traditional religions. African traditional religions usually include fetishism, animism, totemism, the cult of ancestors, etc. Unlike world religions, African traditional religions do not have uniform religious texts, their religious norms are not fixed in the scriptures. It is impossible to determine the number of adherents of traditional religions: both Christians and Muslims turn to traditional cults in certain life situations, for example, if necessary, to undergo treatment with traditional methods from local healers.
totemism
TOTEMISM is one of the early forms of religion, the essence of which is the belief in the existence of a special kind of mystical connection between a group of people (genus, tribe) and a certain type of animal or plant (less often, natural phenomena and inanimate objects). The name of this form of religious belief comes from the word "ototem", which in the language of the North American Ojibwe Indians means "his kind." During the study of totemism, it was found that its emergence is closely connected with the economic activity of primitive man - gathering and hunting.
Totem
TOTEM (ototeman - belonging to a clan, from the language of the North American Indians Ojibwe) - a plant or animal supernaturally associated with the life of a group or individual. In Africa and North America, natural phenomena (rain, thunder, lightning, wind, etc.) also act as a totem, which are also often symbolized by animals. Totems are group (clan), sexual (belonging to men or women of the clan) or individual. In the case of a clan totem, the totem animal is considered the common ancestor of all members of the genus or group who identify with it.
Totemism (Lopukhov, 2013)
TOTEMISM - a complex of beliefs and rituals of primitive peoples, associated with ideas of kinship between groups of people (families, clans, tribes) and totems. At different times, animals, plants, stars, even household items acted as the latter among different peoples at different times. The totem was considered as a powerful patron of one or another primitive social group and as a symbol of its internal solidarity. Totemism corresponded to the level of development of society, when a person was not yet aware of his difference from nature, did not distinguish himself from it.
Totemism (Kirilenko)
TOTEMISM - belief in a supernatural relationship between human groups (kinds, tribes) and certain types of animals, less often - plants or even objects; early form of religious beliefs. Disrespect for the totem - the mythical "ancestor", with which each member of the genus considers himself connected, is a crime that entails punishment. The totem is both the animal or plant itself and its sign.
Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. Brief philosophical dictionary. M. 2010, p. 381.
Totemism (Podoprigora)
TOTEMISM - an archaic form of religion based on the belief in a close family relationship between a certain type of animal (rarely a plant) - a totem and a generic group. The totem, which is usually thought of as the common ancestor of the genus, gives the name to the totem group. Totemism is associated with a taboo system - a ban on killing and eating a totemic animal, which was violated during its ritual murder.
Totemism (Frolov)
TOTEMISM (from the word "ototeman", in the language of the North American Indians of the Ojibwe tribe - its kind) is one of the early forms of religion of primitive society. The term was first used by J. Long (late 18th century). The main thing in totemism is the belief in the common origin and blood relationship of a group of people with a certain type of animal, plant, object or phenomenon. The emergence of totemism is due to a primitive economy (hunting, gathering) and ignorance of other ties in society, except for blood relations. An ancestor animal, its image or symbol, as well as a group of people is called a totem.
Totemism is a common socio-religious system: this is how the notorious Wikipedia interprets this concept. The primitive religion was based on various facts and phenomena, linking human life, its capabilities and health, for example, with the earth, various animals, and also with other objects and phenomena. It was in this way that the division of the tribe once took place.
At the same time, people were compared with certain animals (owls, coyotes, crows), in honor of which totems were created ( totem- sign, clan coat of arms, animal name). But you could also earn your totem by having special skills: intelligence, strength, speed or wisdom. The name of the totem could be completely different - ranging from a living being to a weather phenomenon (for example, thunder).
If a family member was totemically associated with a certain animal, then the whole family was strictly forbidden to eat this totem animal and it was considered sacred. Everyone believed in totemism, because the ancient religion called for this.
What does totemism mean?
Word totemism(totem animal) in a broad sense means a set of beliefs about the existence of a kind of relationship between a human group or individual - with an animal or plant that is totem for such a group or individual. This relationship involves a series of rituals and taboos (especially of a food and sexual nature) that bind those who recognize themselves as belonging to the same totem.
The very word totem was introduced into active use in 1791 by the English traveler J. Long to denote the relationship of kinship and worship of plants and animals by the Indians in Eastern North America.
In anthropology, the introduction of such a concept and the collection of examples of totemic myths began at the end of the nineteenth century. During this period, scholars focused especially strongly on some of their aspects, which later became a form of religion. The content of these myths was considered one of the most archaic forms of worship in primitive culture. In this way the idea of totemism achieved widespread prominence and was analyzed by a wide variety of disciplines. Her introduction to the anthropological discussion goes back to John McLennan, a Scottish jurist and ethnologist, who emphasized that totemism is characterized by three elements:
- fetishism (cult of inanimate objects);
- exogamy (ban on marriages between members of the clan);
- matrilineal descent (the order of inheritance of national status through the mother).
To these aspects, Rivers would later add another element, namely, the prohibition against eating a totemic plant or animal (with the exception of certain ritual events).
The nature of totemism
Scientists assumed a certain social scenario in which there was no form of exogamy yet, and the whole group was under the despotic control of one person. The weakening of the heightened interest in the very concept of the totem occurred only as their evolutionary analysis was completed. In any case, this whole topic was somehow connected with the most ancient religions of mankind.
At the same time, the religions of ancient people suggested that certain forms of totemism might not include any features that were considered an integral part of the general totemic culture. At each stage of cultural evolution, there could be different versions and types of them. Therefore, ethnographic data were important not so much for clarifying the local significance of this cult, but for identifying its universal aspects and moments that were valid in the life of ancient people. A lot is known today about this kind of beliefs and their various aspects.
