The varied coloring of the roofs and domes of Russian churches should also be attributed to Asian influence. Preference is given to green, red and white colors, to which gilding is increasingly added for domes. The five-dome system was borrowed from Byzantium (see Fig. 25 and 60); is surprising that it appeared in Rus' only in this era. Along with the five-dome system, there are also more domes. From the Asian elements, picturesquely, but one cannot say - organically, merged with the Slavic artistic taste, a new, national Russian art has grown.
The heyday of Russian cities begins, the center of which was the Kremlin - a walled sacred hill with palaces and churches crowded on it. However, Kyiv and St. Petersburg, for example, never had it, and the Novgorod Kremlin arose in the Tatar-Mongolian period. In such cities as Rostov, Kazan and Moscow, the Kremlin is given the most important place. Moscow, the sacred Russian capital, rose in the era of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and soon eclipsed all other cities. After Grand Duke Ivan Danilovich Kalita received a label for a great reign from the Khan of the Golden Horde (1328), the first Moscow stone churches were built: the Church of the Savior on the Forest (1330), the Arkhangelsk
Bor (1333), approximately at the same time - the Assumption Cathedral; but the listed churches in their modern form belong to the next era.
Russian painting in the images of saints throughout this era retained a Byzantine character, only occasionally giving a slight Slavic coloring to their works. Frescoes and numerous icons of this time have been preserved, but both of them still represent an unexplored area for us. Even the famous Andrey Rublev, who lived at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, despite the fact that we have frescoes of his work in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and several icons, of which Novitsky reproduced the icon of the Holy Trinity in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, does not yet appear to us clearly portrayed by an artistic personality. One thing is certain - in the century Rublev was recognized by the church as the best master of the good old days.
More numerous and better studied are Russian manuscripts of the period of the rule of the Tatar-Mongols. We find new features mainly not in their Old and New Testament scenes and individual sacred images, but in ornamentation - in headpieces, endings, frames and capital letters. A deluxe edition of Butovsky, articles by Stasov and others are devoted to this topic. It was in this area that Russian art created a kind of fantastic style on a Byzantine basis with the help of Asian, especially Persian, and partly northern elements. The interweaving of belts and branches, carved leaves and flowers, dragons, snakes, birds, quadrupeds and people, often intertwined with each other, form a new world of forms. In ornamentation, the style of the Novgorod school excelled. Placed on a dark blue background, the figures of animals and people, often whimsically twisted, are outlined in red, gold or yellow contours, and the figures themselves remain white, unpainted, while the same white weaves from which they grow are equipped with thick twisted leaves or flower petals. , usually content with some red outlines (Fig. 315, top). One gets the impression that it is possible to compose whole coherent compositions from these scattered figures in the manuscripts. Of the works of this kind, the Gospel No. 2 of the Resurrection Monastery (near Moscow) and Psalter No. 3 of the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg should be noted.
From a mixture of heterogeneous motifs, the Russian style arose, in which a subtle understanding of form and a richness of imagination are closely interconnected.
Russian ornaments: at the top - initials from Psalter No. 3 (XIV century); in the middle - a headpiece from the Gospel (Pogodin's collection, 16th century); below - headpiece from the Apostle of the 16th century, in the Russian National Library of St. Petersburg. According to Butovsky
The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused serious damage to Russian culture. The military defeat, the heavy tribute, the withdrawal of the full of masters significantly impoverished the cultural process. However, the tradition did not stop. Moreover, one can hardly speak of any noticeable influence of Mongolian culture on Russian, especially at first. For a long time, the steppe world of the Mongols-nomads and the world of the cities of the Slavic farmers existed alienated, it took more than one century for mutual rapprochement.
First of all, the influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke had on literature.
The Battle of Kulikovo was a natural result and a vivid manifestation of the socio-economic and political development of the Russian lands in the 14th century. The works of literature and art dedicated to her in a vivid, distinct form revealed the main ideas and moods that determined the nature of Russian social thought of that period.
The Battle of Kulikovo and related events accelerated the formation of the ideology of a single centralized state. The ideological richness of the monuments allows us to assert that from the end of the XIV century. a new stage in the development of Russian social thought began. Its development in the second half of the XIV-XV centuries. was determined by the main factor in the political life of Rus' - the existence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Comprehension of the reasons for the establishment of the yoke, the search for ways to revive the country, the glorification of the first successes in the fight against the enslavers constitute the main content of Russian social thought of the XIII-XV centuries. Its development in the second half of the XIII-XV centuries. according to changes in attitude to the main issue - the question of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the national revival - can be divided into three stages.
The first stage, which lasted approximately until the beginning of the 14th century, is characterized by the absence of any coherent political theory, any consistently pursued socio-political idea. Sorrow for the death of Rus', the deepening of the sense of national dignity are the main content of the monuments created during this period.
At the second stage, the ideology of new political centers, especially Moscow and Tver, is gradually formed, the spiritual forces of the people are slowly gathering together, which served as one of the foundations of the national upsurge of the late XIV - early XV centuries. These theories could not, of course, be openly anti-Horde in nature, but their very appearance meant a new step in the spiritual revival of the country.
The Battle of Kulikovo and the national upsurge that accompanied it caused the beginning of a new, third, stage in the development of Russian medieval thought. The idea of the unity of all Russian principalities triumphs. The most developed and proved its vitality and strength during the events of 1380. the idea of Moscow's priority in the Russian lands, one of the main reasons for which is Moscow's leading role in the struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke, becomes the core of Russian social thought in the next century. The idea of readiness for self-sacrifice in open armed struggle triumphs in literature. The main thought of all literary monuments becomes - the idea of the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy.
One of the first responses to what happened was "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The "Tale" describes the death of Ryazan and the family of Ryazan princes. The Mongol invasion was perceived by contemporaries as the end of the world, as "the great final destruction." Hence the tragedy that fills the works of that period. The motive of heroic death is the leading one in the literature devoted to the invasion. The call for unity is the ideological core of all editions of Chronicle Tale, Zadonshchina, and The Tale of Mamai's Massacre. The theme of heroism, military glory, the ideals of military prowess, traditional for ancient Russian literature, sounded with particular force. These ideals were reflected in such earlier literary works of the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke as "The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the chronicle story "about the battle on the Vozhzha River", as well as in folklore. Memories of the Mamaev battle will forever remain in the memory of the people. The bright ideals of selfless service and self-sacrifice, created by the intense spiritual work of the best people of then Rus', were sealed with the blood of the heroes of the Battle of Kulikovo and therefore gained strength and inviolability.
The Tatar-Mongol yoke had a great harm on the development of architecture. The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke led to a long decline in stone construction in almost all Russian lands. Even in the first half of the XIV century. in northeastern Rus', the construction of a stone church was an outstanding event that attracted everyone's attention. The ideological and political "load" of each monument has increased dramatically. The great political significance of the construction of each stone church, the memorial character of architectural monuments, manifested itself with particular clarity in Moscow construction in the second half of the 14th - early 15th centuries.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of a foreign yoke influenced the development of Russian architecture in many ways. The construction of cities, both in Mongolia itself and in the Golden Horde, was carried out only to a small extent by the forces of Russian builders. Much more difficult was the fact that the Mongols in various ways pumped out of the Russian land a huge part of its wealth. Terrible impoverishment, the constant threat of a repetition of the invasion - these are the main factors that "froze" the development of Russian architecture in the 13th century. More than other types of art, which needed security and peace, architecture suffered the most from the Mongol conquest ...
