The history of mankind can be compared with the biography of one family - over time, some members of the household leave, others are born, and everyone lives life in their own way, leaving certain memories of themselves. In the case of the global “family” of homo sapiens, entire civilizations act as its members - some of them manage to exist for thousands of years, and some of them are not allowed to last even several centuries, however, one way or another, the place of the lost civilization is immediately occupied by the next one - in this is great justice and the great meaning of history.

1. Olmec civilization

The Olmecs are one of the oldest civilizations in Central America, with an outstanding culture and an unusually high level of development of science and technology for their time.

The "visiting card" of the Olmecs are giant sculptures in the form of heads, located in modern Mexico. The heyday of the Olmec state fell on the period between 1500 and 400 BC, according to historians, this people achieved impressive success in architecture, agriculture, medicine, writing and other branches of knowledge. The Olmecs had a fairly accurate calendar and a mathematical system that used the number "0", which can be considered a real breakthrough.

Having existed for more than a thousand years, the Olmec civilization, for reasons still unclear, fell into decline, but other states arose on its ruins, such as ...

2. Aztec Empire

The "golden age" of the Aztec civilization is considered the period between 1428 and 1521 - at that time the empire covered vast territories, where, according to some estimates, about 5 million people lived, while the population of its capital, Tenochtitlan, located on the site of the modern Mexico City, was about 200 thousand people.

The Aztecs borrowed a lot from the Olmec civilization, including religious beliefs, ritual games, traditions of human sacrifice, language, calendar, and some achievements of science and culture. The Aztec Empire was one of the richest and most highly developed states of pre-Columbian America - suffice it to mention at least the most complex aqueducts they built, designed to irrigate the famous floating gardens.

With the isolation of the Aztec state from the rest of the world, and along with the state itself, it was over when the detachment of the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes was allowed to enter Tenochtitlan. One can imagine the surprise of the Spaniards, who were expecting a meeting with the "primitive barbarians" - their eyes saw a huge rich city with wide streets and stunningly beautiful architecture.

It is likely that greed, the envy of the Spaniards for the wealth of the townspeople, as well as European diseases and modern weapons of the conquistadors, led to the destruction

the Aztec state and the genocide of a great people, and just a few years later, another Indian civilization fell victim to European invaders ...

3. Inca Empire

The Inca state, which occupied the territory of modern Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador, existed for more than three centuries - from the beginning of the 13th to the end of the 16th, when conquistadors came to the country under the command of the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro.

The capital of the Inca Empire was located in the mountains, on the site of the modern city of Cusco. Thanks to the unusually high level of technological development at that time, the Incas managed to build an effective system of agriculture, turning mountain slopes into fertile fields and developing technologies for irrigating them. The buildings of the city of Machu Picchu and other structures that have survived to our time testify to the highest skill of Inca architects. Based on astronomical observations and their mathematical system, the Incas created an accurate calendar, they developed their own script, and achieved notable successes in medicine and other sciences. Scientists are still puzzling over how the people, who did not have modern tools and devices, managed to build architectural and engineering masterpieces.

Acquaintance with European civilization was a real tragedy for the Incas (as well as for other indigenous peoples of the American continent) - most of the population was destroyed by European diseases, the weapons of the conquistadors and the civil strife of various tribes that had begun, and their cities were plundered.

Such is the sad fate of the once powerful country, the size of which was comparable to the largest Eurasian states, for example, what we call ...

4. Persian Empire

The Persian Empire has been one of the main players in the world political arena for several centuries. Possessing outstanding technologies and knowledge, the Persians built a road network, unique in its branching and quality, connecting the most developed cities of the empire, developed an unparalleled sewage system, created an alphabet and numbers. They were the first to use the assimilation of conquered peoples instead of their extermination, trying to make the religious and cultural traditions of foreigners part of their culture, thanks to which they managed to create one of the largest and most influential states on the planet, such examples in the history of mankind are quite rare and one of them…

5. Macedonian Empire

By and large, this state owes its existence to one person - Alexander the Great. His empire covered part of modern Greece and Egypt, the territory of the former power of the Achaemenids and part of India. Alexander managed to subjugate many countries thanks to his talent as a commander and the high level of training of troops. Not the last role in the creation of the empire was also played by the assimilation of the peoples of the occupied territories - marriages between the soldiers of the Macedonian army and representatives of the local population.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the empire lasted for about three centuries. As a result of numerous conflicts between the heirs of the legendary conqueror, the country fell apart and most of it became part of another great state, called ...

6. Roman Empire

Roman civilization originated in the city-states on the territory of modern Italy, the main of which was, of course, Rome. The empire was formed under the strong influence of Greek civilization - the Romans borrowed from the Greeks many ideas of state and social structure, which they were able to successfully translate into life.

zn, as a result of which one of the greatest empires in the history of mankind appeared on the world map. Under the rule of the Caesars, the scattered regions of Italy united, and due to the successes of the Roman military leaders, the young state gradually turned into the most influential empire in the world, which included modern Italy, Spain, Greece, France, significant parts of Germany and Great Britain, regions in North Africa (including - Egypt) and vast territories in the Middle East.

The victorious march of the Romans around the world was prevented by the collapse of the empire into the western and eastern parts. The history of the Western Roman Empire ended in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire, which is also called the Byzantine Empire, lasted almost a thousand years longer - until 1453.