So, a characteristic feature of many primitive tribes was the cult of ancestors; therefore, the totem of one or another tribe was passed down from generation to generation. All members of the tribe respected and worshiped him. There was also a strong belief among the community that the magic of the first religions was stored in an amulet or amulet, which would protect and preserve the entire family throughout life. More than one generation of ancient peoples grew up on such beliefs.
Having such ancient roots, totemism and fetishism, to one degree or another, are also represented in the modern world. In our time, such forms of influence of this cult are known as:
- wearing amulets;
- amulets and symbols;
- idolatry.
Nature in totemism
Depending on the situation, even entire classes of animals that patronized the tribes could act as amulets. But also, there were tribes in which at the same time there could be warriors under the auspices of the Bear, Wolf, Coyote, Raven, as well as Thunder and Wind. But, in most cases, nevertheless, animals are the totem.
Totems: what is a totem animal?
How to understand what a totem animal is? It was believed that, mainly, this is a protector, patronizing with his energy and giving strength (especially in battle).
Absolutely for every man or woman, you can pick up his totem animal, with which you can interact on an energy level. It will be individual for each person. The inflicted image of such a creature on the amulet becomes the personification of a strong connection that protects its owner from bad energy influences and even from negative physical effects.
Due to the fact that different representations of this cult have been preserved since ancient times, one can observe how people worshiped one or another "idol". Vivid examples are the cultures of ancient Egypt, the North American Indians, as well as some other cultures in which an ancient amulet or sign, where the appearance of a sacred animal is present, was considered totems.
Totem animal panda or how not to waste energy
Among all the animals, the panda amulet is of particular importance. This is really quite an amazing animal, because in different nations its meaning has a different meaning. Pandas are found exclusively in China, but there is also evidence that such an animal can be found in Tibet. A charm with the image of a panda can mean courage, courage, friendliness, patience, harmony, and even hermitism. The energy of this animal is simply incredible, you just need to be able to properly control it. If a person is experienced, then it will not be difficult for him to identify someone belonging to the panda totem. As a rule, in this case we will talk about a gentle, cute, and sometimes even funny person who will look for the positive in everything and will never ask for trouble.
Monkey totem or how to get help in a difficult situation
As for the monkey totem, it also evokes different thoughts and emotions in people. Someone may assume that the monkey is stupid and aggressive, but this is far from the case. Belonging to the monkey totem, a person is rightfully considered balanced, very smart and calm. In addition, such people have strength and endurance. It is this symbol that personifies those who know how to lend a helping hand to a person in need at the most difficult moment. It is also worth mentioning that in India the monkey is worshiped as a divine animal.
The meaning of bird totems or about patron spirits
The bird totem symbolizes loftiness and lightness, and sometimes even vanity. Often he is selected as a force that protects people - their relatives. Moreover, each bird has a specific designation.
The meaning of bird totems is ambiguous, because there are good totems, and there are also anti-totems. People who have lost faith in themselves or strayed from their life path fall to the lot of the antitoteme. This amulet was created in the form of a crow, an owl and a jackdaw, since their image symbolizes death and witchcraft.
In religious representations, information about bird totems and anti-totems is also widely covered.
Animism, fetishism and magic
Since people believed in magic, witchcraft and completely obeyed it, animism and fetishism (magic) have always been very popular among them. By making amulets and amulets for himself in the form of various animals and spirits, a person, with the help of faith in their strength and protection, became morally stronger, which also added to his physical endurance. It was believed that everyone had to acquire a totem, since this small "deity" was considered an indisputable amulet and protector.
Today, totems also play a very important role. After all, it is also possible to choose a totem animal for yourself according to the sign of the zodiac. Each of the zodiac signs is associated with a certain animal, which acts as a totem. For example, Lions have a lion, Aquarius has a horse, and Pisces has a snail.
Amulets, amulets and totems of the American Indians are also a well-known theme. Having this or that totem, each person was obliged to wear an amulet that personified him. It could have been a small figurine of a totem animal carved out of wood or stone.
The American aborigines had a number of totems that they highly revered and for which special rituals of worship were held. The image of their totems in one form or another could be of enormous size, since it was intended to protect almost the entire tribe.
How are the phenomena of totemism explained?
The first important comparative presentation of known ethnographic data is connected with the totemism of the theory of Fraser and Exogamy (1910), where three different hypotheses of its origin are proposed:
- The first hypothesis says that the form of totemism is individual. It supports the assumption of the peoples that there is an external soul that dwells in animals and plants.
- The second hypothesis emphasizes the magical aspect of totemism. This is especially pronounced in the cult of the peoples of Australia.
- The third hypothesis is based on the idea of primitive people about the dependence of sexuality on the animal or plant spirit.
Fraser's monumental work on the study of the collected ethnographic data on totemism emphasized, in particular, the rationality of Western ethnic groups and its difference from the more primitive thinking of Eastern peoples. One of the results of this approach was to reveal a wide variety of types and forms of such approaches in the collected ethnographic evidence.
An in-depth study of these differences made it possible to establish that the variety of totemic phenomena was, indeed, too great: it did not even fit into a single typology.
Research put forward by various scholars made it possible to identify a wide range of divergent cult phenomena, so it was often difficult to build and formulate universal hypotheses. Ideas began to be proposed with increasing caution, as well as taking into account historical continuity and some geographical aspects.
Only one thing can be said unequivocally: totemism refers to a certain form of religion of primitive culture.
