to prepare for, and this predetermined the outcome of the perception.
2.8. Perhaps the evening can be enlivened by introducing the guests to each other in such a way as to arouse their mutual interest. For example: “Sam, meet Bob Taylor. The last time we met, I nearly died laughing. He is a wonderful storyteller. Absolutely incredible stories always happen to his children. Bob, tell Sam about how your daughter once climbed a flagpole." Or: “Jane, don't you know Angela? Angela has just returned from an exciting vacation. She was at a resort where they specialize in water skiing, and now she is a great specialist in this business.
2.9. Harry, Dominic and Eric are of European culture, and it is easy for them to notice the subtle differences in each other's appearance. The same is true for Ho, Sadaqa and Kim: since they are all from Asia, it is not difficult for them to remember each other's faces. Both European and Asian students tend to stereotype people from "out" groups and miss small differences.
2.10. A. Both women set aside a sports shop and a pool with lanes for swimming competitions.
b. Ms. T provided a gym, women's sauna, locker room and tennis courts.
V. The men's locker room and sauna were distorted in size or forgotten on their plans.
d. Probably the main reasons for the inaccurate perception of the club were the personal emotions, needs and motivations of women. Most likely, Mrs. S. has children, and she visits the pool, buffet and shop. Miss T may play tennis, swim, go to the gym, and use the locker room.
2.11. A. Juan is told in advance exactly what to feel, but he should not take it with complete confidence.
b. Claire needs to be clear about exactly what she wants and feels first. She must honestly admit to herself that just today she is in a bad mood and, accordingly, her perception may be distorted.
V. Marsha needs to thoroughly study all the ways to attract attention and learn how to focus when necessary.
Sydney could try to take a broader view of things by sitting in a smoking room without smoking.
e. Bill should remember that there is always the possibility of falling into an illusion.
f. Jerome's boss needs to learn to distinguish between what she sees and her own interpretation of what she sees.
2.12. A. A blind person can learn to use all other senses more fully. You can also learn to read Braille and get around with a cane or guide dog.
b. A deaf person can also learn to use all of his other senses more fully. In addition, medication, a hearing aid, or surgery may help.
V. A person suffering from dyslexia can use a specially developed technique for adapting to perceptual distortions.
2.13. A. The blind can be helped thanks to the electronic artificial vision system currently being developed.
b. The deaf can be helped thanks to an electronic artificial hearing system.
V. In the future, it may be possible to determine the cause of dyslexia and find a way to cure it.
Answers on questions
1. in; 2. b; 3. in; 4. in; 5. a; 6. a; 7. g; 8. d; 9. b; 10. in; 11. a; 12.b; 13.b; 14. g; 15. in; 16.g; 17.b; 18.c; 19.b; 20.a; 21. a; 22. in; 23. d; 24. g; 25. f; 26.a; 27.b; 28.f.
Chapter 3 LEARNING AND OTHER METHODS OF INFLUENCE ON BEHAVIOR
Give me a dozen healthy, well-developed children and complete freedom to raise them in any way I see fit, and I guarantee you that I can make any of them anyone - a doctor, a lawyer, an artist, a head of a trading company, and even a beggar or a thief, and regardless of his talents, inclinations, abilities, hobbies, vocation and race.
John Watson
Have you ever wondered why you behave differently with different people? You have probably been in a situation where you wanted to joke all the time and everything around seemed funny. And in other situations, you showed yourself exclusively as a serious person. Sometimes you are shy and insecure, and sometimes frank and friendly. Why is your behavior changing all the time? Many psychologists believe that these are the results of learning.
When everyone at the party is having fun laughing at your funny stories and jokes, then of course you are not averse to continuing in the same spirit. However, if you try to joke in the same way, for example, during a lesson at school, the teacher is unlikely to appreciate it positively. He approves only serious and sober answers. Perhaps you have been in the company of people whom you considered much smarter than yourself. Probably, you felt a little embarrassed in front of them, you were afraid to “blow off” some stupidity and look like a complete fool at the same time. Then you seemed shy and indecisive person. But in the company of close friends who treat you well, you do not have such fears and concerns. And you calmly say whatever comes to mind.