The unified Roman Empire was one of the largest states in the history of mankind, only some giants surpassed it in size, for example ...

7. Mongol Empire

The state, covering the most extensive contiguous territory in history, was born at the behest of the great Mongol commander, whose name became almost synonymous with a successful policy of conquest. The history of the empire of Genghis Khan lasted a little more than a century and a half, from 1206 to 1368 - during this time, the territories of modern Russia, India, China and some countries of Eastern Europe, in total, the area of ​​occupied lands were under the rule of the first great khan and his successors was about 33 million km2. The military successes of the Mongols are explained, first of all, by the widespread use of cavalry - their opponents simply did not have a chance to cope with countless hordes of skillful horsemen who appeared as if from nowhere and smashed the infantry to smithereens.

The death of the great Khan Ogedei, the third son of Genghis Khan, prevented the continuation of the aggressive policy of the Mongols. Who knows - if it were not for a combination of circumstances, perhaps Western Europe would have got acquainted with all the "charms" of the Mongol invasion. During the struggle for power of several Mongol political leaders, the empire broke up into four states - the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate in the Middle East, the Yuan Empire in China and the Chagatai ulus in Central Asia.

It is worth noting that the Mongols were not mindless barbarians, as Western historians often try to present them in their works. In the occupied territories, they introduced laws that were quite humane in relation to the indigenous population - for example, it was strictly forbidden to persecute local residents for their religious beliefs. Such a progressive domestic policy should be learned, for example, by the elite of such a state as ...

8 Ancient Egypt

The state, located in the Nile River valley, existed in various forms for more than 4 thousand years. Countless studies, thousands of books, feature films and documentaries have been devoted to the history of Egyptian civilization, but scientists continue to argue about the technologies and knowledge of the ancient Egyptians, which allowed them to create, for example, the famous pyramids of Giza and other wonders of architectural thought.

The heyday of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the highest level of development of traditional religion, the Egyptian language, medicine, architecture, agricultural technology, mathematics and various arts. Egypt is one of the three oldest states on the planet, including Sumerian and

The Indian civilization, the latter also bears the name ...

9. Harappan Civilization

The Indian civilization is far from being as well known as Ancient Egypt, although both states were formed at about the same time - in the middle of the fourth millennium BC. The period of existence of a civilization located on the territory of modern Pakistan covers more than one and a half thousand years.

One of the distinguishing features of the Harappan civilization can be considered a peaceful, creative policy of the authorities, both internal and external.

While the rulers of other countries were waging wars and intimidating their own citizens, considering violence to be the main tool for strengthening power, the first persons of the Harappan state directed all their efforts to the development of society, strengthening the economy and improving technology.

Archaeologists claim that in the course of studying the settlements of the Indus civilization, they found only a small number of weapons, while there were no human remains with signs of violent death, which allows us to conclude that the Indus state was peaceful.

The Harappans lived in clean, well-planned cities with sewerage and water systems, and virtually every house had a bathroom and toilet. Unfortunately, we know little about the Indus civilization, however, the available information indicates that it was one of the most progressive countries of that era.

Goodwill and peacefulness were also characteristic of the people who created the state on the islands of the Caribbean - we know it under the name ...

10. Arawaks

The Arawaks are the collective name for a whole group of peoples who inhabited the islands of the Caribbean and the northern part of South America. It was the Arawaks who were the first of the Indian tribes to meet Christopher Columbus upon his arrival in the New World. According to various estimates, during the first expedition

Columbus, the number of island Arawaks ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people, although some sources give other figures - up to several million.

Possessing a developed culture, the Arawaks were very friendly to each other and to strangers - according to the testimony of the expedition members, the natives shouted to European ships approaching their islands: “Tainos!”, which means “peace” in the local dialect. From here came the second common name of the island Arawak tribes - Taino.

The Taino were engaged in trade, agriculture, fishing and hunting, unlike many other Indian tribes, they practically did not participate in military conflicts. The only people with whom the Arawaks were at enmity were the cannibals who lived on the territory of the modern state of Puerto Rico.

The Arawak civilization is characterized by a highly organized structure of society, its hierarchy, as well as the commitment of the population to universal human values ​​- for example, Arawak women had the right to refuse a man to marry, which was unheard of for the Indians, however, as well as for many Europeans of that time.

With the advent of the conquerors, the state of the Arawaks quickly fell into decay - the population decreased several times due to the lack of immunity to diseases of the Old World and armed conflicts with the Spaniards. The Taino are now considered extinct, although some of the islands in the Caribbean still have remnants of the culture of this once highly developed civilization.

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The values ​​of a progressive type of development throughout the world are recognized as universal. These are the market, the rule of law democratic state, civil society, human rights. Countries belonging to other types are striving to master the mechanism of progressive development, are drawn into market relations, and elements of democracy are being introduced. Such phenomena were the basis for the assertion that a single world civilization is being formed on the basis of Western values. Consequently, only countries that develop according to the Western type are considered civilized, the rest seem to be outside of civilization. The time of the formation of a single civilization is determined in different ways. Some believe that the formation of world civilization began already in the era of geographical discoveries. Others argue that the time when Christian values ​​were planted in different parts of the world with fire and sword cannot be considered the beginning of world civilization, and they date it to the end of the Second World War, when, as a result of the collapse of the colonial system, many countries voluntarily chose the market and democracy.