In the work "Totem and Taboo" (1912), one can also get acquainted with Freud's theory, in which an attempt was made to establish parallels between the two main prohibitions in totemism: alimentary and sexual. Ethnographic data regarding the prehistoric existence of the so-called primitive horde were, however, underestimated by him in favor of the well-known Darwinian hypothesis.
The American writer Stanley Elkin was one of the last writers to suggest that ethnographic analysis could still be developed in the direction of a more generalized interpretation of totemism. While the famous French folklorist and ethnographer Van Gennep was one of the first authors to recognize that totemism cannot be considered as a universal cultural phenomenon.
This lack of universality has also been confirmed by some other American anthropologists. According to Spencer's theory, totemism originated from the worship of animals.
Totemism in the modern world
also occupies a special place. Many people still believe in magic, miracles and sorcery. All kinds of amulets and amulets are not uncommon today. Almost every third inhabitant of the planet carries them with him. Thanks to the developments (“Totemism Today”), you can choose an energy protector by zodiac sign, date of birth and other parameters. Focusing on his work, you can choose a charm in the form of a certain animal or plant.
Choosing your totem is a personal matter for everyone. However, today one can also consider such a topic as totemism and social norms. There are entire social groups that choose a certain totem for themselves. Usually such communities are created under the leadership of a strong leader who knows how to rally and inspire people to follow certain rituals. In such groups, a set of internal laws and rules is adopted, the observance of which becomes the norm for all their members.
Africa (Ancient Egypt Central and South Africa)
Middle East and Mediterranean (Zoroastrianism Islam Judaism Christianity)
Pre-Columbian America
Pre-Christian Europe (Germans Ancient Armenia Ancient Greece Celts Slavs)
supernatural entities
Totemism- the once very widespread and now still existing religious and social system, which is based on a kind of cult of the so-called totem. This term was first used by Long in 1791. , borrowed from the North American Ojibwa tribe, in whose language totem means the name and sign, the coat of arms of the clan, as well as the name of the animal to which the clan renders a special cult. In the scientific sense, a totem is a class (necessarily a class, not an individual) of objects or natural phenomena to which one or another social group, clan, phratry, tribe, sometimes even each individual sex within the group (Australia), and sometimes the individual (Northern . America) - they render special worship, with which they consider themselves related and by whose name they call themselves. There is no such object that could not be a totem, however, the most common (and, apparently, ancient) totems were animals.
Types of totems
Wind, sun, rain, thunder, water, iron (Africa), even parts of individual animals or plants, for example, the head of a turtle, the stomach of a piglet, the ends of leaves, etc., can act as a totem, but most often - classes of animals and plants. So, for example, the North American Ojibwa tribe consists of 23 clans, each of which considers a special animal (wolf, bear, beaver, carp, sturgeon, duck, snake, etc.) as its totem; in Ghana in Africa, a fig tree and a maize stalk serve as totems. In Australia, where totemism especially flourishes, even all external nature is distributed among the same totems as the local population. So, among the Australians from Mount Gambier, rain, thunder, lightning, clouds, hail belong to the crow totem, fish, seals, certain tree species, etc. belong to the snake totem; among the tribes in Port Mackay, the sun refers to the kangaroo totem, the moon to the alligator totem.
Scope of use of totems
Totemistic ideas are reflected in the entire worldview of the primitive animist. The main sign of totemism is that the totem is considered the ancestor of a given social group, and each individual of the totem class is a blood relative, a relative of each member of the group of his admirers. If, for example, a crow serves as a totem, then it is considered the real progenitor of this genus, and each crow is a relative. In the stage of the theoretic cult that preceded totemism, all objects and phenomena of nature were presented to man as anthropomorphic creatures in the form of animals, and therefore animals are most often totems.
Africa
In Africa, at the birth of a totem snake, newborns are subjected to a special snake test: if the snake does not touch the child, it is considered legal, otherwise it is killed as alien. Australian muri refer to the totem animal as "their flesh". The tribes of the Gulf of Carpentaria, at the sight of the murder of their totem, say: “Why was this man killed: is this my father, my brother, etc.?” In Australia, where sex totems exist, women consider the representatives of their totem to be their sisters, men - brothers, and both of them - their common ancestors. Many totem tribes believe that after death, each person turns into the animal of his totem and, therefore, each animal is a deceased relative.
According to traditional ideas, the totem animal maintains a special relationship with the ethnic group. So, if the totem is a dangerous predator, it must definitely spare the consanguineous clan. In Senegambia, the natives are convinced that scorpions do not touch their admirers. The bechuans, whose totem is the crocodile, are so convinced of its favor that if a person is bitten by a crocodile, even if water is splashed on him from hitting the water with the crocodile's tail, he is expelled from the clan, as an obviously illegal member of it.
In Africa, sometimes instead of asking what genus or totem a person belongs to, they ask him what kind of dance he dances. Often, for the same purpose of assimilation, during religious ceremonies they put on face masks with images of a totem, dress in the skins of totem animals, adorn themselves with their feathers, etc. Survivals of this kind are found even in modern Europe. Among the southern Slavs, at the birth of a child, an old woman runs out with a cry: “The she-wolf gave birth to a wolf cub!” After which the child is threaded through the wolf skin, and a piece of the wolf’s eye and heart is sewn into a shirt or hung around the neck. To fully consolidate the tribal union with the totem, the primitive man resorts to the same means as when accepting an outsider as a member of the clan and concluding inter-tribal alliances and peace treaties, that is, to a blood contract (see Tattooing, Theory of tribal life, circumcision).