The difficult economic situation of the Russian lands, the decline in the skill of architects lead to the fact that the construction of the XIV-XV centuries. (before Ivan III) does not go beyond the pillarless or four-pillar temples. The almost complete cessation of stone construction, as well as later - the spasmodic nature of its revival, practically destroyed the possibility of a consistent development of compositional and decorative solutions, due to the presence of continuous building practice. The extreme scarcity of temples erected during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke led to a sharp increase in the ideological significance of each of them. During the two and a half centuries of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russian architecture was invariably associated with the struggle for national liberation.
In 1374, Prince Vladimir Andreevich, cousin and faithful companion of Dmitry Donskoy, built a wooden fortress in Serpukhov. In 1380 and just before the Battle of Kulikovo, the wooden Trinity Cathedral was solemnly consecrated in the Serpukhov Kremlin. The dedication of this temple - as if appealed to unity, to a feat. Simultaneously with the construction of the Serpukhov Kremlin, on the orders of Vladimir Andreevich, the Vysotsky Monastery was founded near the city, which strengthened the defensive potential of Serpukhov. The cathedral of the new monastery was dedicated to the Conception of Anna. The cult of Anna, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was an integral part of the Mother of God cult, which, from the time of Kalita, assumed the character of an official Moscow cult. In 1379, the construction of the stone Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna began. In the same year, Sergius of Radonezh founded a monastery, which was also dedicated to the Dormition. In Moscow itself, in 1379, the Assumption Cathedral of the Simonov Monastery was laid. Such a dedication of the Moscow and Moscow region cathedrals built or laid on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, apparently, was caused not only by the special political significance of the cult of the Mother of God for Moscow. It also had an effect that the battle on the Vozha River took place a few days before the celebrated Assumption of the Mother of God.
The stagnation of construction in the Moscow lands, caused primarily by the temporary strengthening of the Horde yoke in the 80s of the XIV century, continued until the early 90s.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, the international situation has been developing more favorably for Moscow. The time of relative “silence” (90s of the XIV century) was marked primarily by construction in the Moscow Kremlin. This construction had a clear ideological orientation, continued the connection that arose in the 70s of Moscow stone construction with the armed struggle against the Horde yoke.
The first, at the very beginning of the 90s, was the Church of the Annunciation built in honor of the reconciliation of the princes after numerous strife on the feast of the Annunciation. The Church of the Annunciation was, as it were, a symbol of unity, the subordination of selfish interests to a common cause, which made it possible to defeat the Horde on the Kulikovo field.
In 1392, at the direction of Vasily I, the Dormition Cathedral in Kolomna was painted. Large expensive paintings in the Moscow land at that time were still a rarity. Having decorated the temple with paintings, the history of which was reminiscent of the Battle of Kulikovo, the young Moscow prince demonstrated his loyalty to the heroic tradition of liberation, his reverence for the memory of his father.
The connection of Moscow architecture with the struggle for the liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke remained until the end of the 15th century. The memorial character of stone churches, which received special development in connection with the struggle for national independence in the XIV-XV centuries, becomes a characteristic feature of Russian architecture in subsequent centuries.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke slowed down the development of ancient Russian painting for more than a century. The question of direct or indirect reflection of the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke in Russian medieval painting is one of the most complex and little-studied issues in the history of Russian art. Elucidation of the influence of the Horde yoke on the development of ancient Russian painting is an extremely difficult task, firstly, due to the almost complete absence of accurately dated monuments of painting of this period, and secondly, due to the very nature of medieval painting, based on the creation of an extremely generalized image-sign, as a rule that does not accept any momentary traits.
Trying to connect the emergence of new images and moods in painting with reality, to find a specific historical content in these images, the researcher constantly runs the risk of falling into simplification, being accused of vulgarizing the history of ancient Russian painting. And yet, the traditional interpretation of the development of Russian medieval painting as a closed process, subject only to its own internal laws, is gradually giving way to more or less successful attempts to better understand the language of colors, images and symbols, to find hidden connections between painting and the living reality of Rus'.
The influence of the Battle of Kulikovo on the work of artists of that time can be traced on a number of art monuments associated with the Moscow principality. The icon "Archangel Michael", obviously painted for the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, erected in 1394 in the Moscow Kremlin, became a kind of pictorial hymn to the Battle of Kulikovo. The pathos of the icon corresponded to the ideological orientation of the construction of the temple, the dedication of which recalled the day of September 8, 1380. The angry archangel with a raised sword, depicted in the middle of the icon, can be recognized as a classic symbol of the heroic period in the history of Muscovite Rus'.
The dramatic nature of the era of the Golden Horde determined, according to researchers, the high emotional tension of the images of the icon "Assumption of the Mother of God" written on the reverse side of the famous "Our Lady of the Don". The same symbolism can be seen in the surviving fragments of the murals of the Zvenigorod cathedrals. On the pillars of the Cathedral of the Assumption on Gorodok there are images of Florus and Laurus placed in circles, contemporary with the construction of the temple. The images of Florus and Laurus, the patrons of horse breeding, as well as the equestrian army, are rare in Moscow art of that time. Their appearance in the murals of the Assumption Cathedral is apparently associated with memories of the Battle of Kulikovo: on the day of memory of Florus and Laurus, August 18, 1380, Sergius of Radonezh, according to the “Legend of the Mamai Battle,” blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the battle with Mamai.
In order to better understand the historical significance of another monument of Moscow painting of the late XIV century. - a deesis tier from the current iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, let us once again turn to the political history of Rus' during this period. The end of the 90s of the XIV century. was full of military fears. Two huge armies were piling up to the south and west of the borders of Muscovite Rus'. It was assumed that a great duel was being prepared between Lithuania and the Horde. However, no one could be sure how events would develop. The events of 1395 were fresh in everyone’s memory, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, spreading rumors that there was a war against Timur, the new owner of the Golden Horde, actually moved to Russian lands and captured Smolensk. They also remembered the events of 1380, when the alliance of the Horde and Lithuanian princes against Rus' became a formidable political reality. The danger was especially great from the west, where a powerful anti-Russian coalition was clearly taking shape. The Russian land was preparing for the fight. It was necessary again, as before the Battle of Kulikovo, to inspire people to a feat of arms. This goal was served not only by the Mozhaisk-Zvenigorod construction, but also by the painting of the Grand Duke's Cathedral, dedicated to the leader of the heavenly host Michael the Archangel, made in 1399 by Theophanes the Greek. In this regard, the Deesis tier of the current iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin deserves special attention. Let us turn to the images of Demetrius of Thessalonica and George the Victorious, whose images were included in the Deesis tier. The popularity of George at the end of the XIV century. in a princely environment, they sometimes explain it by the name of the second son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri Zvenigorodsky, or, justifying the appearance of George in the deesis rank of the Annunciation Cathedral, they point to his name to the elder brother of Kalita, Yuri Danilovich. All these interpretations raise a number of questions. However, everything falls into place, if we assume that Vasily I Dmitrievich considered George to be his heavenly patron, whose memory day was associated with some important events in his life.
It is possible that Vasily, like some other Russian princes, had two Christian names: Vasily and George. The second name was not mentioned by the chroniclers in order to avoid mixing Vasily I with his brother Yuri Zvenigorodsky. It is significant that Vasily I called his first-born, born almost a month before the spring St. George's Day, George. The veneration of George the Victorious by Basil I as his personal patron in the language of religious symbols generally understood in Ancient Rus' expressed the idea of the continuity of his policy in relation to the policy of his father. The image of George directly reminded of the heroic times of the Battle of Kulikovo. Gradually, he became a symbol of the military prowess of the Muscovites. It was this idea of the continuity of the heroic deeds of the son and father, fidelity to the glorious memory of the Battle of Kulikovo, that found its expression in the appearance of the images of George and Dmitry in the deesis rank of the Annunciation Cathedral and after it in other prominent deesis ranks of the time of Vasily I.