The idea of ​​the universality of history, of the linear progressive movement of the human community in time is a characteristic feature of the European philosophy of history. On this ideological basis, the concepts of the unity of human civilization were formed. Modernity provides additional arguments for these concepts. Industrial and post-industrial stages of scientific and technological progress lead to global cooperation, js. the creation of planetary systems of information, communications, transport, trade, the erasure of archaic differences between countries. Appearance in the 20th century global problems related to the survival of mankind on planet Earth - the threat of a nuclear, environmental catastrophe, demographic problems, etc. - serve as an additional basis in favor of the statement about the unity of human civilization.

Since in Russia in Soviet times historical concepts were formed under the strong influence of the ideas of K. Marx, who categorically spoke from the standpoint of the universality of history, in subsequent years the ideas of a single civilization on planet Earth were easily accepted. However, this approach requires critical reflection, all the more important because Russia has never been and is not a "pure" Europe.

The arguments in favor of world civilization are weighty and cannot be discounted. However, to speak of a single civilization is at least premature, and perhaps even impossible. This is more of a dream of the intellectual elite of highly developed countries than a reality. One can speak of a universal human civilization only in the sense that there is a community of intelligent beings on the planet that develops in accordance with natural and social laws and has common interests. That is, a global civilization exists only in relation to global problems. The human community itself is heterogeneous, its history cannot be understood on the basis of a planetary approach. Between the Bedouin nomad, lost in the desert expanses of the Sahara, and the superscientific intellectual from the laboratory in Berkeley (USA), the distance is not temporary (they live in the same time - today), but civilizational. It cannot be jumped over (it is fraught with violence), it must be understood.

The idea of ​​the unity of human civilization and the universality of the laws of history lies at the basis of different versions of the civilizational approach. One of them is based on the theory of cyclical dynamics of the economist N.D. Kondratiev. Based on the study of a large array of statistical data and mathematical modeling of socio-economic processes, N.D. Kondratiev came to the conclusion that large cycles of the economic situation distinctly replace each other every half century (40-50 years). Within the half-century cycle, there are shorter ones. There are four or five of them, and each of them goes through the state of equilibrium and disequilibrium. The half-century cycle of conjuncture, in turn, is an element of the "secular" civilizational cycle, the change of which every 200-300 years is a change of civilizations. Thus, it is proposed to consider a civilization a certain stage in the development of society. Yu.V. Yakovets, an adherent of this approach, writes that civilization is "a certain stage in the cyclical development of society in the integrity of its constituent elements." There are seven such cycles-civilizations: Neolithic (7th-4th millennium BC), Eastern slave-owning (3rd - first half of the 1st millennium BC), ancient (VI century BC - VI century AD), early feudal (7th-13th centuries), pre-industrial (14th-18th centuries), industrial (60-90s of the 18th century - 10-70s of the 20th century), postindustrial (80s of the 20th century - the end of the 21st - the beginning of the 22nd centuries). The history of mankind appears in the form of a ladder, on the steps of which a person climbs.

Thus, the concept of a single world civilization denies the multivariance of human development.

At the same time, pay attention: under its flag, the idea of ​​unified development is again proposed, only instead of a formational corridor there is a civilizational one. At the end of the corridor, there used to be communism, and now there is a Western way of life. Historical experience shows that the life of mankind is diverse, multivariate, and development is not along the line of simplification, unification, but of increasing complexity, increasing diversity. With such a view, a hierarchy of values ​​is again established: some peoples are declared superior, exemplary, some inferior, backward. All human experience is priceless. It is not known in the end what will be the salvation of mankind, which type has the highest value in terms of the survival of mankind.

It is important to understand that there is not only a European, Western view of history, but also a completely different one. The celebration of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America by X. Columbus was marked by the entry of the peoples of the continent open to Europe into general historical life. However, the broad masses of the indigenous population of Latin America perceive this time as a catastrophe, the collapse of their own world, their own history.

In addition, historical experience shows that it is impossible to transfer a society belonging to one type of development to a fundamentally different one. A personality - yes, in two or three generations it will completely assimilate in a new environment, perceive other values ​​(otherwise emigration would be impossible). But a community of people that has internal mechanisms of self-development cannot be transferred to another type, it degrades and collapses.

Let us turn to the most obvious example - the Indians of America. Despite five centuries of domination of the European tradition, a significant part of the indigenous population of the continent has retained a mentality, psychology, religious ideas and stereotypes of behavior that are fundamentally different from European ones. The collectivist, communal character of Indian ethics is preserved. How many millions of people belonging to different types of civilizations, the United States attached to the values ​​of the Western way of life! This state has become a highly developed society, a showcase for the Western world. Its history spans just over 200 years. The progressive type of development allowed the United States to reach the forefront in a relatively short period of time. Unlike Europe, the United States of America is not a nation state, but a federal one. A federal state of this type makes it possible to overcome the division of mankind into nations, to make the processes of internationalization prevail. In the difficult struggle against racism, it was possible to create an atmosphere of interethnic loyalty, to promote the development of social solidarity on a social, and not national, basis. But the Indians, the natives of America, are strangers in this celebration of life. Western society is sucking out the most active forces from the Indian community, but the Indian phenomenon itself is dying out.