North America
Among the bison clan of the Omaha tribe (North America), the dying person was wrapped in the skin of a bison, his face was painted in the color of the totem and addressed to him like this: “You are going to the bison! You go to your ancestors! Be strong! Among the Zuni Indian tribe, when a totem animal, a turtle, is brought into the house, it is greeted with tears in their eyes: “O poor dead son, father, sister, brother, grandfather! Who knows who you are? - Worship of the totem is primarily expressed in the fact that it is the strictest taboo; sometimes they avoid even touching it, looking at it (the Bechuans in Africa). If it is an animal, then they usually avoid killing it, eating it, dressing in its skin; if it is a tree or another plant, they avoid cutting it, using it for fuel, eating its fruits, and even sometimes sitting in its shade.
Among many tribes, the killing of a totem by a stranger requires the same kind of revenge, or vira, as killing a kinsman. In British Columbia, eyewitnesses to such a murder hide their faces in shame and then demand vira. Similarly, in ancient Egypt, incessant bloody feuds arose between the nomes over the killing of totems. When meeting with a totem, and in some places - even when parading the sign of the totem, they greet him, bow to him, throw valuable things in front of him.
To win the full favor of their totem, totemists use a variety of means. First of all, he tries to approach him by outward imitation. So, among the Omaha tribe, boys of the bison clan curl two locks of hair on their heads, like the horns of a totem, and the turtle clan leaves 6 curls, like the legs, head and tail of this animal. Botoka (Africa) knock out the upper front teeth to resemble a bull, their totem, etc. Solemn dances often aim to imitate the movements and sounds of a totem animal.
Australia
When the corpse of a totem animal is found, condolences are expressed and a solemn funeral is arranged for him. Even tribes that allow the consumption of the totem try to consume it in moderation (central Australia), avoid killing it in a dream and always give the animal the opportunity to escape. Australians from Mount Gambier only kill a totem animal in case of hunger and in doing so express regret that they have killed "their friend, their flesh".
Totems, in turn, as faithful relatives, who also have supernatural powers, provide patronage to blood-related fans, contributing to their material well-being, protecting them from the machinations of earthly and supernatural enemies, warning of danger (the owl in Samoa), giving signals to march (kangaroo in Australia), leading a war, etc.
The tradition of eating the totem.
Rubbing the body with the blood of the totem turned over time into painting and similar feigning practices. An important means for using the supernatural patronage of the totem is considered to be its constant close presence. Therefore, totem animals are often fattened in captivity, for example, among the highlanders of Formosa, who keep snakes and leopards in cages, or on the island of Samoa, where eels are kept at home. Hence the custom subsequently developed to keep animals in temples and to give them divine honors, as, for example, in Egypt.
The most important means for communicating with a totem is considered to be eating its body (theophagy, see also prosphyra, communion). Periodically, members of the clan kill a totem animal (see slaughter) and solemnly, while observing a number of rites and ceremonies, eat it, most often without a trace, with bones and entrails. A similar rite takes place in the case when the totem is a plant (see kolachi, carols).
Survivals of this ancestral tasting of food are found in the Lithuanian Samboros. This custom, according to the views of the totemist, is not in the least offensive to the totem, but, on the contrary, is very pleasing to him. Sometimes the procedure is of such a nature as if the animal being killed is performing an act of self-sacrifice and is eager to be eaten by its fans. Gilyaks, although they came out of totem life, but annually solemnly kill a bear during the so-called bear holiday, they confidently say that the bear itself gives a good place for a mortal blow (Sternberg). Robertson Smith and Jevons consider the custom of periodically eating the totem as the prototype of later sacrifices to anthropomorphic gods, accompanied by the eating of the victims themselves who brought it. Sometimes the rite of religious killing aims either to terrorize the totem by the example of killing some members of its class, or to release the soul of the totem to follow to a better world. Thus, among the genus of worms of the Omaha tribe (North America), if worms flood a cornfield, they are caught by several pieces, crushed together with grain and then eaten, believing that this protects the cornfield for one year. Among the Zuni tribe, once a year, a procession is sent for totemic tortoises, which, after the warmest greetings, are killed and the meat and bones are buried, not eaten, in the river, so that they can return to eternal life. Recently, two researchers in Australia, B. Spencer and Gillen, discovered new facts of totemism - inticiuma ceremonies. All these ceremonies are performed at the beginning of the spring season, the period of flowering of plants and reproduction of animals, and are intended to cause an abundance of totem species. The rites are always performed in the same place, the abode of the spirits of the clan and the totem, are addressed to a certain representative of the totem, which is either a stone or an artificial image of it on earth (transition to individual deities and images), almost always accompanied by a sacrifice of the blood of totemists and ends with a solemn eating a forbidden totem; after which it is usually allowed to consume it in moderation in general.