Learning constantly affects your behavior. Learning, as a rule, is associated in people with school activities. In fact, learning happens all the time and everywhere. Almost everything you do teaches you something. Whether you're spooning ice cream, choosing your fishing rod, knitting a scarf, playing poker, or having fun at a rock concert, you're still learning. In this chapter, you will learn more about the learning process and find out how it relates to daily activities. You will understand some of the reasons for changing your behavior and learn how to influence both it and the behavior of other people. The chapter will describe two main forms of learning - classical conditioning And instrumental, or operant, conditioning - and examples of their application in a wide variety of situations are given. In addition, you will think about the ethical issues that arise when using conditioning.
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Since almost everything we do involves learning, then the question arises: how to distinguish which actions are performed as a result of learning, and which - without learning? We have somehow learned almost everything we do, with the exception of a few basic reflexes and some random behaviors. Learning is an internal process. He is invisible and intangible. Moreover, it cannot be accurately quantified. Typically, psychologists evaluate learning outcomes in terms of changes in behavior. If a person exhibits certain relatively stable behaviors, it is considered that learning has occurred.
Suppose that last year a certain boy began to learn to swim for the first time. He thumped senselessly on the water with his hands and feet and almost drowned. This year, when you meet a boy on the beach, you see that he can swim a good crawl for six meters already. It is quite fair in this case to assume that the boy learned to swim. Although you did not see the learning process itself, you have every reason to believe that it took place, since it is shown in the actions of the boy. He probably practiced all the time that you did not see him, and during these exercises and exercises, learning occurred. And now the boy can swim. His new skill is stable, or permanent.
Now imagine that you come to the bowling alley with a woman who has never played bowling until now and believes that she has no sports talent. You barely manage to put the ball into her hand. Suddenly, she accidentally drops the ball, it rolls down the chute and hits the target. Was this hit the result of learning? After all, it is clear that she has not yet learned much in this sport - except to pull her fingers out of the holes in the ball. More permanent changes in her behavior are needed to conclude that learning has taken place. If she could hit the target several times in a row, then one could conclude that she had learned to play skittles. An accidental first hit does not provide sufficient evidence for making judgments about learning.
In order to determine whether learning has occurred or not, it is necessary to identify two main indicators: 1) relatively persistent changes in behavior; 2) any classes or exercises that resulted in these changes. Learning can occur through simple observation of other people or reading, as well as through practice. In the example discussed above, the woman tried to play skittles, but it is highly doubtful that this one attempt alone would lead to lasting changes in her behavior.
Learning: changes in behavior that have arisen in the process of life or as a result of training.
Learning is not necessarily a positive thing. After all, people also learn to steal, cheat, cheat and lie, slovenliness and a barbaric attitude towards nature. And in each of these cases, both necessary conditions for learning are met.
Reproduction of action as a criterion for learning
The result of learning, as a rule, is the acquisition of sustainable behavior patterns. But many other factors also influence human behavior. For example, you have prepared very thoroughly for exams, but you may pass the exam poorly due to a sleepless night, a painful condition, or just a bad mood. But what if during the exam you get hiccups or your neighbor constantly sneezes? In cases like this, a low grade doesn't necessarily mean you didn't learn anything. Of course, the reproduction of an action cannot but be a criterion for learning, since the learning process itself is not yet an unambiguous evidence of learning something. But it is always important to remember that behavior is also influenced by factors such as motivations, distractions, and health status.
Exercise 3.1
A middle-aged auto mechanic attends accounting courses in the evenings and is about to change his profession. Although he has always been considered a good mechanic, he has recently become very absent-minded at work. He is constantly thinking and planning a different career. Giving instructions to a new worker, he sometimes cannot even remember the names of the simplest parts of the motor. Try to explain why all this does not at all indicate his incompetence in the field of car repair.
Test yourself against the "Answers" section at the end of the chapter.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Psychologists who study behavior are forced to reduce the assessment of learning outcomes to the assessment of behavior change, since it is behavior change that can be observed and measured. Behavioral psychologists distinguish two mechanisms of behavior change, believing that almost all learning occurs with the help of conditioning - classical or operant (instrumental). First we will consider classical conditioning,* that is, the use of associations and relationships between phenomena for the purpose of learning. Reflexes and emotional reactions play a major role in classical conditioning.