The history of painting in the era of Vasily I is unthinkable without the name of Andrei Rublev. The literature devoted to Rublev is truly boundless. And yet the connection between the work of the great artist and the living, suffering and jubilant Russia of the late XIV - early XV centuries. remains completely unexplored. It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than the horror of the Tatar pogroms and the silent conversation of the angels of Rublev's Trinity. Nevertheless, Rublev's painting is a product of his time. Moreover, it is a kind of result of a century and a half of the history of Rus'. Rublev's painting does not fit in the dark and cramped cells of the Moscow hesychasts. It is more significant than just a "call for unity" from time immemorial warring specific uncles and nephews. And although this painting is vitally connected with its time, its historicism lies in the fact that it is, first of all, the product of a whole period in the history of Rus' - the period of the struggle against the Horde yoke.
Rublev, like any great artist, carried on his shoulders the burden of the history of his people. And his merit is that he was able to understand and express the most tragic and at the same time the most heroic period of this history. Rublev's "Trinity" is a work of a spiritually free person. And therein lies its great historical value.
It was the view of the best people of a whole generation, the generation that led an open struggle for the liberation of the Motherland from the hated Golden Horde yoke.
The beginning of the Vladimir murals partly makes it possible to understand what thoughts the artist had when he stepped under the vaults of the ancient Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and found himself alone with the majestic images of the Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' that disappeared in the fire of the Horde pogroms. The work of Rublev and Daniil Cherny in Vladimir was the first time that the artists of Moscow Rus' came face to face with the works of their great predecessors. This obligated them to realize the historical significance of almost two centuries that have passed since the time of Vsevolod the Big Nest and Yuri Vladimirsky. And having started their work, the artists thereby, as it were, expressed the result of their thoughts - a firm belief that the shrine finally found - the freedom of their native land from a foreign yoke - will never be lost.
The impact of the Battle of Kulikovo on the development of Russian culture was profound and versatile. The main ideas of that era - the ideas of unity, the heroic struggle for the Russian land, the revival of the Kyiv and Vladimir historical and cultural traditions - have found a vivid embodiment in the most diverse monuments of literature and art. The development of these areas of spiritual culture proceeded in the closest connection with the struggle for national liberation. The Battle of Kulikovo filled with new historical content, gave a special patriotic coloring to the traditional images and plots of ancient Russian art.
Thus, despite the heroic resistance of the Russian people, Rus' was ravaged by the Mongols and was deprived of: old cities and urban culture; a number of crafts; many princes, a strong squad; opportunities for democratic development. The whirlwind of the Mongol invasion wiped out the remarkable monuments of ancient Russian culture from the face of the earth. the works of ancient Russian architects, artists, chroniclers and craftsmen, about whom they composed songs and legends, wrote chronicles, died in the fire of conflagrations. Many talented craftsmen were driven into the captivity of the Horde, and there was no one to pass on to the new generations the traditions of crafts and architecture that had accumulated for many years. And the consequences, according to historians, were quite depressing for our country: the population of Rus' decreased; out of 74 cities Batu destroyed 49, in 14 life was not restored, and many turned into villages; trade relations suffered, which led to the decline of the craft; most of the Russian masters were driven away to the Golden Horde.
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..3
1. The culture of Rus' before the Mongol-Tatar invasion…………………..….4
2. Culture of Russia XVII – XVIII cc……………………………………….…7
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………....9
LITERATURE………………………………………………………………….…10
INTRODUCTION
The culture of a people is part of its history. Its formation, subsequent development is closely connected with the same historical factors that influence the formation and development of the country's economy, its statehood, political and spiritual life of society. Naturally, the concept of culture includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, a view of the world, nature, human existence, and human relations.
The culture of Rus' takes shape in the same centuries as the formation of Russian statehood. The birth of the people went simultaneously along several lines - economic, political, cultural. Rus' took shape and developed as the center of a huge people for that time, consisting at first of various tribes; as a state whose life unfolded over a vast territory. And all the original cultural experience of the Eastern Slavs became the property of a single Russian culture. It developed as a culture of all the Eastern Slavs, while at the same time retaining its regional features - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Rus', etc. the beginning of a new period in Russian history and a new stage in the history of Russian culture. Russian culture has retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements are also emerging. It was a culture of transitional times, new trends were clearly identified only towards the end of the century.
1. The culture of Rus' before the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
The culture of Rus' before the Mongol-Tatar invasion includes oral folk art, which tells about most of the epic stories associated with the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the time of the unity and power of Rus', the successful struggle against the steppe nomads. The true hero of the epic epic is the hero-hero, personifying the people themselves. Favorite folk hero - Ilya Muromets, peasant son, patriot warrior, defender of "widows and orphans." The people also sang the peasant plowman Mikula Selyaninovich. Oral poetry also existed in the princely retinue environment. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. Oral folk art continued to live and develop even after the appearance of written literature.
Writing, the creation of the Slavic alphabet, is also described in the culture of Rus', which is associated with the name of the Byzantine missionary monks Cyril and Methodius. According to a number of researchers, at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries on the territory of the Bulgarian kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of Greek writing and Glagolitic elements, an alphabet arose, which later received the name "Cyrillic". A lighter and more convenient alphabet eventually supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only
southern and eastern Slavs. The main genre of the early medieval written culture was chronicle writing - annual records of events.
Chronicles included biblical stories, legends, texts of diplomatic documents. One of the first monuments of chronicle writing
is the "Tale of Bygone Years" (presumably 1113), written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor ("Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began to reign first, and where did the Russian land come from"). Nestor narrates the history of the Russian land, starting with the settlement of the Slavs and the legendary princes Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv. The emergence of hagiographic literature. An example of such literature is The Tale of Boris and Gleb.
The genre is one of the main parts in the writings of Russian Rus'. Sample: "The Journey of Abbot Daniel to the East" (1107) -
the author's description of the journey of the first known Russian pilgrim. Known as the Journey to Jerusalem or the Pilgrim. Daniel visited the holy places in Jerusalem.
Most of the written monuments of the pre-Mongol period perished during fires and foreign invasions. Only an insignificant part of the book wealth of Ancient Rus' has survived - only about 150 books. The oldest literary monuments are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich (1073 and 1076). One of the oldest monuments of Russian literature is the "Sermon on Law and Grace". It was written in the 1930s and 40s.
century by the priest Hilarion, who later became the first Russian metropolitan.
Painting.
From the painting of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' to the Mongolian time to
Fragments of frescoes of the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha have come down to us. The fresco of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral with the image of the Last Judgment is distinguished by the best preservation.
Architecture
. Until the end of the X century in Rus' there was no monumental stone
architecture, but there was a rich tradition of wooden construction.