Influence on subsequent religious teachings
In totemism, as in an embryo, all the main elements of the further stages of religious development are already contained: the relationship of a deity with a person (the deity is the father of his worshipers), taboos, forbidden and not forbidden animals (later clean and unclean), the sacrifice of an animal and the obligatory tasting of its body , the selection of a chosen individual from the totem class for worship and keeping him at dwellings (the future animal is a deity in the temple of Egypt), the identification of a person with a totem deity (reverse anthropomorphism), the power of religion over social relations, the sanction of public and personal morality (see below ), finally, jealous and vengeful intercession for the offended totem deity. Totemism is currently the only form of religion in all of Australia. He dominates the North. America and is found on a large scale in South America, in Africa, among the non-Aryan peoples of India, and its remnants exist in the religions and beliefs of more civilized peoples. In Egypt, totemism flourished in historical times. In Greece and Rome, despite the anthropomorphic cult, there are sufficient traces of totemism. Many genera had eponymous heroes who bore the names of animals, for example, κριό (ram), κῠνός (canis, dog), etc. The Myrmidons, the ancient Thessalians, considered themselves descendants of ants. In Athens, they worshiped a hero in the form of a wolf, and anyone who killed a wolf was obliged to arrange a funeral for him (see also the Capitoline she-wolf). In Rome, they worshiped the woodpecker, which was dedicated to Mars, and did not eat it. Roman patricians used family totems in their family coats of arms - images of various animals (bulls, lions, fish, etc.). Features of totemic ceremonies are noticeable in thesmophoria, which were intended to guarantee the fertility of the earth and people. In ancient India, the features of totemism are quite clear in the cult of animals and trees and the prohibitions on eating them (see Terotheism). Totemism is not only a religious, but also a socio-cultural institution. He gave the highest religious sanction to tribal institutions. The main foundations of the clan are the inviolability of the life of a relative and the obligation of revenge arising from it, the inaccessibility of the totem cult for persons of alien blood, the obligatory heredity of the totem in the male or female line, which established once and for all the contingent of persons belonging to the clan, finally, even the rules of sexual regulation - all this most closely associated with the cult of the ancestral totem. Only this can explain the strength of totemic ties, for which people often sacrificed the most intimate blood ties: during wars, sons went against fathers, wives against husbands, etc. e. Fraser and Jevons consider totemism the main, if not the only, culprit in the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants. The ban on eating a totem animal was extremely favorable to this, because it kept the greedy savage from the frivolous extermination of valuable animals during the period of domestication. Even up to the present time, pastoral peoples avoid killing their domestic animals, not for economic reasons, but because of religious experience. In India, killing a cow was considered the greatest religious crime. In the same way, the habit of keeping from year to year the ears, grains, and fruits of totem trees and plants, and periodically eating them for religious purposes, must have led to attempts at planting and cultivation. At the same time, the didukh was burned after the holidays. Often this was even a religious necessity, for example, when moving to new places where there were no totem plants and they had to be artificially bred.
The study of totemism
Although totemism, as a fact, has been known since the end of the 18th century, the doctrine of it, as a stage of primitive religion, is still very young. It was first advanced by Mr. McLennan, who traced it from the savages to the peoples of classical antiquity. It owes its further development to the English scientists Robertson Smith, Fraser, Jevons, and a number of local researchers, especially Australian ones, of whom Gowit and Fison rendered the greatest service, and most recently B. Spencer and Gillen.
Genesis of totemism
The main question of the genesis of totemism has not yet left the field of controversy. Spencer and Lubbock are inclined to consider the origin of T. the result of some kind of misunderstanding (eng. misinterpretation of nicknames ), caused by the custom to give people, due to the poverty of the language, names for objects of nature, most often the names of animals. Over time, the savage, confusing the name of the object with the object itself, came to believe that his distant ancestor, called by the name of the animal, really was such. But this explanation fails because every savage has every opportunity to verify the meaning of the nickname on himself or on those around him, who are often also called by the names of animals and yet have nothing in common with the eponymous animal. In 1896, F. Jevons, who sees the genesis of totemism in the psychology of tribal life, put forward a very harmonious and witty theory of totemism. The animist savage, leveling all nature according to the human pattern, naturally imagines that all external nature also lives the same tribal life as he himself. Each individual species of plant or animal, each class of homogeneous phenomena, is in his eyes a conscious tribal union, recognizing the institutions of revenge, blood contracts, waging bloody feuds with other people's clans, etc. An animal, therefore, for a person is an alien who can be avenged and with whom you can enter into agreements. Weak and helpless in the struggle with nature, primitive man, seeing in animals and in the rest of nature mysterious beings stronger than himself, naturally seeks an alliance with them - and the only lasting alliance known to him is the union of blood, homogeneity, fastened a contract of blood, moreover, an alliance not with an individual, but with a class, a whole genus. Such a blood union, concluded between the genus and the totemic class, turned both of them into a single class of relatives. The habit of regarding the totem as a kinsman created the idea of a real descent from the totem, and this in turn strengthened the cult and alliance with the totem. Gradually, from the cult of the totem class, the cult of the individual is developed, which turns into an anthropomorphic being; the former taste of the totem turns into a sacrifice to the individual deity; the growth of clans into phratries and tribes, with common totems for their constituent subtotems, expands the totemic cult into a polytotemic one, and thus the foundations of further stages of religion are gradually developed from the elements of totemism. This theory, which satisfactorily explains certain aspects of t., does not solve the fundamental question of its genesis: it remains incomprehensible why, given the homogeneity of the psychology of primitive man and the homogeneous conditions of the surrounding nature, neighboring clans each choose not one totem, the most powerful of the surrounding objects of nature, but each with its own special, often unremarkable object, for example, a worm, an ant, a mouse?
See also: Cult of the Ancestors, Hero ( in Greco-ancient mythology)
Fraser's theory
In 1899 prof. Fraser, on the basis of the newly discovered inticium ceremonies by Spencer and Gillen, constructed a new theory of totemism. According to Fraser, totemism is not a religion, that is, not a belief in the conscious influence of supernatural beings, but a type of magic, that is, a belief in the possibility of various magical means to influence external nature, regardless of its consciousness or unconsciousness. Totemism is a social magic that aims to cause an abundance of certain types of plants and animals that serve as natural consumer products. In order to achieve this, groups of clans living in the same territory at one time drew up a cooperative agreement, according to which each individual clan abstains from eating one or another species of plants and animals and performs annually a well-known magical ceremony, as a result of which an abundance of all consumer products is obtained. Apart from the difficulty of allowing such a mystical cooperation to form among primitive people, it must be said that the inticiuma ceremonies may be interpreted as expiatory procedures for eating a forbidden totem. In any case, this theory does not resolve the fundamental question of belief in descent from a totemic object.