* This conditioning is called classical only because it was described much earlier than operant conditioning. In general, "conditioning" means the development of a conditioned reflex. It was first described by the great Russian scientist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. He noticed that the dog salivates not only when the watchman brings her food, but also when she simply hears the sound of his steps. The action of such a conditioned reflex can be observed in the most ordinary example. Some students, upon hearing the bell, begin to collect their school supplies, although the teacher does not always end the lesson with the bell. This is an example of classical conditioning. Schoolchildren developed a conditioned reflex to the bell. (Approx. scientific ed.)
"Reflexes... amazing!"
Rice. 3.1.Perhaps this is still a somewhat exaggerated example of a common knee jerk.
reflexes
There are many types of reactions that occur in response to certain stimuli in all people without exception. For example, when you are offered a piece of pickled cucumber, you begin to salivate. Similarly, if this book were to suddenly burn your fingers, you would withdraw your hand. Such reactions that occur in all people and do not require prior learning are called reflexes.
You probably know some of the simplest reflexes. If you hit a person in the center of the kneecap, a knee jerk will occur (careful, you might get kicked!). And if, while walking along the seashore, sand, raised by a gust of wind, gets into your eyes, your eyelids twitch reflexively. When you inhale a pinch of pepper, you will start to sneeze. If you tickle your heels, you will curl your toes, etc. There are many such reflexes described in medical textbooks.
Classical conditioning: one type of learning with the following procedure: a pair of stimuli (neutral and unconditioned) are presented, so that eventually the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned, that is, it begins to cause a reflex or an emotional reaction.
Reflex: a natural, non-learning reaction that occurs regularly in response to a specific stimulus.
Emotional reactions
Emotional reaction - it is a kind of emotional reflex, that is, a feeling that invariably arises in response to a certain emotional stimulus. The most common emotional response is fear. Normal people believe that pain is an unpleasant sensation and are afraid of it. Fear is a common response to pain and also occurs without any learning. Another common emotional reaction is anger. More positive emotions, such as love and joy, also apply to emotional responses. If you have ever fallen in love, you have probably experienced some kind of positive emotional reaction. Perhaps it was joy and pleasure. Each of the emotional reactions is an internal response to a certain type of stimulus. External manifestations of emotions may be different, depending on your previous experience and habitual behavior. Inwardly experiencing the same feeling, you can run up to the subject of your passion and embrace it, or you can just stand like an idol and giggle. In a situation where you are threatened with a knife, your emotional reaction will undoubtedly be fear, but you will also express it in different ways; it largely depends on your previous experience and belonging to a particular culture. Both reflexes and emotional reactions automatically arise in response to a certain stimulus. Whenever you get a mote in your eye, you blink. If an electric shock is passed through the seat of your chair, you will jump. Painful sensations cause fear and anxiety, while pleasant sensations cause joy and pleasure.
Exercise 3.2
In the story below, three reflexes and five emotional reactions are mentioned. Find them in the text and underline the reflexes with one line, and the emotional reactions with two.
The union, of which Clyde is a member, goes on strike, and Clyde, being forced to sit at home during the day, is addicted to watching soap operas. This time, after dinner, he notices that it's time to start his favorite series, and gets himself a bottle of cold beer. When he opens the bottle, the beer spouts and hits him in the eye. This makes him blink and get irritated. But then he takes the rest of the beer, sits down in his favorite chair in anticipation of half an hour of pleasant sensations. The movie starts. On the screen, a rude and vicious villainess threatens an innocent charming heroine. Clyde is getting worried. Grabbing a cigarette, he nervously lights up and burns his finger. He pulls his hand away and puts his sore finger to the cold bottle of beer. Then he turns his gaze back to the screen. The villain strangles the charming heroine, and the unfortunate woman dies. Clyde sees this tragic end and is filled with sadness. He tries to turn off the TV. But the insulation is broken in the switch, and Clyde is severely electrocuted. He withdraws his hand and is afraid to touch the TV again.
Test yourself against the "Answers" section at the end of the chapter.
Emotional reaction: an emotion that arises steadily and without any prior learning in response to a specific stimulus.