Some forms of wooden architecture (tent churches, bells) later influenced stone architecture. After the baptism of Rus', the construction of stone churches began - basically in the image and likeness of the Byzantine ones. In Rus', the cross-domed type of church became widespread. The interior space of the building was divided by massive pillars connected in pairs by arches; a "drum" was erected, ending with a hemispherical dome. First
the stone building was the Church of the Tithes, built in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century by Greek craftsmen. The church was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars in 1240. In the years 1031-1036 in Chernigov, also by Greek architects, the Transfiguration Cathedral was erected - the most "Byzantine", according to experts, the temple of Ancient Rus'. The pinnacle of 11th-century architecture is St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in 1037-1054 by Greek and Russian masters. Sophia cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk following the Kyiv Sophia. Novgorod buildings of the early 12th century: Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral (1113), the cathedrals of Antoniev (1117–1119) and Yuriev (1119) monasteries, the Church of St. John on the Okopakh (1127), tented churches, belfries. Stone construction in the Vladimir-Suzdal land at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries began with the construction of a cathedral in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh. Construction in Vladimir reached a great rise under Andrei Bogolyubsky. City fortifications were erected, from which the white-stone Golden Gates have been preserved. In the suburban princely residence of Bogolyubovo, a castle was built, consisting of a complex of buildings surrounded by walls with white stone towers. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin. In 1158-1161, the Assumption Cathedral was built, richly decorated with carved stone. A masterpiece of ancient Russian architecture is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), which is distinguished by its perfection and lightness of proportions, harmony and aspiration upwards.
2. Culture of Russia XVII – XVIII centuries
In the 17th century in the history of Russia ends the period of the Middle Ages. The advanced countries of Europe had already embarked on the path of bourgeois development, and Russia continued to be a feudal country, although the beginnings of industry had already appeared - the first manufactories. A new reigning Romanov dynasty was established. In Russia, a class-representative monarchy has developed.
The beginning of a new period in Russian history was also a new stage in the history of Russian culture. In the 17th century Russian culture has retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements are also emerging. It was a culture of transitional times, new trends were clearly identified only towards the end of the century.
The formation of the Russian nation begins. Folk traditions are generalized, the interconnection of local customs is strengthened. Gradually, the interpenetration of various dialects takes place, a single Russian language is being formed.
18th century characterized in Rus' by late feudalism. Attempts are being made to overcome Russia's lag behind the countries of Western Europe, and significant changes are taking place in all areas of life. Their beginning is associated with the reforms of Peter I (I672-1725). In Russia, autocratic power is being established - an absolute monarchy.
In the XVIII century. external economic and cultural relations of Russia with Western countries are developing, contributing to its entry into the world historical-cultural process. In the second half of the XVIII century. in the depths of the feudal economy, a capitalist structure is being formed.
By the end of the XVIII century. the process of folding the Russian nation on the basis of the already established Russian people with a high level of culture and a sense of national unity is being completed.
The main content of the historical and cultural process in this period was the formation and development of national Russian culture. New spheres of culture appear - science, fiction, secular painting, public theater, etc.
CONCLUSION
The fate of Russian culture is both beautiful and dramatic. It is beautiful because it left a noticeable mark in national history. It is difficult to imagine our culture without The Tale of Igor's Campaign, Rublev's Trinity, the Moscow Kremlin, St. Basil's Cathedral, the treasures of the Armory and much more.
It is dramatic because, like any phenomenon of its time, the culture of the Middle Ages was historically doomed. With the beginning of Peter's reforms, its character changed - it lost its religious content and became predominantly secular. As if having forgotten their Byzantine roots, Russian architecture, painting, and decorative art began to master the Western artistic experience. Sculpture, almost unknown in Ancient Rus', was developed. The face of cities has changed. And the townspeople themselves changed - they began to dress differently, eat differently, learned new norms of command.
Introduction
One of the most controversial in Russian historiography is the question of relations between Russia and the Horde, the severity of the so-called "Mongol-Tatar yoke" and its consequences for the course of Russian history. The topic “The influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke on the development of Russian culture” was not chosen by me by chance, because. The Mongol-Tatar invasion played a significant role in the history of the Russian people and influenced the formation of the ethnic dynamics of the Slavs, and, consequently, Russian culture. Crafts appeared and disappeared, the population decreased quite sharply, the cultural level of the nation fell (subsequently, Russia lagged behind the countries of Europe in cultural and technical development), the destruction of productive forces, the development of local cultural centers with the specifics of the Mongol-Tatar influence. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to identify the main forms of influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke on the formation of Russian culture. I have to answer such questions as: what were the historical background of Rus' at the time of the appearance of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, how did this affect the development of the culture of Rus' of that period. A number of monographs and articles will help me with this.
The articles presented in the collection “The Battle of Kulikovo in the history and culture of our Motherland” cover a wide range of topical issues related to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, determine its role and significance in Russian history and culture. For the first time in historical science, a complete historiography of the Battle of Kulikovo and "standing on the Ugra" is given - an event associated with the final fall of the Horde yoke. The battle itself is shown in a multifaceted and broad way, a description of the era, various stages of the struggle of the peoples of our country for national liberation is given. Much attention is paid to the unprecedented rise of Russian culture in the XIV-XV centuries, the reflection of the heroic theme in works of art.
Kulpin's book by E.S. "Golden Horde. Problems of the Genesis of the Russian State” is dedicated to the largest and well-organized state of Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. - Golden Horde. The main space of the future Russian Empire and the ethnic groups inhabiting it were first united in the Golden Horde, whose borders, until the period of decline, stretched from the Danube in the West to Altai in the East, from the White Sea in the North to the Caucasus and the South Aral Sea. During its heyday, the Golden Horde achieved the highest standard of living compared to Europe of that era.
"History of Russia from ancient times", created by the famous historian Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, has no equal in Russian science. This work has become an unprecedented event in Russian society, a truly global phenomenon. To create this colossal work, the scientist spent a long 30 years of tireless daily work. Volume 4 covers the study period I needed.
A great source of information was the textbook "History of Russia from ancient times to the present day" edited by A.S. Orlova, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina.
The history of the Mongols and their brilliant leader, who wrote brilliant pages in world history, was studied by E. Khara-Davan in his book "Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy." The whole book is permeated with the main idea of the author - the Mongol era had a deeply penetrating influence on the history and culture of the Asian continent. It was not only accompanied by gigantic military campaigns and political upheavals, but also gave vent to many cultural currents that opened up new opportunities for East and West. The history of the Mongolian people begins ... with Genghis Khan. The merging of numerous and fragile groups of nomads ... constantly at war with each other, into a single military and political entity, which suddenly arose and proved capable of subjugating all of Asia, was the work of the powerful personality of Genghis Khan.
This is only a small part of the literature on this topic.
1.Historical conditions for the development of Rus' during the Tatar-Mongol yoke
The Russian state, formed on the border of Europe with Asia, which reached its peak in the 10th-beginning of the 11th century, at the beginning of the 12th century broke up into many principalities. This disintegration took place under the influence of the feudal mode of production. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. The princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policy, taking into account, first of all, the interests of the local feudal nobility and entered into endless internecine wars. Feudal fragmentation led to the loss of centralized government and to a strong weakening of the state as a whole. As a result of the dismemberment of the Old Russian state, more than a dozen large principalities were formed on the territory of Rus' - Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk-Minsk, Turov-Pinsk, Smolensk, Galicia-Volynsk, Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Tmutarakan, Murom and Ryazan, as well as the feudal republics - Novgorod and Pskovskaya.
Thus, during the period of feudal fragmentation, Rus', remaining a large European country, did not have a single state power that would conduct a foreign policy common to the whole country. The weakening of the foreign policy position of Rus', the reduction of its territory was facilitated by the feudal strife of the princes, which did not stop even when enemies invaded the country. The nomadic Polovtsians, having occupied the Northern Black Sea region, made devastating raids on the southern Russian lands, took away the Russian population into captivity and sold it into slavery. They undermined the trade and political ties of Rus' with the Black Sea region and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's possessions in the North Caucasus, as well as the loss of the Taman Peninsula and part of the Crimea, captured by Byzantium. In the west, the Hungarian feudal lords captured Carpathian Rus. In the Baltic states, the lands of the Latvians and Estonians came under attack from the German and Danish feudal lords, while the lands of the Finns and Karelians came under attack from the Swedish. In the XIII century. the Mongol invasion led to the conquest, ruin and dismemberment of Rus' itself.