The theory of Pickler and Somlo
Finally, in the city, two learned lawyers, prof. Pickler and Somlo, came up with a theory, finding that the genesis of totemism lies in pictography, the rudiments of which are indeed found among many primitive tribes (see sign system, semiotics, archetype, eidolon (idol)). Since the most conveniently depicted objects of the outside world were animals or plants, the image of one or another plant or animal was chosen to designate a certain social group, unlike any others. From here, by the name of this latter, they received their names and genera, and subsequently, due to a peculiar primitive psychology, the idea was developed that the object that served as a model of the totem sign was the true ancestor of the clan. In support of this view, the authors refer to the fact that the tribes, unfamiliar with pictography, do not know totemism either. More plausible, however, is another explanation of this fact: pictography could have developed more among totem tribes, accustomed to depicting their totem, than among non-totem ones, and, therefore, pictography is more a consequence of totemism than its cause. In essence, this whole theory is a repetition of the old thought of Plutarch, who derived the worship of animals in Egypt from the custom of depicting animals on banners.
Tylor's theory
Taylor came closer to clarifying the issue, who, following Wilken, accepts the cult of ancestors and belief in the transmigration of souls as one of the starting points of totemism; but he did not give his point of view a clear factual basis. For a correct understanding of the genesis of totemism, it is necessary to bear in mind the following:
- Tribal organization, terotheism and the cult of nature, as well as a special tribal cult, existed before totemism.
- Belief in origin from some object or phenomenon of nature is not at all a later speculative conclusion from other primary facts, such as a blood contract (Jevons), pictography, etc., but, on the contrary, is understood by primitive man quite realistically, in the physiological sense of the word for which he has sufficient reasons, logically arising from his whole animistic psychology.
- The genesis of totemism lies not in any one reason, but in a whole series of reasons arising from one common source - a peculiar worldview of primitive man. Here are the main ones:
1) Family cult. Among many primitive tribes with a theorotheistic cult, there is a belief that all cases of unnatural death, for example, in the fight with animals, death on the water, etc., as well as many cases of natural death, are the result of a special favor of animal deities who accept dead in their kind, turning them into their own kind. These relatives, who have turned into deities, become the patrons of their kind and, consequently, the object of the tribal cult. A typical cult of this kind was stated by Sternberg among many foreigners of the Amur region - Gilyaks, Orochs, Olches, etc. The kind of animal that adopted the chosen one becomes related to the whole family of the latter; in each individual of a given class of animals, the relative of the chosen one is inclined to see his descendant and, consequently, his close relative. From here it is not far to the idea of abstaining from eating one or another class of animals and to the creation of a typical totem. There are other forms, when selected personalities are responsible for the creation of totems. Religious ecstasies (for shamans, for young men during obligatory fasts before initiations) cause hallucinations and dreams, during which one or another animal appears to the chosen one and offers him his patronage, turning him into himself similar. After that, the chosen one begins in every possible way to liken himself to a patronizing animal and with complete faith feels himself to be such. Shamans usually consider themselves under the special protection of one or another animal, turn themselves into such during the ritual and pass on their patron by inheritance to their successors. In North America, such individual totems are especially common.
2) Another root cause of totemism is parthenogenesis. Belief in the possibility of conception from an animal, plant, stone, sun, and in general any object or natural phenomenon is a very common phenomenon, not only among primitive peoples (see Immaculate Conception). It is explained by the anthropomorphization of nature, the belief in the reality of dreams, in particular erotic ones, with characters in the form of plants and animals, and, finally, an extremely vague idea of the process of generation (in all of central Australia, for example, there is a belief that conception occurs from the introduction into female body of the ancestor spirit). Some real facts, like the birth of freaks (subjects with a goat's leg, a foot twisted inward, a special hairiness, etc.) in the eyes of a primitive man, serve as sufficient proof of conception from a non-human being. Back in the 17th century. similar cases have been described by some writers under the name adulterium naturae. Stories like the story about the wife of Clovis, who gave birth to Merovee from a sea demon, are very common even among historical peoples, and faith in incubus and elves involved in the birth is still alive in Europe. It is not surprising that some erotic dream or the birth of a freak among a primitive tribe gave rise to the belief in conception from one or another object of nature and, consequently, to the creation of a totem. The history of totemism is full of facts like the fact that a woman of one or another totem gave birth to a snake, a calf, a crocodile, a monkey, etc. L. Sternberg observed the very genesis of such a totem kind among the Orochi tribe, who have neither a totem organization nor a totem cult, no genus names; only one clan from the whole tribe calls itself a tiger, on the grounds that a tiger appeared in a dream to one of the women of this clan and had conjugio with her. The same researcher noted similar phenomena in non-totemic gilyaks. Under favorable conditions, the totem and the totem cult arise from this. At the basis of totemism lies, therefore, a real belief in a real origin from a totemic object, present or transformed into such from a human state - a belief that is fully explained by the entire mental make-up of primitive man.
Notes
see also
- group psychology
- group psychosis
- Phratria (as a tribal community)
- Fratria (guild)
- Freemasonry, admission to masons, consecration of the union, blood union (unity by blood)
- Group "I"
- Taming (as taming)
- History of the circus
Literature
- Semenov Yu. I. Totemism, primitive mythology and primitive religion // Skepsis. No. 3/4. Spring 2005, pp. 74-78.