The fatality of the meeting with Western civilizations for the Indians of America was understood. They tried to find a way out through the creation of "national settlements", reservations in a direct or veiled form. The allocation of special territories for the life of the natives did not solve their problems, led to artificial isolation, did not stop, but, perhaps, accelerated the destruction of the traditional way of life.

The sad experience of the “transition to socialism” of the small peoples of Siberia and the North in our country speaks of the same thing: it is impossible to transfer human communities that have internal mechanisms of existence to a different type of development. Evenki writer Alitet Nemtushkin says: “Of the 120 people who studied with me at the boarding school, only two are alive, some shot themselves, some were shot, some drowned, some drowned ... We, the indigenous peoples of the North, do not fit into modern civilization, are not competitive like a dugout boat and a motor boat. Please note: we are talking about people who were brought up in boarding schools, in the traditions of Russian culture, Russian worldview. But representatives of small nations do not feel like full-fledged members of the community that seeks to assimilate them. There is a process of destruction and degradation. Alcoholism, unemployment, a high percentage of suicides, the neglect of the Aboriginal economy and the low standard of living are evidence of this.

At present, when Russia has taken a course towards a market economy and parliamentary democracy, the peoples of Siberia and the North also face a difficult problem of choice. In the confusion of the transitional era, this problem must be solved without delay. But how? Y. Shestalov writes: “Some call for a brighter Future, others destroy what has been done, others rejoice at the feast of commerce. And they prevent us from hunting, herding deer. They interfere with our lives. Live in harmony with Torum, Water, Earth. Live in harmony with nature. With myself". Some leaders argue that the market and the North are incompatible. Indeed, market values ​​are clearly contrary to the traditional way of life of the natives. How to relate the market outlook, one of the pillars of which is the pursuit of the greatest profit, with asceticism, with one of the firm foundations of these communities, which is to take from nature only what is necessary to sustain life.

Voices are heard about the need to return to the historically established way of life as the only salvation from final death and disappearance. The big sulgan (congress) of the Evenks of Russia adopted a survival program, which is based on a course towards the revival of tribal nomadic communities, the traditional way of life. However, the return to the bosom of nature looks like a pure utopia. It is hardly possible.

It is necessary to look for ways to integrate small peoples into a complex, large social system while maintaining their identity, with large-scale support from the state. The world is now accumulating experience of the coexistence of market societies and societies living within the natural cycle. These are Sweden, Canada, Australia. Moreover, the main value of this experience is that small nations live in accordance with their traditions, but are integrated into the market environment. It is necessary to follow this path: mutual understanding and coexistence, interaction and support for the weak. It is important to understand that the civilizational features that have developed historically do not disappear anywhere. They still play an important role in the life of peoples. An attempt to ignore them can lead to social disaster.

We must not forget something else: the global problems that humanity faced in the 20th century were generated by technogenic Western civilization. The Western way is not a fabulous idyll. It is sharply conflicted, contradictory, gives rise to constant problems, including planetary ones. Ecological catastrophes, global crises in politics, peace and war, etc., show that a certain limit of progress in its traditional forms has been reached. In this environment, theories of "limitation of progress" proliferate. Voices about the need to slow down the movement of the flywheel of scientific and technological progress are sounding louder, and, possibly, to stop altogether. The threat of a worldwide ecological catastrophe has become a reality. Academician N. Moiseev writes: “Not everything is allowed to a person... There is an idea of ​​the existence of a certain ecological imperative, that is, a set of conditions that a person has no right to violate under any circumstances!”1. All this forces us to take a critical look at the prospects of Western civilization in its present form. Apparently, in the XXI century. it will undergo great changes.

Let us turn to such an authority as A. Toynbee. He wrote: “The 'unity of civilization' thesis is a false concept, very popular among modern Western historians, whose thinking is strongly influenced by the social environment ...

The thesis about the unification of the world on the basis of the Western economic system as a logical result of a single and continuous process of development of human history leads to gross distortions of facts and to a striking narrowing of the historical outlook. features.

In the family of nations

However, it is well known that elements of a progressive type of development, especially market structures, are being actively introduced in Eastern-type countries. How to explain it? Intercivilizational dialogue has always been going on! From the East, from the Phoenicians, writing came to the Greeks, the first Greek philosophers studied with the Eastern sages. On the other hand, after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek thought, which had already reached maturity, came to the East. In the East, in Palestine, Christianity was born, which then became the soul of Western civilization. The Muslim East, having assimilated the ancient heritage, developed and reworked it in its own way and gave the world a special culture that had a strong influence on Europe. That is, all peoples in one way or another use the cumulative experience of all mankind. Different civilizations have never been separated from each other by a Chinese wall, there have always been connections and influence. Many values ​​of the human community are of a universal nature: the concept of good and evil, moral, spiritual priorities enshrined in world religious systems have much in common. In the second half of the 20th century, after bloody wars and social cataclysms, mutual enrichment of types of development takes place especially actively. Today, different continents are connected by means of mass communication, events on the farthest of them immediately receive a response in Washington, Beijing, Moscow and in European states. But this does not mean that all civilizations are in the process of merging into a homogeneous mass, where no one recognizes their relatives. The assimilation of progressive experience has taken place and is taking place while maintaining the civilizational characteristics of each community, the mentality of peoples. Moreover, the elements of the Western path, transferred to another soil, acquired a new look and a new quality.