In 1237-1240, the Russian lands, divided in military and political terms, were defeated and devastated by the troops of Batu. Having defeated the Volga Bulgaria, they set off to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, the Tatar-Mongolian troops moved to Kolomna, Vladimir, Suzdal. As a result, the entire Vladimir-Suzdal land from Rostov to Tver was devastated. On March 4, 1238, the battle on the City River took place, which ended in the defeat of the Russian squad. The fate of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was decided. Meanwhile, another detachment of the Tatar-Mongols laid siege to Torzhok, moved north to Novgorod. Murom, Gorokhovets were captured and burned, and then Batu's troops moved south. In December 1240 Kyiv was taken. From here, the Tatar-Mongolian troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich, in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the conquerors entered Western Europe significantly weakened as a result of the powerful resistance they met in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if in Rus' the Tatar-Mongols managed to establish their yoke, then Western Europe experienced only an invasion, and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.
The consequences of this invasion for Rus' were extremely severe. First of all, the population of the country was sharply reduced, many people were killed, taken into slavery. Of the 74 cities in Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries. about 50 were devastated by the invaders, in 14 of them life did not resume later, and 15 turned into small villages.
After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' became a country dependent on the Golden Horde. A system developed under which the Grand Duke had to receive approval in the Horde, a “label” for a great reign, and the population was subject to tribute.
The resistance of the masses to the Horde's policy of oppression intensified. In 1262, in all major cities of the Russian land (in Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug, in Vladimir), popular uprisings took place, many tribute collectors were killed. Frightened by the popular movement, the Horde hurried to transfer a significant part of the tribute collection to the specific Russian princes. Thus, the popular movement forced the Horde to go, if not to the complete abolition of farm work, then to its significant limitation.
In the spring of 1361, a tense situation developed in the Golden Horde. The situation was aggravated by civil strife, the struggle for dominance between individual khans. Mamai became one of the central figures in the Golden Horde during this period. By pursuing an energetic policy, he was able to achieve the liquidation of all isolated feudal lords of the territory that belonged to them. A decisive victory was needed, which would not only guarantee the unification of the state, but also give a greater opportunity to manage vassal territories. For such a decisive turn, there were not enough funds and forces. Both Mamai demanded from the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, but was refused. Rus' began to prepare for the fight against Mamai.
Despite all the terrible hardships, losses and losses, the Russian farmer, with his hard work, created the material basis for consolidating forces for liberation from the Tatar-Mongol oppression. And finally, the time has come when the united regiments of northeastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, entered the Kulikovo field. They challenged the Tatar-Mongol rule and entered into open battle with the Horde. Mamai's army of many thousands was defeated in 1380. Rus' triumphed. However, two years later, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, at the head of a huge army, unexpectedly attacked Rus', which had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Battle of Kulikovo. The Horde were able to capture Moscow. August 26, 1382 Moscow was completely ruined and devastated.
After the capture of Moscow, the hordes of Tokhtamysh scattered around the area, robbing and killing, burning everything in their path. But this time the Horde did not act for long. In the region of Volokolamsk, they were suddenly attacked by Prince Vladimir Andreevich with seven thousand troops. The Tatars ran. Having received a message about the strength of the Russian army and remembering the lesson of the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh began to hastily leave to the south. Since that time, the Horde began to fear an open clash with the Russian army and began to act with great cunning and caution, trying in every possible way to ignite the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. A heavy burden of tribute, although in a smaller volume than Mamai demanded, again fell on Rus'.
Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, Mamai's plan to completely enslave Rus' was not carried out either by him or by the subsequent rulers of the Horde. On the contrary, from that time on, the centripetal forces in the unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow grew stronger and stronger. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' was strengthened by faith in its national forces, which played an important role in its final victory over the Horde. Since that time, the Russians have ceased to look at the Horde as an irresistible force, as an inevitable and eternal punishment of God. Dmitry Ivanovich, nicknamed “Donskoy” for the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, led a generation of people who overcame the age-old fear inspired by the invasion of Batu. And the Horde themselves, after the Battle of Kulikovo, stopped looking at the Russians as unrequited slaves and darniks. The victory at the Kulikovo field cleared the way for the national liberation and consolidation of Rus'.
Ivan III began to prepare for a break with the Horde. In 1478, Ivan III, in the presence of the Moscow boyars and Horde ambassadors, broke and trampled on the agreement with the Horde, declaring that he would no longer obey the khan and pay tribute. Khan's ambassadors were expelled from Moscow. Khan Akhmat of the Golden Horde decided to fight against recalcitrant Moscow. In the summer of 1480, with a large army, he approached the Ugra River, which flowed into the Oka near Kaluga. But he never won. After the well-known "standing on the Ugra", Rus' finally freed itself from the Tatar yoke.
2. Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries and the influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion on it
The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused serious damage to Russian culture. The military defeat, the heavy tribute, the withdrawal of the full of masters significantly impoverished the cultural process. However, the tradition did not stop. Moreover, one can hardly speak of any noticeable influence of Mongolian culture on Russian, especially at first. For a long time, the steppe world of the Mongols-nomads and the world of the cities of the Slavic farmers existed alienated, it took more than one century for mutual rapprochement.
First of all, the influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke had on literature.
The Battle of Kulikovo was a natural result and a vivid manifestation of the socio-economic and political development of the Russian lands in the 14th century. The works of literature and art dedicated to her in a vivid, distinct form revealed the main ideas and moods that determined the nature of Russian social thought of that period.
The Battle of Kulikovo and related events accelerated the formation of the ideology of a single centralized state. The ideological richness of the monuments allows us to assert that from the end of the XIV century. a new stage in the development of Russian social thought began. Its development in the second half of the XIV-XV centuries. was determined by the main factor in the political life of Rus' - the existence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Comprehension of the reasons for the establishment of the yoke, the search for ways to revive the country, the glorification of the first successes in the fight against the enslavers constitute the main content of Russian social thought of the XIII-XV centuries. Its development in the second half of the XIII-XV centuries. according to changes in attitude to the main issue - the question of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the national revival - can be divided into three stages.
The first stage, which lasted approximately until the beginning of the 14th century, is characterized by the absence of any coherent political theory, any consistently pursued socio-political idea. Sorrow for the death of Rus', the deepening of the sense of national dignity are the main content of the monuments created during this period.
At the second stage, the ideology of new political centers, especially Moscow and Tver, is gradually formed, the spiritual forces of the people are slowly gathering together, which served as one of the foundations of the national upsurge of the late XIV - early XV centuries. These theories could not, of course, be openly anti-Horde in nature, but their very appearance meant a new step in the spiritual revival of the country.
The Battle of Kulikovo and the national upsurge that accompanied it caused the beginning of a new, third, stage in the development of Russian medieval thought. The idea of the unity of all Russian principalities triumphs. The most developed and proved its vitality and strength during the events of 1380. the idea of Moscow's priority in the Russian lands, one of the main reasons for which is Moscow's leading role in the struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke, becomes the core of Russian social thought in the next century. The idea of readiness for self-sacrifice in open armed struggle triumphs in literature. The main thought of all literary monuments becomes - the idea of the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy.