- J. F. M'Lennan, "The worship of Animals and Plants" ("Fortnightly Review", Oct. and Nov. 1869 and Feb. 1870), also in "Studies in Ancient history" (1896); W. Robertson Smith, "Religion of the Semites" (New ed. London, 1894);
- J. G. Frazer, "Totemism" (1887); his own, "The golden hough"; his own, The Origin of Totemism (Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1899); his own, "Observations on Central Australian Totemism" ("Journal of the Anthropological Institute for (Great Britain etc.", February and May, 1899);
- B. Spencer, "Remarks on Totemism etc."; E. Tylor, "Remarks on Totemism" (ibid., 1898, August and November);
- A. Lang, "Mythes, Ritual and Religion" (2nd ed., 1899); his, "M. Frazer's theory of totemism" ("Fort. Review" LXV);
- F. B. Jevons, "Introduction to the history of Religion"; his own, "The place of Totemism in the evolution of Religion" ("Folk-Lore", 1900, X);
- B. Spencer and Gillen, "The native tribes of Central Australia" (1899);
- J. Pikler u. F. Somlo, "Der Ursprung des Totemismus" (Berl., 1900);
- Kohler, "Zur Urgeschichte der Ehe, Totemismus etc.";
- Göffler-Goelz, "Der medizinische Dämonismus" ("Centralblatt für Anthropologie etc.", 1900, no. I),
- G. Wilken, "Het Animisme bijde Volken wan den indischen Archipel" (1884);
- E. S. Hartland, "The legend of Perseus";
- Staneley, "Totemism", "Science", 1900, IX);
- L. Sternberg, communications in geographer. society (short reports in Living Antiquity, 1901).
Links
1) Totemism- (in the language of North American Ojibwe Indians "ot-otem", lit. - his kind) - one of the early forms of religion, the essence of which is belief in supernatural beings. relationship between humans. groups (kinds) and animals and raises, the world (less often - natural phenomena and inanimate objects). A totem - a plant or an animal (more often the latter) - was perceived as a real ancestor, from which magic. the life and well-being of the clan as a whole and each of its members individually depended in a way. Churingas, kept in St. places. Traditional the set of ideas associated with T. is the belief in the possibility of a permanent “immaculate” incarnation (incarnation) of the totem in newborn members of the genus, i.e., in their living descendants; in what can be magical. by influencing the totem and causing an abundance of appropriate animals and plants in the territory of a kind (tribe) and ensuring its material well-being; that the death of an object that is a symbol of a totem can lead to the death of its living counterpart. T. has been most thoroughly studied in the Australians, the Negroes of the Center. Africa, North Indians. America, but T. remnants are found in all religions of the world, including Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.
2) Totemism- (in the language of the Indians "ototem" - his family): belief in a supernatural relationship between human groups (kinds) and certain animals or plants (totems). One of the early forms of science and tribal religions, the adherents of which perceived the totem as a common ancestor of their kind, capable of providing them with supernatural help.
3) Totemism- (from the Algonquian "ototem" - its kind) - one of the early forms of religion of primitive society, based on a set of beliefs, myths, rituals and customs associated with the belief in the supernatural relationship of people with various objects, phenomena and creatures (totems). T. is characterized by the perception of a totem (animal, plant, natural phenomenon, etc.) as a real ancestor, whose patronage and protection ensure the life and well-being of all those connected with him by a common origin and ties of consanguinity. The main type of T. is clan (tribal) T. Non-basic types of T. include: individual (nagualism) and sexual T. Traces and remnants of T. as forms of religion are found among all peoples and in all religions of the world. The term "T." was introduced into scientific circulation by the English traveler J. Long in 1791. The most detailed studies of t. carried out by J. McLennan, W.B. Robertson-Smith, Fraser, and others. Interpretation and explanation of T. now offer dozens of different theories and concepts. The most popular of them are: the interpretation of t. as the original form of religion (Durkheim and others) and the interpretation of t. as a primitive intellectual classification system (Levi-Strauss and others). Among the psychological concepts of T. the most famous psychoanalytic version of Freud, set out in his book "Totem and Taboo. The Psychology of Primitive Culture and Religion" (1913). Extending psychoanalytic ideas and constructs (including the "Oedipus complex") to the sphere of universal culture and historically original forms of religious beliefs, Freud proposed an understanding of T. as one of the early forms of religion of primitive society, on the basis of which the first ethical ( cultural) restrictions (taboo) - the prohibition of murder and incest (incest), from which the construction of culture began. Freud considered T. a prerequisite and source of subsequent religions, and in the first place - Judaism and Christianity. The psychoanalytic concept of T. has repeatedly been subjected to various criticisms for its mythological nature. IN AND. Ovcharenko
4) Totemism- - religious beliefs that arose at an early stage in the development of society: ideas about the common ancestor of a tribe or clan - an animal, plant, less often - a natural phenomenon or an inanimate object; belief in the origin of man from an animal or plant, stone, object.
5) Totemism- - the faith of many primitive peoples, and above all the North Americans. Indians, in that they are descended from some animal, plant, star, household item, etc., being related to them. The totem is the thing itself, revered as a powerful patron of the tribe and a symbol of its inner solidarity. The totem is also a roughly processed sign of this thing, used by the leader as a signature.