The faster Western civilization developed, the more distinct became the gap in the levels of development between East and West. The West, gaining a colossal pace of development, exploiting the whole world, has come a long way ahead, especially noticeably in the industrial era. One example: the first university in Europe to provide a secular education appeared in the 12th century. More than seven centuries passed before the first university providing a secular education appeared in the East. The problem of accelerating the development of societies of the eastern type, which was called modernization, arose acutely.

The problem of modernization of societies belonging to the cyclical type of development has long been actively studied in the West. There is a rich literature whose common feature is Western-centrism. Historical progress follows the line of an ever wider dissemination of culture born on the soil of the Western European tradition of individualism, many authors argue. These concepts have a significant drawback: the historical process is considered unilinear, as soon as the transition to the Western type - Westernization. In fact, the historical process is multilinear, multivariate.

The countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America experienced strong pressure from the colonial Western powers. They were drawn into market relations, the place in the traditional way of life of that part of the population that is associated with Western-type enclaves changed: private property was strengthened, individualism was manifested, elements of social class differentiation and everything connected with it. Groups of people educated in the West, professing European values, committed to European culture were formed. It became possible to visually compare their own traditions with the Western standard of living standards, individual rights, political pluralism, and limiting the role of religion. From this stratum emerged the leaders of the national liberation movement, who dreamed not only of throwing off the colonial yoke, but also of ensuring prosperity for the people.

The European model became a reference point for colonial countries and countries that were not colonial, but were inevitably influenced by the West. In the 19th century In the countries of the Eastern type, reforms were launched, with which hopes were associated that the East would fit into European standards: constitutional and democratic reforms were carried out, legislative bodies were created, and the election procedure was introduced. However, the social basis for such transformations was extremely narrow. Most countries continued to exist within the framework of centuries-old traditions.

Farthest in reforms in the second half of the XIX century. advanced Japan, which was almost unaffected by colonial expansion. The way was opened for private entrepreneurial activity, socially and legally protected, industrial construction was launched. In 1889, the text of the Constitution was published in the name of the emperor. Japan became a constitutional monarchy, a parliament appeared.

In the first half of the XX century. attempts at deep reform continued. They became more active during the revolutions of the early 20th century. On the one hand, countries sought to free themselves from colonial or semi-colonial dependence, on the other hand, they were looking for ways to radically change the social structure and accelerate development. In China, revolutionary forces attempted to proclaim a republic headed by a president (Sun Yat-sen was named the first president). However, this did not affect the foundations of the social structure. Sun Yat-sen noted: "The destruction was carried out only on the surface, and the soil that lay under the old building was not removed and discarded." As a result of the Iranian revolution, an elected Majlis appeared - a prototype of the parliament, and a "basic law" was adopted - the constitution of the state. One could give more examples of how in the Eastern countries they tried to apply elements of the progressive type. These processes were difficult, with constant rollbacks.

The beginning of the modernization of societies of a cyclical type of development coincided with the growing crisis of Western civilization and its self-destruction, which greatly complicated this process, since the introduction of the Western type of structures reproduced their inherent contradictions.

Today we will talk about what world civilizations are. Difficult material, difficult text, there will be many names and dates. Last time we talked about the fact that in the middle of the XVIII century. in the French language, French historiography, French philosophy, the word appeared civilization . The French enlighteners in 1757 noted this word in the academic dictionary for the first time. Twenty years later, it appeared in England as well - so far in such a simple sense: civilization was opposed to barbarism. There are wild, uncivilized peoples, and there are civilized ones. Here is the word civilization used in the sense of culture. But the word culture was already in French and English (came from German in the 17th century). That's why it took a new concept and a new word civilization . In Russia, it appeared in the 20s of the XIX century. and also in the same sense. But here in Pushkin (he was one of the first) in the 30s this word appears several times: first in a diary in 1833 (only in a different transcription - civilization ), and then in the well-known article "John Tanner". The article is a book review by one person who lived in America with Indian tribes for 30 years. In this review, published in the Sovremennik magazine, Pushkin uses the phrase "Christian civilization". He writes with irony: "Christian civilization showed all its qualities when it began to persecute the Indians." This is 1836. This means that if there is a Christian civilization, there are others, i.e. civilization in the plural. Maybe Muslim, or Buddhist, or others.