One of the first responses to what happened was "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The "Tale" describes the death of Ryazan and the family of Ryazan princes. The Mongol invasion was perceived by contemporaries as the end of the world, as "the great final destruction." Hence the tragedy that fills the works of that period. The motive of heroic death is the leading one in the literature devoted to the invasion. The call for unity is the ideological core of all editions of Chronicle Tale, Zadonshchina, and The Tale of Mamai's Massacre. The theme of heroism, military glory, the ideals of military prowess, traditional for ancient Russian literature, sounded with particular force. These ideals were reflected in such earlier literary works of the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke as "The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the chronicle story "about the battle on the Vozhzha River", as well as in folklore. Memories of the Mamaev battle will forever remain in the memory of the people. The bright ideals of selfless service and self-sacrifice, created by the intense spiritual work of the best people of then Rus', were sealed with the blood of the heroes of the Battle of Kulikovo and therefore gained strength and inviolability.
The Tatar-Mongol yoke had a great harm on the development of architecture. The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke led to a long decline in stone construction in almost all Russian lands. Even in the first half of the XIV century. in northeastern Rus', the construction of a stone church was an outstanding event that attracted everyone's attention. The ideological and political "load" of each monument has increased dramatically. The great political significance of the construction of each stone church, the memorial character of architectural monuments, manifested itself with particular clarity in Moscow construction in the second half of the 14th - early 15th centuries.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of a foreign yoke influenced the development of Russian architecture in many ways. The construction of cities, both in Mongolia itself and in the Golden Horde, was carried out only to a small extent by the forces of Russian builders. Much more difficult was the fact that the Mongols in various ways pumped out of the Russian land a huge part of its wealth. Terrible impoverishment, the constant threat of a repetition of the invasion - these are the main factors that "froze" the development of Russian architecture in the 13th century. More than other types of art, which needed security and peace, architecture suffered the most from the Mongol conquest ...
The difficult economic situation of the Russian lands, the decline in the skill of architects lead to the fact that the construction of the XIV-XV centuries. (before Ivan III) does not go beyond the pillarless or four-pillar temples. The almost complete cessation of stone construction, as well as later - the spasmodic nature of its revival, practically destroyed the possibility of a consistent development of compositional and decorative solutions, due to the presence of continuous building practice. The extreme scarcity of temples erected during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke led to a sharp increase in the ideological significance of each of them. During the two and a half centuries of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russian architecture was invariably associated with the struggle for national liberation.
In 1374, Prince Vladimir Andreevich, cousin and faithful companion of Dmitry Donskoy, built a wooden fortress in Serpukhov. In 1380 and just before the Battle of Kulikovo, the wooden Trinity Cathedral was solemnly consecrated in the Serpukhov Kremlin. The dedication of this temple - as if appealed to unity, to a feat. Simultaneously with the construction of the Serpukhov Kremlin, on the orders of Vladimir Andreevich, the Vysotsky Monastery was founded near the city, which strengthened the defensive potential of Serpukhov. The cathedral of the new monastery was dedicated to the Conception of Anna. The cult of Anna, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was an integral part of the Mother of God cult, which, from the time of Kalita, assumed the character of an official Moscow cult. In 1379, the construction of the stone Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna began. In the same year, Sergius of Radonezh founded a monastery, which was also dedicated to the Dormition. In Moscow itself, in 1379, the Assumption Cathedral of the Simonov Monastery was laid. Such a dedication of the Moscow and Moscow region cathedrals built or laid on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, apparently, was caused not only by the special political significance of the cult of the Mother of God for Moscow. It also had an effect that the battle on the Vozha River took place a few days before the celebrated Assumption of the Mother of God.
The stagnation of construction in the Moscow lands, caused primarily by the temporary strengthening of the Horde yoke in the 80s of the XIV century, continued until the early 90s.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, the international situation has been developing more favorably for Moscow. The time of relative “silence” (90s of the XIV century) was marked primarily by construction in the Moscow Kremlin. This construction had a clear ideological orientation, continued the connection that arose in the 70s of Moscow stone construction with the armed struggle against the Horde yoke.
The first, at the very beginning of the 90s, was the Church of the Annunciation built in honor of the reconciliation of the princes after numerous strife on the feast of the Annunciation. The Church of the Annunciation was, as it were, a symbol of unity, the subordination of selfish interests to a common cause, which made it possible to defeat the Horde on the Kulikovo field.
In 1392, at the direction of Vasily I, the Dormition Cathedral in Kolomna was painted. Large expensive paintings in the Moscow land at that time were still a rarity. Having decorated the temple with paintings, the history of which was reminiscent of the Battle of Kulikovo, the young Moscow prince demonstrated his loyalty to the heroic tradition of liberation, his reverence for the memory of his father.
The connection of Moscow architecture with the struggle for the liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke remained until the end of the 15th century. The memorial character of stone churches, which received special development in connection with the struggle for national independence in the XIV-XV centuries, becomes a characteristic feature of Russian architecture in subsequent centuries.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke slowed down the development of ancient Russian painting for more than a century. The question of direct or indirect reflection of the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke in Russian medieval painting is one of the most complex and little-studied issues in the history of Russian art. Elucidation of the influence of the Horde yoke on the development of ancient Russian painting is an extremely difficult task, firstly, due to the almost complete absence of accurately dated monuments of painting of this period, and secondly, due to the very nature of medieval painting, based on the creation of an extremely generalized image-sign, as a rule that does not accept any momentary traits.
Trying to connect the emergence of new images and moods in painting with reality, to find a specific historical content in these images, the researcher constantly runs the risk of falling into simplification, being accused of vulgarizing the history of ancient Russian painting. And yet, the traditional interpretation of the development of Russian medieval painting as a closed process, subject only to its own internal laws, is gradually giving way to more or less successful attempts to better understand the language of colors, images and symbols, to find hidden connections between painting and the living reality of Rus'.
The influence of the Battle of Kulikovo on the work of artists of that time can be traced on a number of art monuments associated with the Moscow principality. The icon "Archangel Michael", obviously painted for the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, erected in 1394 in the Moscow Kremlin, became a kind of pictorial hymn to the Battle of Kulikovo. The pathos of the icon corresponded to the ideological orientation of the construction of the temple, the dedication of which recalled the day of September 8, 1380. The angry archangel with a raised sword, depicted in the middle of the icon, can be recognized as a classic symbol of the heroic period in the history of Muscovite Rus'.
The dramatic nature of the era of the Golden Horde determined, according to researchers, the high emotional tension of the images of the icon "Assumption of the Mother of God" written on the reverse side of the famous "Our Lady of the Don". The same symbolism can be seen in the surviving fragments of the murals of the Zvenigorod cathedrals. On the pillars of the Cathedral of the Assumption on Gorodok there are images of Florus and Laurus placed in circles, contemporary with the construction of the temple. The images of Florus and Laurus, the patrons of horse breeding, as well as the equestrian army, are rare in Moscow art of that time. Their appearance in the murals of the Assumption Cathedral is apparently associated with memories of the Battle of Kulikovo: on the day of memory of Florus and Laurus, August 18, 1380, Sergius of Radonezh, according to the “Legend of the Mamai Battle,” blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the battle with Mamai.