Classical conditioning process
With classical conditioning, you can learn to automatically blink or jump out of your chair for reasons that have nothing to do with a mote in your eye or a short circuit. In the same way, people's fears and anxieties are often unrelated to the actual pain experienced. In such cases, the reflex appears simply by association.
Imagine that a woman is sitting on a chair, to which electrical wires are connected, and current can be passed through the seat (Fig. 3.2, a). The psychologist wants to "teach" her to get up from her chair as soon as he starts scratching his head. (Psychologists sometimes perform very strange experiments!)
Since observations have shown that every time a current is passed through the seat, the woman reflexively gets up from the chair, the psychologist begins scratching her head at the same time as the current is turned on (Fig. 3.2, b).
Soon, as soon as she noticed that the psychologist was reaching out with her hand to her head, the woman begins to jump up from her chair (Fig. 3.2, c). The current can no longer be turned on.
Imagine how strange it must feel, accustomed to jumping up from a chair, as soon as someone reaches a hand to her head!
The classical conditioning process can be broken down into three steps:
1. Any reflex is observed and the stimulus causing it is determined. In the above example, such a reflex was avoiding unpleasant sensations, that is, getting up from a chair, and the stimulus that caused the reflex was an electric shock.
2. Simultaneously with the stimulus that causes this reflex, a second stimulus is applied. The psychologist would scratch his head every time the current was applied. This combination of stimuli was repeated several times.
3. A new stimulus begins to cause a reflex reaction even in the absence of the original stimulus. The woman stands up when the psychologist reaches her hand to her head, although the current is no longer passed through the seat.
Rice. 3.2.
Exercise 3.3
The psychologist wants to use the knee-jerk reflex to teach the subject to jerk his foot to whistle. Describe in your own words what will happen at each stage of classical conditioning.
Stage 1: ________________________________________
Stage 2: ______________________________________
Varieties of the observational method are determined by the goals, object, situation of the study. The following types of observation are usually distinguished:
1. Objective - self-observation.
2. Field - laboratory.
3. Individual - collective.
4. Accidental - deliberate.
5. Systematic - non-systematic.
6. Complete - incomplete.
7. Continuous - selective.
8. Ascertaining - evaluating.
9. Standardized - non-standardized.
10. Open - hidden.
11. Included - not included.
12. Direct - indirect.
13. Provoked - unprovoked.
Objective - observation from the outside, that is, observation of objects external to the observer. As an independent method of research, it is used in all branches of psychology, especially widely - in social psychology, in developmental psychology (zoo-, comparative, age-related, primarily child psychology), in educational psychology and most branch psychological disciplines (medical, sports, political etc. psychology). As an integral element, it is included in almost all empirical methods of psychology. Synonym - external observation.
Introspection (introspection)- observation of the subject for himself, for the acts of his own consciousness and behavior. As a leading method, it was used in the early stages of the development of psychology in the study of problems of general psychology, primarily mental processes. Currently, as an independent method, it is not often used. As the main element, it is part of autogenic training, autohypnosis, psychological training, where, according to the instructions, you need to monitor your feelings and behavior. Basically, self-observation acts as a component of various modern methods, in which a verbal account of one's impressions, reactions, actions is necessary, that is, in all "subjective" and in many "projective" methods. In an indirect form, self-observation is manifested in documentary sources subject to psychological analysis: in letters, diaries, autobiographies. Synonyms for introspection: internal observation and introspection(taking into account what has been said about it in the next paragraph).
Field(natural) - observation of objects in the natural conditions of their daily life and activities. It can be fully realized in the form of objective observation. Observation of oneself in any case introduces an element of artificiality. Natural observation usually appears as an independent way of collecting data. Its combination with other empirical methods is possible when observation is the leading, main method, and other methods are auxiliary, accompanying and separated from it in time. Their simultaneous use inevitably affects the natural course of the life of the objects under study, and then it is no longer necessary to talk about this type of observation. It is also difficult to imagine the use of field observation within the framework of any other empirical method, since all of them, to one degree or another, invade the lives of the subjects under study and influence their behavior.