It must be said that in Russia the scientific language was formed with difficulty precisely at that time, since the entire Russian intelligentsia knew French and German well, and worse, English. Chaadaev wrote all his "Philosophical Letters" in French. There, the words culture and civilization are found constantly. But it took some time for this to pass into the Russian language. The word culture, for example, was recorded in the dictionary of the Russian language in 1847. Before that, dictionaries of the Russian language did not record this word. Even at the end of the XVIII century. An excellent dictionary of the Russian language was published in 6 volumes. But those words are not there. It so happened that it was Russian scientists who got the historical mission to develop the idea of ​​what Russian civilization is and what world civilizations are, although British scientists were the most active in this regard on a global scale. Especially in the 20th century. But now we will talk about the Russian scientist Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822 - 1885). Oddly enough, by education he is a biologist - one of the founders of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden in the Crimea. It was Danilevsky who carefully developed the idea of ​​world civilizations and wrote the book Russia and Europe (1869). This book is very interesting and relevant today. But in a strange way, it has not been reprinted in Russia for more than a hundred years. Many critical Westerners did not like what Danilevsky wrote, because the book "Russia and Europe" had an anti-Western character. And in the intelligentsia at that time, anti-Western sentiments prevailed. This book was no longer remembered by Russian, but by English scientists, when they began to develop the concept of world civilizations. In this book, in the fifth section, it is very simply written that there are several Civilizations (with a capital letter) - Danilevsky calls them “cultural-historical types”. Over the course of historical time, cultural and historical types have developed over 6 millennia, they were born, developed and died. This is the idea of ​​cyclical development of cultural-historical types. The scientist classifies these types. Together with the newly emerging cultural and historical types, he got 13 world (great) civilizations. Since Danilevsky is a biologist, he uses biological terms. Civilization is “born”, gradually gains strength, reaches its peak, and then inevitably must degrade and disappear. In its development and departure from the historical arena, civilization does not convey the most important thing that it has discovered. Many did not like this, especially the Russian philosopher Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov (1853–1900). Danilevsky has a notion that civilization blooms like different types of cacti. There are types of cacti that bloom once in a lifetime - faded and withered. The scientist even came up with a time period for which a great Civilization, a great nation “blooms”: 1200–1500 years. Strictly speaking, there are more durable civilizations, but Danilevsky decided so. There are many points for which the scientist is easy to criticize, but he was one of the first. He was the first to develop in detail not only the idea of ​​world civilizations, but also their classification. Here the most difficult thing is to understand why he installed these types. But his merit is that he proved that world civilizations are created not by one people, different peoples are capable of this. This idea was especially popular in the 20th century.

Now I will name those 13 civilizations (or cultural-historical types) that Danilevsky proposed. They appear to be in chronological order.

The assertion that one civilization replaces another is also false. They exist as if in parallel in the historical process. But Danilevsky still singles out the civilization that dominates at this stage. At the time when he writes his book, he believes that the European dominates, and the future belongs to the Slavic.

It must be said that Danilevsky did not know about many archaeological discoveries. After him, many civilizations were discovered. The picture of ancient history as a whole has changed, but the main thing remains: cultural and historical types, according to Danilevsky, are cultural and historical communities that are large in time and space.

To the question of terminology. Archaeologists introduced the concept of "archaeological culture" and began to think about what to call civilization and what culture. For ancient civilizations, the presence of three signs was considered mandatory: cities, large monumental monuments and writing. If there are no such signs, then this is an archaeological culture. The so-called "Dyakovo culture" was excavated in the area of ​​Tsaritsyn, and the ancient "Fotyanovo culture" was unearthed near Yaroslavl. At least 6-8 such archaeological cultures are associated with the Slavs. These are not yet civilizations, but something approaching them. As I have already said, Danilevsky's concept was criticized by Vl. Solovyov, A.P. Milyukov. According to Solovyov, who constantly fought against Slavophilism, Russia is part of Europe, we have a common culture, therefore there can be no special Slavic civilization.

In the 20th century, after new archaeological data appeared, the number of civilizations increased, a new understanding of the accumulated knowledge came. This is mainly the merit of British scientists and historians - they made many discoveries in Asia Minor, in India, since they owned India, and in many other places. I omit a very large topic about how the idea of ​​civilizations was developed in Germany, in other countries, and immediately proceed to the concept of the history of the English historian of the 20th century. Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889-1975). He worked on the concept of civilization for more than 30 years. I was in London and met with his numerous descendants. The bookstore has a huge section of Toynbee books. We began to translate it in the 90s of the XX century. His main work is "Comprehension of Civilizations" (in another version - "Comprehension of History") in 12 volumes. We have an abbreviated translation - this is quite enough.

Toynbee very well thought out and substantiated how many civilizations there should be. At first, as many appeared as Danilevsky's. When Toynbee published his work in the 1930s, he pointed out that he took the basic idea of ​​comprehending history from Danilevsky. Then he increased the number of civilizations to 23, and by the end of his life, at the end of this enormous work, in 1961 there were already 37 of them. Why is that? A finer division of cultural-historical types simply appeared. Toynbee struggled for a long time over which of the modern civilizations depended on the ancients. And he called Orthodox - in Russia. There was an Orthodox civilization in Byzantium. Russia goes under number 17. It is impossible to remember all 37 civilizations, so I take the average version of the 30s with a few clarifications. From the very beginning, Toynbee was criticized for the fact that some of his peoples were, as it were, civilizational, while others were not. He explained that this is not the level of culture, but the level of scale of historical development, that these are great peoples and great cultures. And in order to satisfy his critics, he named more than 600 cultural communities, which are also cultural, but did not reach the level of world civilizations. After Toynbee's work, many people had the feeling that it was very prestigious to be included in the category of world civilizations, and those who did not make it were like second-class citizens.