In order to better understand the historical significance of another monument of Moscow painting of the late XIV century. - a deesis tier from the current iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, let us once again turn to the political history of Rus' during this period. The end of the 90s of the XIV century. was full of military fears. Two huge armies were piling up to the south and west of the borders of Muscovite Rus'. It was assumed that a great duel was being prepared between Lithuania and the Horde. However, no one could be sure how events would develop. The events of 1395 were fresh in everyone’s memory, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, spreading rumors that there was a war against Timur, the new owner of the Golden Horde, actually moved to Russian lands and captured Smolensk. They also remembered the events of 1380, when the alliance of the Horde and Lithuanian princes against Rus' became a formidable political reality. The danger was especially great from the west, where a powerful anti-Russian coalition was clearly taking shape. The Russian land was preparing for the fight. It was necessary again, as before the Battle of Kulikovo, to inspire people to a feat of arms. This goal was served not only by the Mozhaisk-Zvenigorod construction, but also by the painting of the Grand Duke's Cathedral, dedicated to the leader of the heavenly host Michael the Archangel, made in 1399 by Theophanes the Greek. In this regard, the Deesis tier of the current iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin deserves special attention. Let us turn to the images of Demetrius of Thessalonica and George the Victorious, whose images were included in the Deesis tier. The popularity of George at the end of the XIV century. in a princely environment, they sometimes explain it by the name of the second son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri Zvenigorodsky, or, justifying the appearance of George in the deesis rank of the Annunciation Cathedral, they point to his name to the elder brother of Kalita, Yuri Danilovich. All these interpretations raise a number of questions. However, everything falls into place, if we assume that Vasily I Dmitrievich considered George to be his heavenly patron, whose memory day was associated with some important events in his life.
It is possible that Vasily, like some other Russian princes, had two Christian names: Vasily and George. The second name was not mentioned by the chroniclers in order to avoid mixing Vasily I with his brother Yuri Zvenigorodsky. It is significant that Vasily I called his first-born, born almost a month before the spring St. George's Day, George. The veneration of George the Victorious by Basil I as his personal patron in the language of religious symbols generally understood in Ancient Rus' expressed the idea of the continuity of his policy in relation to the policy of his father. The image of George directly reminded of the heroic times of the Battle of Kulikovo. Gradually, he became a symbol of the military prowess of the Muscovites. It was this idea of the continuity of the heroic deeds of the son and father, fidelity to the glorious memory of the Battle of Kulikovo, that found its expression in the appearance of the images of George and Dmitry in the deesis rank of the Annunciation Cathedral and after it in other prominent deesis ranks of the time of Vasily I.
The history of painting in the era of Vasily I is unthinkable without the name of Andrei Rublev. The literature devoted to Rublev is truly boundless. And yet the connection between the work of the great artist and the living, suffering and jubilant Russia of the late XIV - early XV centuries. remains completely unexplored. It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than the horror of the Tatar pogroms and the silent conversation of the angels of Rublev's Trinity. Nevertheless, Rublev's painting is a product of his time. Moreover, it is a kind of result of a century and a half of the history of Rus'. Rublev's painting does not fit in the dark and cramped cells of the Moscow hesychasts. It is more significant than just a "call for unity" from time immemorial warring specific uncles and nephews. And although this painting is vitally connected with its time, its historicism lies in the fact that it is, first of all, the product of a whole period in the history of Rus' - the period of the struggle against the Horde yoke.
Rublev, like any great artist, carried on his shoulders the burden of the history of his people. And his merit is that he was able to understand and express the most tragic and at the same time the most heroic period of this history. Rublev's "Trinity" is a work of a spiritually free person. And therein lies its great historical value.
It was the view of the best people of a whole generation, the generation that led an open struggle for the liberation of the Motherland from the hated Golden Horde yoke.
The beginning of the Vladimir murals partly makes it possible to understand what thoughts the artist had when he stepped under the vaults of the ancient Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and found himself alone with the majestic images of the Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' that disappeared in the fire of the Horde pogroms. The work of Rublev and Daniil Cherny in Vladimir was the first time that the artists of Moscow Rus' came face to face with the works of their great predecessors. This obligated them to realize the historical significance of almost two centuries that have passed since the time of Vsevolod the Big Nest and Yuri Vladimirsky. And having started their work, the artists thereby, as it were, expressed the result of their thoughts - a firm belief that the shrine finally found - the freedom of their native land from a foreign yoke - will never be lost.
The impact of the Battle of Kulikovo on the development of Russian culture was profound and versatile. The main ideas of that era - the ideas of unity, the heroic struggle for the Russian land, the revival of the Kyiv and Vladimir historical and cultural traditions - have found a vivid embodiment in the most diverse monuments of literature and art. The development of these areas of spiritual culture proceeded in the closest connection with the struggle for national liberation. The Battle of Kulikovo filled with new historical content, gave a special patriotic coloring to the traditional images and plots of ancient Russian art.
Thus, despite the heroic resistance of the Russian people, Rus' was ravaged by the Mongols and was deprived of: old cities and urban culture; a number of crafts; many princes, a strong squad; opportunities for democratic development. The whirlwind of the Mongol invasion wiped out the remarkable monuments of ancient Russian culture from the face of the earth. the works of ancient Russian architects, artists, chroniclers and craftsmen, about whom they composed songs and legends, wrote chronicles, died in the fire of conflagrations. Many talented craftsmen were driven into the captivity of the Horde, and there was no one to pass on to the new generations the traditions of crafts and architecture that had accumulated for many years. And the consequences, according to historians, were quite depressing for our country: the population of Rus' decreased; out of 74 cities Batu destroyed 49, in 14 life was not restored, and many turned into villages; trade relations suffered, which led to the decline of the craft; most of the Russian masters were driven away to the Golden Horde.
3. Positive consequences of the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke
kulikovsky battle mongolian yoke
The influence of the Mongol conquest on cultural development is traditionally defined in historical writings as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation set in in Rus', expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc. While recognizing the existence of these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view. In order to understand the consequences of the beneficial influence of the Mongol rule on Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongol state as a state entity. It owes its origin and existence to the brute and unbridled power of the numerous and wild "horde", whose leaders had the only method of governing the conquered peoples was the most severe terror.
The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of the Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding rites is composed in the so-called "five-ton", or "Indochinese" scale. This gamut exists, as the only one, among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins, among the Bashkirs, among the Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indo-China, it still dominates. This unbroken line from the East ends at the Great Russians.
The same originality is represented by another kind of art - dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in the dance - a gentleman and a lady, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. They dance alone, and when they are a couple, the presence of a lady is not necessary, two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so that the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in Western dances. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, a tendency to immobility of the head is noticeable, especially in women. In purely oriental dances, the legs move on toes, to the rhythm, and the body and hands dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of the movements of the body and arms, and not in the dancing of the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.
The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of the tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the Horde epic.
Many Christian burials have been found in Novy Saray. There are also ruins dated to the ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.
The main share of the influence of the Mongol yoke on Russia belongs to the field of spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed a sigh of relief during the rule of the Mongols. All Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. In the difficult time of the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity. The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, placing the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the conduct of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who constantly needed money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and landed property and could provide shelter to many people who sought protection from princely arbitrariness. The strengthening of the positions of the church as a result of the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke led to the strengthening of the position of Christianity in the spiritual life of both the feudal elites and the peasant masses. There is, for example, the Christianization of princely names.
In certain areas, the development of culture continued, including, paradoxically, the exchange of cultural values with the conquerors. This was reflected in the enrichment of the Russian language, in which more than 200 words of Mongolian origin appeared (for example, such “customs” come from the Turkic “tamga” (a government seal that was placed on goods as a sign of duty payment). Traces of Asian influence appeared in military and applied art, in folklore and ornamentation, in clothing (for example, a caftan shoe, a cap - these and other items of clothing, along with their names, were adopted from their eastern neighbors) and cooking, in tools and customs (carpentry tools, pit bells), even in more significant was the impact of the Golden Horde on the development of the social system, political and everyday culture (the position of a woman, for example, the life of a tower and the seclusion of a Russian woman is a product of the East). ancient roots) and Mongolian, nomadic.But in general, in its nature and basic orientation, domestic culture has retained its national Russian-European content.