With regard to terminology, it seems to be preferable to use the name "natural" rather than "field". The first term reflects the main thing in this method - the naturalness of the observed situations and behavior, regardless of the specifics of the environment. The name "field" is involuntarily associated with the conditions of open space, with observations in the open air, in nature. This is rather a tribute to the historical tradition, when scientific observations were associated mainly with naturalistic studies of nature or ethnographic sketches. To enrich the dictionary, it is possible to suggest "natural observation" as a synonym. Nevertheless, it is preferable to use the name "natural observation", especially in view of the considerations expressed below regarding laboratory observation.
Laboratory(experimental) - observation in artificially created conditions. The degree of this artificiality can be different: from a minimum in a casual conversation in a familiar environment to a maximum in an experiment using special rooms, technical means and coercive instructions. In contrast to field observation, this type of observation is almost always associated with the application of other empirical methods: either as a concomitant of them, or as their integral component.
Unfortunately, it should be stated that in this case, the designation of the specifics of the type of observation cannot be considered successful. In any case, the names "laboratory" and "experimental observation" do not reflect the entire scope of the concept they designate. Obviously, this type of observation is applicable not only in laboratory conditions, but also in any artificial situations. On the one hand, this means that such a situation can also be observed outside the walls of the laboratory, i.e. outside a specially equipped room for scientific research or production experiments. Of course, one can interpret laboratory conditions in an expansive way, like the famous Turgenev hero: “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop. And the person in it is a worker. But then there is no need to separate the method of observation into the two types under consideration. On the other hand, a situation as a certain position in which its participants find themselves is determined not only by external circumstances, by the situation. The situation is also determined by the relations of its participants to each other (in particular, interpersonal relations) or to these circumstances. Even in the case of a single object of psychological observation, it is possible to artificially influence its attitude to the environment or to the observer, if the observed is aware that he is being watched. Thus, in any case, the content of the concept of "laboratory observation" is much richer than its form, i.e., the name. This applies to an even greater extent to the term "experimental observation". If only because in laboratory conditions not only experimental studies are quite possible, but also testing, psychotherapy, questioning, and so on. In addition, the inclusion of observation both in an objective form and in a subjective one (self-observation) is possible not only in an experiment, but also in any other empirical method, up to the study of documents. Given the above, it seems appropriate to use a more adequate term to refer to this type of observation - "artificial surveillance" which also logically suggests itself as an alternative "natural observation".
In medical practice, this type of observation is often referred to as clinical observation, i.e. observation of the patient in the course of his treatment. True, when the process of treating a patient becomes the dominant factor in his life, and the corresponding surroundings become the natural environment of his life, then clinical observation loses signs of laboratory and turns more into a natural type of observation.
Individual - observation carried out by one observer. This observer can act as the only researcher within the framework of this particular study, or one of the group of researchers. In the latter case, he still performs the functions of the only researcher, but already within the framework of some stage or section of the overall study.
Collective - observation carried out jointly by several observers. At the same time, compatibility is determined, first of all, by the commonality of the study (single plan, goal, methodology), and not by the unity of the place and time of the observers, although it is usually assumed that several participants in its study will observe the same object at the same time.
Accidental - an observation not planned in advance, made due to unexpected circumstances. This type of observation is of particular value in the sphere of rare phenomena, which cannot be predicted. For example, the appearance of so-called UFOs or the behavior of people during sudden natural disasters. Therefore, it is important that the researcher be prepared in advance for such situations, so that he has a mindset for the unexpected. If he knows what and how to observe in such conditions, he can achieve significant success.
There are two types of random observation: worldly, committed by any person, including a specialist psychologist, for himself and the people around him: or animals in everyday life, and professional, carried out accidentally in the course of professional activity. The second option is especially interesting, since it is in this case that the researcher is internally ready for unexpected phenomena. Thus, many discoveries have been made in science. For example, the conditioned reflex was discovered by I.P. Pavlov in the course of studying the physiology of digestion, that is, in studies with completely different goals.
Intentional - a pre-planned observation that is part of the researcher's plan and pursues certain goals. It is clear that deliberate rather than accidental observations provide the bulk of scientific information.