I have already said that civilization lives not only for itself, but also for others: discoveries in many planes. Toynbee believes that all cultural communities are constantly concerned with the problem of survival, nutrition and reproduction. For them, this is quite enough. They are at the level of ethnic existence. Toynbee borrowed the term "ethnic" from Danilevsky. Peoples at the ethnic level can live for centuries, leaving behind traces of their stay on earth - bonfires, burials, mounds, ritual places. But to say that they created a civilization is impossible. Toynbee's general definition is something like this: he understands civilization as "a large and powerful community of people. Either one big nation, or a commonwealth of nations, united by common efforts to protect, preserve and grow this community, united by a common worldview, religion, common ideas about morality and artistic values, their uniquely creative approach to resolving all the problems and difficulties that arise before it.

Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov has the concept of "superethnos". Civilization is a complex energy and creative system, a huge creative team. Toynbee insists that civilization is primarily a creative process in all areas (science, art, economics...). Another interesting statement by Toynbee is that a people that has embarked on the path of civilization cannot turn back, return to its former state. If this happens, then post-civilizational chaos sets in. Either we need to live in our own civilization, or we will collapse. If a people or a state has joined this historical stream, then they go with the flow and cannot go against the flow. It's impossible to retreat. An individual or a group of people can do this, but the whole nation cannot retreat. Therefore, in Toynbee, this process takes on a tragic connotation. In modern political science there is the concept of "African civilization", but this is ridiculous - in Africa there are completely different and opposite levels of life and culture, often hostile communities, and in civilization everything should be harmonious. This is how there are inclusions in Russian civilization, the introduction of foreign cultures, but in general, our civilization exists and is not destroyed due to other inclusions.

So, I have a difficult task - to make a list of civilizations. Toynbee hesitated for a long time whether his concept was needed before he established himself in it. He believed that a person in general, after 70 years, cannot come up with anything new, but can only rearrange, combine what was invented earlier. In England, there is a strict regulation: if the professor is 67-68 years old, you are smart, great or not great, make room.

And now my list.

1. Sumerian - the most ancient civilization: 3300 BC – 2000 BC Toynbee identified it in the 1930s, then he removed it, and later singled it out again. In Russian tradition, this civilization is known, although Danilevsky did not know about it. The Sumerian civilization discovered writing - first pictograms, then cuneiform. Some dispute the priority of the Sumerians. They say that not only they dug up the cuneiform writing, but also some other peoples. But it is indisputable that the Sumerians began to build large settlements, i.e. cities. They did not have a single kingdom, but there were city-kingdoms. Many archaeological monuments have been preserved from the Sumerians. They lived in the southern part of modern Iraq between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Imagine that many Sumerian treasures were in the Baghdad Museum and 13,000 exhibits disappeared from this museum during the Iraq war. Now they appear on the black market. The loss is irreparable. About 150 literary texts of the Sumerians have survived - prayers, hymns to the gods, anecdotes, fables. They are well translated into English and Russian. Doctor of Historical Sciences V.K. Afanasyeva believes that this is the greatest people on earth. I also have a weakness for the Sumerians. They were cheerful and cheerful people. They believed in the immortality of the soul. They built temples on high places. Small. Apparently they loved to sing. Sometimes I read their texts in the audience.

2. Egyptian - long-lived civilization: 3000 BC - 1st century AD (the starting date is always arbitrary. I took it from Toynbee). In mood, in spirit, it is opposite to the Sumerian. Very stable - it has changed three types of kingdom. It was the Egyptians who made sure to keep a memory of themselves for millennia. These are the great Egyptian pyramids. Egyptian hieroglyphs were only read in the 19th century. A full examination of this civilization is, of course, the merit of the French. The most interesting exhibits are in the museums of Egypt and in the Louvre. Here everything was built on the power of religion and priests. A rather gloomy and closed esoteric religion, belief in the immortality of the soul. The "Book of the Dead" (we published in 2003) says that there are 8 parts of a person. The soul is only one of the parts. When a person dies, his soul is sent to another world on a boat. There are many texts left from the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks knew Egypt well, often visited there, and the Greek philosophers borrowed a lot.

3. Indian or Old Indian civilization: 2500 BC - 1500 BC, i.e. one thousand years. This civilization was discovered in the middle of the 19th century. almost by accident: they built a road and unearthed a whole city. The remnants of this civilization are now not in India, but in Pakistan. A huge city has been excavated, huge walls, fragments of sculptures, disks with some inscriptions (they have not been read). We have little data on this civilization, its study is ahead. Perhaps most importantly, the Sumerians moved to Hindustan and their culture influenced the locals.

4. ancient chinese civilization. Its beginning is also in the fog. Approximately 2200 BC – 2nd century AD The second date is not her death, but a change in worldview and religion. Some scholars speak of one Chinese civilization. I am closer to the concept of the early Toynbee, who believed that there were still two of them. The basis of ancient Chinese civilization is writing, which the Chinese themselves cannot read. Only scientists. The philosopher Confucius (VI century BC) belongs to this civilization. In the 2nd century BC. A new religion came to China - Buddhism. And the basis of the new Chinese civilization is the Buddhist religion. So judge. If we understand civilization as a worldview, religion, mentality, characteristic of all peoples, then in China there were still two civilizations. In March 2003, a monument was erected in China in honor of the 5000th anniversary of the Chinese people.

The entire period of human existence, after it has left its early stage of development and left the caves that were pretty boring by that time, can be divided into certain stages, each of which will be a long-existing community of countries and peoples united by common social, cultural and economic features. Such a separately taken historical segment is called civilization and carries in itself only its inherent features.