The organization of Russia, which was the result of the Mongol yoke, was undertaken by the Asian conquerors, of course, not for the benefit of the Russian people and not for the sake of exalting the Grand Duchy of Moscow, but in view of their own interests, namely, for the convenience of governing the conquered vast country. They could not allow in it an abundance of petty rulers living at the expense of the people and the chaos of their endless strife, undermining the economic well-being of subjects and depriving the country of the security of communications, and therefore, naturally, they encouraged the formation of a strong power of the Grand Duke of Moscow, which could keep in obedience and gradually absorb specific principalities. This principle of creating autocracy, in fairness, seemed to them more expedient for this case than the well-known and tested Chinese rule: "divide and rule." Thus, the Mongols began to collect, to organize Rus', like their own state, for the sake of establishing order, law and prosperity in the country.
As a result of such a policy of the Mongols, who everywhere introduced the orders established under Genghis Khan, they gave the conquered country the basic elements of the future Moscow statehood: autocracy (khanate), centralism, serfdom.
In the same way, proceeding from the tasks of administrative and financial management, they took up the organization of postal routes, established the yamskaya duty of the population, improving the conditions of communication in the vast expanses of the East European Plain by these measures, carried out a general census of the population for fiscal purposes, introduced a monotonous military-administrative structure and taxation according to their decimal system, and also established a common coin for all Russian regions - a silver ruble, divided into 216 kopecks.
Thus, Rus' acquires as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest: an original political culture ("autocracy"); a strong Orthodox Church (Orthodoxy); legal awareness; censuses, taxes; pit service; military tricks; some words; names, surnames.
Conclusion
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the more than two centuries of foreign yoke that followed it left a deep mark on the history of our country. The rule of the Mongols adversely affected all areas of the material and spiritual culture of ancient Rus'. Based on the current level of knowledge about the economic, social, political, cultural development of the Russian lands of the XIII-XV centuries, about Russian-Horde relations, we can talk about the following consequences of a foreign invasion. The impact on the economy was expressed, firstly, in the massive destruction of territories during the Horde campaigns and raids, which were especially frequent in the second half of the 13th century. The heaviest blow was inflicted on the cities. Secondly, the conquest led to the systematic siphoning off of significant material resources in the form of the Horde's "exit" (tribute) and other extortions that depleted the country.
The Horde sought to actively influence the political life of Rus'. The efforts of the conquerors were aimed at preventing the consolidation of Russian lands, pushing the principalities against each other, which led to their mutual weakening. Sometimes, for these purposes, the khans went to change the territorial and political structure of Rus'. In addition to the direct consequences of the Horde yoke, it contributed to a change in the nature of the country's feudal development. The Moscow monarchy was not created directly by the Mongol-Tatars, rather, on the contrary, it took shape in spite of the Horde and in the struggle against it. However, indirectly, it was the consequences of the influence of the conquerors that determined many of the essential features of this state and its social system.
The Mongol invasion was a tangible blow to Russian culture, but, on the other hand, the national liberation struggle gave impetus to the development of society's self-awareness, and through it the restoration and subsequent enrichment of cultural traditions. The conquerors did not stand on ceremony with the cultural values of the conquered people. As a result of the destruction of cities, many temples and churches, monuments of art and literature perished. The general decline of the economy also had an effect, putting an end to stone architecture for a while, significantly reducing the volume of book production, etc. But at the same time, the liberation struggle gave impetus to oral creativity, as well as written legends. There are legends about new heroes of the Russian land, about the sad history of the Mongol invasion and the struggle against the Mongols, such as “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Tale of Clicker”, “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh”, etc. A number of “lives” were dedicated to the princes who found a martyr's end in the Golden Horde: Mikhail of Chernigov, Mikhail of Tver, as well as the religious leaders of Russia: Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh.
However, there are a number of positive features in the Golden Horde domination.
Be that as it may, when the Mongol rule ended and Russia freed itself from the "Tatar yoke", then, firstly, the specific principalities and separate Slavic tribes that were before the arrival of the Mongols, headed by princes at odds with each other, turned into the Muscovite state and into one Russian people and, secondly, this state turned out to be surprisingly similar to the former Mongolian states and, in general, to the eastern monarchies of Asia. The Muscovite state of the 16th-17th centuries is a typical eastern khanat.
Bibliography
1.History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: Textbook / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina. M., 2006.
2. Battle of Kulikovo in the history and culture of our Motherland. Digest of articles. MSU Publishing House<#"center">eno n
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Question:
Culture of Rus' in the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries).
Answer:
The culture of Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries)
In the historical and cultural process of the XIII - XV centuries. two periods are distinguished. The first (from 1240 to the middle of the 14th century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture (due to the Mongol-Tatar conquest and simultaneous expansion by German, Swedish, Danish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords). Foreign invasions were especially detrimental to the southern and western lands.
The second period (from the second half of the 14th century) was marked by the rise of national self-consciousness, the revival of Russian culture.
The struggle against the Mongol-Tatars is the main theme of the folklore of the second half of the 13th-15th centuries. Traditional genres (epics, legends) are dedicated to her.
The leading genre of this time is the military story. The idea of all-Russian unity, having arisen in the pre-Mongolian period, intensified in the difficult years of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
After the Mongol-Tatar devastation, Russian architecture experienced a period of decline and stagnation. Monumental construction stopped for half a century, the cadres of builders were essentially destroyed, and technical continuity was also undermined. Construction is now concentrated in two main areas: in the northwest (Novgorod and Pskov) and in the ancient Vladimir land (Moscow and Tver).
The first stone buildings in the Moscow Kremlin, which have not survived to this day, appeared at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. (Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Virgin, 1326).
Artistic centers moved from south to north, to cities that had escaped ruin (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Novgorod and Pskov), where there were many monuments of old art and living bearers of cultural traditions were preserved.
In the XIII century. there was a final crystallization of the Novgorod and Rostov schools of painting, and in the XIV century. - Tver, Pskov, Moscow and Vologda.
14th century - the time of the brilliant flourishing of the monumental painting of Novgorod, the development of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek, who came to Rus' in the 70s of the XIV century. The works of F. Grek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by monumentality, dramatic expressiveness, and a bold pictorial manner. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, the frescoes of which have come down to us only partially.
In Moscow, Theophan the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin with a chapel of Lazarus, the Arkhangelsk and (together with Elder Prokhor and Andrei Rublev) the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, etc. A number of magnificent icons created in the circle of Theophan have been preserved. The best of them is the "Our Lady of the Don" from the Assumption Cathedral with the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the back.
The first 7 icons of the festive row (“Annunciation”, “Transfiguration”, etc.) from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral are traditionally associated with the name of the greatest artist of Ancient Rus' Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - 1427/30) - a monk of the Andronikov Monastery, reliable information about little of his life and work has been preserved. The most perfect work of Rublev is the icon "Trinity", created for the Trinity - Sergius Monastery. The style of the Moscow master, deeply national in its essence, distinguished by its unique individuality, for a long time determined the style not only of the Moscow school of painting, which reached its peak under him, but of the entire Russian artistic culture.
The growth of national self-consciousness, the idea of unity, the tendency to overcome regional tendencies in social thought, literature, art - all this testified to the emergence of an all-Russian (Great Russian) culture.
Culturology
Supereka S.V.
2007