Systematic is a deliberate observation made according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule. Systematicity here can be considered in two aspects: procedural and temporal. Procedural aspect implies a clear presentation of the goals and objectives of observation, a clear formulation of a working hypothesis, the certainty and orderliness of the observer's actions, the thoughtfulness of the entire system of recorded indicators of the behavior of the observed objects and environmental conditions. The latter factor is sometimes considered fundamental for this type of observation, especially if the recorded indicators are expressed in certain units and categories of description. Temporal aspect systematicity lies in the planning and balance of multiple observations pursuing the same goal. At the same time, such multiple observations can be directed to the same or different objects, carried out by one or several researchers, and included in one or more research cycles. This aspect of systematicity is especially important in longitudinal studies and surveys.
Some authors reject the notion of "systematicity" in the temporal aspect and propose to consider the chronological organization of observation as an independent classification criterion. Then they stand out longitudinal, periodic And single (single) observation.
It should be noted that in the specialized literature there is a contrast between random observation and systematic observation. Apparently, such a comparison of different types of observation was influenced by the authority of P. Fress, who proposed such a dichotomy. However, the inaccuracy of the translation from French into Russian cannot be ruled out here, since P. Fress clearly means deliberate observation by systematic observation, which “is part of the direct intention of the researcher, thereby reducing the field of study” . P. Fress does not speak of any systemic nature here, but speaks of foresight, planning of observation in the general research process.
Non-systematic is non-strict observation without a definite plan. IN procedural aspect non-systematicity can be expressed in the uncertainty of the tasks of observation, in the unforeseen factors being recorded, in the absence of a clear algorithm for the actions of observers, etc. time aspect non-systematicity is expressed in the randomness of multiple observations, although the single (one-time) observations themselves can be systematic. In the ultimate expression, non-systematicity appears as "non-systematic", i.e., as a lack of integrity and structure of the research process, which usually results in the unreliability of its results, low scientific and practical significance, and, as a result, in unproductiveness and inefficiency. P. Fress wrote about such unsystematic observations: “We find only what we are looking for. This common truth, however, is forgotten by many. In consultations and laboratories, cabinets are bursting with protocols of observations that are not suitable for anything either in the present or in the future only because they were collected without clearly posed questions.
However, non-systematic observation in science has not only a negative interpretation, but also a positive one. This refers to cases of including unplanned observation in the course of field research, when for the researcher “it is not important to fix causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon, but to create some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions” . In our opinion, such an understanding of the non-systematic nature of observation rather reflects its non-standardization, and not the lack of its thoughtfulness or the disorderly acts of observation. In other words, such an interpretation of non-systematic observation brings it closer to “free” observation, not burdened by predetermined regulations, i.e. with non-standardized observation.
Complete - observation, in which the maximum information available to the observer is covered and recorded. It is used for the purpose of extremely thorough study of the object. Often, full observation is carried out as a forced measure in cases where it is not known in advance which factors of the situation and behavior of the observed should be recorded and which are not necessary, which are considered significant and which are not important, which can be expected and which cannot be foreseen. Such a situation usually accompanies preliminary, tentative studies preceding the main research cycle, in which the observation will already be more focused and specific, with a limited search field. Sometimes the researcher is forced to resort to full observation due to poor preparation and thoughtfulness of the study at its preliminary stages - problem statement, hypothesis and planning.
It is clear that the completeness of information is a relative matter and its degree depends on the objective and subjective capabilities of the observer, as well as on his understanding of "absolute" completeness. Therefore, the "exhaustive" completeness of the observation characterizes rather the methodological inadequacy of a particular study, rather than its "empirical richness" and the breadth of the researcher's interests.
incomplete- observation, in which the attention of the observer is drawn to the optimal (less often to the minimum) number of parameters of the situation and the behavior of the observed. This range of information subject to registration is determined in advance, based on the tasks and conditions of observation. As a rule, such regulation of the observation process does not strictly limit the actions of the observer, but only prevents undesirable gaps in the information being sought. In other words, this regulation does not forbid the observer to go beyond the prescribed range of questions, if this turns out to be necessary or useful along the way, but only orients him in the infinite variety of situations of observation. Thus, such a restriction not only “does not bind the observer's hands”, but, on the contrary, frees him from the current problems of choosing what to observe and what to record. And this allows you to more carefully and more closely monitor the main (according to the research hypothesis) and increases the likelihood of discovering additional important (according to the observer) facts. As a result, the reliability and accuracy of observational data is increased. It is quite clear that incomplete observation is much more economical and, as a rule, more efficient than complete observation. This type of observation is typical for basic and control studies.