6) Totemism- (from the word “ototeman”, in the language of the North American Indians of the Ojibwe tribe - his kind) - one of the early forms of religion of the primitive community. The term was first used by J. Long (late 18th century). Main in T. - belief in a common origin and blood closeness to.-l. groups of people with a certain type of animal, plant, object or phenomenon. T.'s emergence is caused by primitive economy (hunting, gathering) and ignorance of other communications in about-ve, except consanguinity. An ancestor animal, its image or symbol, as well as a group of people is called a totem. Totem, a powerful patron of people, provides them with food. T. common among the tribes of Australia, North. and Yuzhn. America, Melanesia, Polynesia, Africa. Survivals of Taurus have been preserved in developed religions (God as the father of believers; communion as partaking of the body of God) and in folklore (tales about marital and family relations between people and animals).
totemism
(in the language of North American Ojibwe Indians "ot-otem", lit. - his kind) - one of the early forms of religion, the essence of which is belief in supernatural beings. relationship between humans. groups (kinds) and animals and raises, the world (less often - natural phenomena and inanimate objects). A totem - a plant or an animal (more often the latter) - was perceived as a real ancestor, from which magic. the life and well-being of the clan as a whole and each of its members individually depended in a way. Churingas, kept in St. places. Traditional the set of ideas associated with T. is the belief in the possibility of a permanent “immaculate” incarnation (incarnation) of the totem in newborn members of the genus, i.e., in their living descendants; in what can be magical. by influencing the totem and causing an abundance of appropriate animals and plants in the territory of a kind (tribe) and ensuring its material well-being; that the death of an object that is a symbol of a totem can lead to the death of its living counterpart. T. has been most thoroughly studied in the Australians, the Negroes of the Center. Africa, North Indians. America, but T. remnants are found in all religions of the world, including Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.
(in the language of the Indians "ototem" - his kind): belief in a supernatural relationship between human groups (kinds) and certain animals or plants (totems). One of the early forms of science and tribal religions, the adherents of which perceived the totem as a common ancestor of their kind, capable of providing them with supernatural help.
(from the Algonquian "ototem" - its kind) - one of the early forms of religion of primitive society, based on a set of beliefs, myths, rituals and customs associated with the belief in the supernatural relationship of people with various objects, phenomena and creatures (totems). T. is characterized by the perception of a totem (animal, plant, natural phenomenon, etc.) as a real ancestor, whose patronage and protection ensure the life and well-being of all those connected with him by a common origin and ties of consanguinity. The main type of T. is clan (tribal) T. Non-basic types of T. include: individual (nagualism) and sexual T. Traces and remnants of T. as forms of religion are found among all peoples and in all religions of the world. The term "T." was introduced into scientific circulation by the English traveler J. Long in 1791. The most detailed studies of t. carried out by J. McLennan, W.B. Robertson-Smith, Fraser, and others. Interpretation and explanation of T. now offer dozens of different theories and concepts. The most popular of them are: the interpretation of t. as the original form of religion (Durkheim and others) and the interpretation of t. as a primitive intellectual classification system (Levi-Strauss and others). Among the psychological concepts of T. the most famous psychoanalytic version of Freud, set out in his book "Totem and Taboo. The Psychology of Primitive Culture and Religion" (1913). Extending psychoanalytic ideas and constructs (including the "Oedipus complex") to the sphere of universal culture and historically original forms of religious beliefs, Freud proposed an understanding of T. as one of the early forms of religion of primitive society, on the basis of which the first ethical ( cultural) restrictions (taboo) - the prohibition of murder and incest (incest), from which the construction of culture began. Freud considered T. a prerequisite and source of subsequent religions, and in the first place - Judaism and Christianity. The psychoanalytic concept of T. has repeatedly been subjected to various criticisms for its mythological nature. IN AND. Ovcharenko
Religious beliefs that arose at an early stage in the development of society: ideas about the common ancestor of a tribe or clan - an animal, plant, less often - a natural phenomenon or an inanimate object; belief in the origin of man from an animal or plant, stone, object.
The faith of many primitive peoples, and above all the North Americans. Indians, in that they are descended from some animal, plant, star, household item, etc., being related to them. The totem is the thing itself, revered as a powerful patron of the tribe and a symbol of its inner solidarity. The totem is also a roughly processed sign of this thing, used by the leader as a signature.
identification of the tribe with a certain kind of holy animal, totem. This type of religious beliefs contains a statement about the kinship ties of a certain community with an animal-totem.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
totemism
TOTEMISM- one of the early forms of religion, which is based on the belief in the existence of a special kind of mystical connection between a group of people (genus, tribe) and a certain type of animal or plant (less often, natural phenomena and inanimate objects). The name of this form of religious belief comes from the word "ototem", which is in the North American language. Ojibwe Indians means "his kind". During the study of T., it was found that its occurrence is closely connected with the economic activity of primitive man - gathering and hunting. Animals and plants, which gave people the opportunity to exist, became objects of worship. At the first stages of the development of Taurus, such worship did not exclude, but even assumed the use of totem animals and plants for food. Therefore, sometimes primitive people expressed their attitude to the totem with the words: "This is our meat." However, this kind of connection between people and totems belongs to the distant past, and only ancient legends and stable language turns that have come down to researchers from time immemorial testify to its existence. Later, elements of social, primarily consanguineous, relations were introduced into T. Members of the tribal group (blood relatives) began to believe that a certain totemic animal or plant was the ancestor and patron of their group, and that their distant ancestors, who combined the signs of people and a totem, had supernatural abilities. This led, on the one hand, to the strengthening of the cult of ancestors, on the other hand, to a change in attitude towards the totem itself. For example, prohibitions arose on the use of a totem for food, except for those cases when eating it was of a ritual nature and reminded of ancient norms and rules. Subsequently, within the framework of T., a whole system of prohibitions arose, which were called taboo. Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