Continuous - continuous observation of the object without interruption. It is usually used for a short-term study of it or, if necessary, to obtain the most complete information about the dynamics of the studied phenomena.
Sometimes continuous observation is interpreted as complete. It seems that it makes no sense to confuse these features, it is better to stick to a more traditional view: the parameter "solid - selective" reflects the "temporal strategy" of the study, and the parameter "complete - incomplete" - quantitative. From this remark it follows that any complete observation can be both complete and incomplete, and it is even more rational to carry out continuous observations according to the incomplete scheme. The reverse is also true: any complete and incomplete observation can be carried out both by continuous and by selective variant.
Selective - observation carried out at separate intervals, chosen by the researcher at his own discretion. More economical than solid. It is advisable for long-term, long-term studies, as well as when filling individual gaps in knowledge about a generally known phenomenon. Naturally, the authors, who consider continuous observation as complete, identify selective observation with incomplete observation.
Ascertaining - observation, in which the observed phenomena and actions are only fixed and not subject to discussion. or assessed by the investigator during observation. As a rule, these recorded facts have an unambiguous interpretation that does not require the current interpretation.
A kind of ascertaining observation can be considered observation photographic, i.e., observation, accompanied by the most detailed registration of everything observed without the observer expressing his attitude to what is happening. In scientific circulation, the division of types of observation according to the form of recording into photographic, generalized And interpretive introduced by M. Ya. Basov. It seems that the leading criterion for such a delimitation is not so much the form of the record as its content, then Basov's classification can be combined with the division of observation into ascertaining and evaluating.
Evaluative - observation, accompanied by the observer's assessment of the situation or recorded phenomena and facts. Such an observation is connected with the current hypotheses that combine the process of perception with explanation.
Basov's generalizing and interpretative observations can be considered as options for evaluating observation. Generalizing - it is an observation accompanied by a folded record reflecting the most significant thing in what the observer noticed. The assignment of some facts to the essential, and others to the non-essential is an act of their evaluation. Therefore, this type of observation can also be classified as an evaluative observation. Interpretive - observation with explanatory notes. Since the explanation is usually based on the processes of comparison, categorization, classification, etc., which include the function of evaluation, this kind of method can also be included in the class of evaluative observation. Some inaccuracy can be seen here in the "impoverishment" of the interpretation, which includes only an explanation. As you know, the interpretive process, in addition to explanation, also provides for generalization, and possibly an integral description and forecasting. But in this context, apparently, such an inaccuracy is permissible.
Standardized - observation carried out according to a predetermined scheme that prescribes the form of fixation and the list of parameters to be recorded. This is where observation forms are sometimes used. It is used when the process or phenomenon being studied is generally clear and it is only necessary to trace its elements, clarify the details, and obtain additional material. The advantage lies in the clarity and comparability of the data, in the possibility of quantitative assessments. Another transcription is also known in the name: standardized observation.
Observation is close in meaning to standardized observation. formalized. L. A. Regush, who proposed to single out this kind of observation, cites two of its main features: 1) a restriction imposed from the outside (by the researcher or the compiler of the methodology) on any component of the observation (a set of observed features, situations of observation, observation time, a system of assessments of observed facts, etc. .) and 2) the constancy of the imposed restrictions throughout the study.
Unstandardized - unregulated observation, in which the description of what is happening is made by the observer in a free form. It is usually used during the exploration phase of the study, when it is necessary to form a general idea about the object and the patterns of its functioning. The advantage of the method is its ability to take a fresh look at the object, to see patterns and facts that were not noticed before. The linguistic variant of the name of the method is unstandardized observation.
As an alternative to formalized observation, observation is informal, largely consistent with non-standardized observation. L. A. Regush presents non-formalized observation as follows: “A distinctive feature of this type of observation is that, having a goal, the observer fixes in accordance with it what he sees in the observed situation. No restrictions on the object, the situation are introduced.
Open - observation in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research. At the same time, they usually know the observer, although there may be cases of his incognito. The relative freedom of action of the researcher here is combined with some difficulties of a psychological nature. By revealing the objectives of the study, the observer runs the risk of losing cooperation or influencing the further behavior of people, which may become unnatural.
These effects are especially enhanced if only the fact of observation is revealed to the subjects, but the observer is unknown. This causes them anxiety, discomfort, attempts to detect the observer, and therefore distorts the usual behavior of the observed. With an "open" observer, people, as practice shows, usually gradually get used to his presence and, after the first excitement, they switch to more or less natural behavior. However, the danger of artificiality of people's behavior can also increase with a known observer, if he is significant for them. Significance in this case can act either as its authority, referentiality, or as an opportunity to influence the future fate of the observed, or as the ability of the observer known to the observed to competently and strictly evaluate and judge their personality and behavior.
Occasionally, open observation is called conscious, which, in our opinion, does not quite adequately reflect the essence of this variety of the observational method.
Covert - an observation that is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them. More common than open, although often associated with ethical difficulties. Skillfully and delicately solving these problems is a matter of qualification and moral principles of a psychologist. Many scientists consider this approach unacceptable, calling it a "method of deception." Particularly tangible troubles can arise if the subject himself subsequently or in the course of observation finds out that he is the object of covert observation. Despite the noted ethical problems, the main advantage of covert observation - the lack of influence of the observer on the subjects - determines the preferred use of this type of observation.
Included- an observation in which the observer is part of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside. Advantages: 1) immediacy and brightness of impressions; 2) the opportunity to better penetrate the atmosphere of the group and better understand the inner world of people. Disadvantages: 1) the danger of loss of objectivity in assessments due to the possible transition of the observer to the position of the observed (the effects of empathy and identification); 2) the difficulty, and often the impossibility of strict and complete fixation in the process of observation, which is fraught with gaps and inaccuracies in the subsequent report. Such a report, according to V. A. Yadov, becomes “a sociological essay, and not a strictly scientific treatise.”
Introspection should be considered as a specific type of participant observation.
Participant observation can be carried out both in open and covert form. In the first case, an important condition for the success of the study is the ability of the observer to level his special position in the group, not to attract excessive attention to himself, not to provoke a special attitude towards himself from the side of the observed. In the second case, the main thing is not to “reveal” yourself. To do this, the psychologist must have competence in the activities in which the observed are engaged, remarkable endurance and even certain artistic abilities. Not everyone is given the art of natural "introduction" into other people's groups. Sometimes the exposure of such a "stool duck" is fraught with very unpleasant consequences for the observer. Especially if the studied groups are socially dangerous (for example, criminal gangs, specific communities of teenagers, narrowly corporate associations, etc.). By the way, such groups, classified as “closed”, i.e., inaccessible to “strangers”, as a rule, are practically not amenable to uninvolved observation, which forces the researcher to take the risk of included covert observation.
A specific type of participant observation is labor method, used in ergonomic and professional studies. Here, the psychologist himself performs a number of labor operations in one or another professional field and, through self-observation and observation of his comrades in joint labor activity, studies the phenomena of interest to him.
Not included- observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. This type of observation, in fact, is an objective (external) observation.
Some situations of observation allow us to speak of pro-intermediates included and non-included forms of observation. For example, the teacher's observation of students and pupils. This intermediate variant is typical for the cases when elements of observation are included in other empirical methods. Such are the situations of psychological counseling, psychotherapeutic influences, formative experiments, psychological conversations, interviews, etc.
direct (immediate)- Observation carried out directly by the observer.
indirect (indirect)– Surveillance through intermediaries. Usually, this means obtaining data from witnesses and participants in events of interest to the observer. Varieties of indirect observation can be considered the study of documents covering the events under study (reports, correspondence, etc.), a survey, and the study of biographical information. Mediation can be carried out not only by other people, but also by technical means. For example, automatically without the presence of an observer by a working video or sound recording equipment.
Provoked - observation, during which the researcher provokes the observed to any actions and deeds. This technique is usually used to emphasize the phenomenon under study and to coincide in time with the observation procedure. In addition, some actions and deeds that it is desirable to study are deliberately masked under normal conditions, which makes them very difficult to observe. For example, fraud in trade.
Unprovoked - observation, the procedure of which does not provide for a special provocative influence on the course of observed events.