Civilization as universal historical progress

In the teachings of the most progressive representatives of the 19th century, theories of universal historical progress dominated. This did not take into account the individual features of the development of individual societies, associated with the characteristics of their race, habitat, climate, religious and other factors. It was assumed that all of humanity is involved in a single The history of civilizations of its individual groups has practically faded into the background.

However, by the end of the century, such historical optimism began to decline, and gave way to doubts about the reality of universal historical progress. Appeared and acquired a large number of followers of the theory, linking the development of certain groups of people with the geographical features of their areas of residence and the degree of adaptation to them, as well as with the prevailing religious beliefs, traditions, customs, and so on. The concept of "civilization" has acquired a more modern meaning.

Term meaning

It was first introduced into use by such 18th-century thinkers as Voltaire, A.R. Turgot and A. Ferguson. The term comes from the Latin word "civilis", which means "civil, state". However, in that era it had a slightly different, narrower meaning than it does now. Everything that emerged from the stage of savagery and barbarism without division into separate stages was designated as Civilization.

What is civilization in the understanding of modern people was well expressed by the English historian and sociologist Arnold Toynbee. He compared it with a living organism, capable of continuously reproducing itself and going from birth to death, overcoming the stages of birth, growth, flourishing, decline and death.

A new approach to understanding an old term

At the beginning of the 20th century, modern civilization began to be considered as the result of the development of its individual local subjects. In the field of view of scientists, the features of their social systems, the characteristic features of the people inhabiting certain regions, as well as their interaction in the context of world history, fell into the field of view.

The stage of the formation of civilization is common to all peoples without exception, but proceeds differently everywhere. The acceleration or deceleration of its pace depends on a large number of reasons, among which the most important are wars, natural disasters, epidemics, and so on. A common feature of the emergence of all civilizations, their starting point is considered to be the transition of ancient people from hunting and fishing, that is, the consumption of the finished product, to its production, namely agriculture and cattle breeding.

Subsequent stages of development of society

The second stage, which includes the history of civilizations, is characterized by the emergence of pottery and writing in its early and sometimes primitive forms. Both testify to the active progress in which a particular society is involved. The next stage that world civilizations go through is the formation of urban culture and, as a result, the further intensive development of writing. On the basis of how fast the development of these and a number of other factors proceeded, it is possible to conditionally distinguish between progressive and backward peoples.

So, all of the above gives a general idea of ​​what civilization is, what historical progress is, and what are its main features. However, it should be noted that in the scientific world there is no single point of view on this issue, since each scientist brings his own, purely personal features to his understanding. Even in the issue of dividing civilizations into agrarian, industrial, as well as being guided by their geographical location and features of the economy, there are different points of view.

The emergence of ancient civilizations

One of the controversial issues is an attempt to establish the chronology of the origin of the earliest civilizations known to science. It is generally accepted that they were the city-states of Mesopotamia, which appeared in the valley and the Euphrates about five thousand years ago. The origin of the Ancient Egyptian civilization is attributed to the same historical period. Somewhat later, the features of civilization were adopted by the peoples who inhabited India, and about a thousand years later it appeared in China. The historical progress of the peoples living in the Balkans at that time gave impetus to the emergence of the ancient Greek states.

All the worlds arose in the valleys of large rivers, such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, and so on. They were called "river", and in many respects their appearance was due to the need to create numerous irrigation systems in cultivated areas. Climatic conditions were also an important factor. As a rule, the first states appeared in tropical and subtropical zones.

Similarly, the development of civilization in coastal areas. It also required the organization of joint actions of a large number of people, and the success of navigation contributed to the establishment of cultural and trade ties with other peoples and tribes. It began, which played such a significant role in the entire world development and still does not lose its relevance.

War between man and nature

The main world civilizations of antiquity developed in the conditions of incessant struggle with natural disasters and the difficulties caused by the landscape of the area. As history shows, people do not always come out victorious. There are known examples of the death of entire nations that fell victim to the raging elements. Suffice it to recall the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, buried under the ashes of a volcano, and the legendary Atlantis, the reality of whose existence many prominent scientists are trying to prove.

Types of civilizations

The typology of civilizations, that is, their division into types, is carried out depending on what meaning is put into this concept itself. However, in the scientific world there are such terms as river, sea and mountain civilizations. These include, respectively, Ancient Egypt, Phoenicia and a number of states of Pre-Columbian America. Continental civilizations are also included in a separate group, which, in turn, are divided into nomadic and sedentary. These are just the main sections of the typology. In fact, each of these types has many more divisions.

Historical stages of development of societies

The history of civilizations shows that having originated and passed through a period of development, often accompanied by aggressive wars, as a result of which, oddly enough, the management system and the structure of society are being improved, they reach their heyday and maturity. This stage is fraught with a certain danger due to the fact that, as a rule, the process of rapid qualitative development gives way to the preservation of the won positions, which inevitably leads to stagnation.

This is not always recognized by society. More often it perceives such a state as the highest point of its development. In practice, this turns into a political and economic crisis, which results in internal unrest and interstate clashes. As a rule, stagnation penetrates into such areas as ideology, culture, economics and religion.

And finally, the consequence of stagnation is the destruction of civilization and its death. At this stage, there is an aggravation of social and political conflicts, which, against the background of the weakening of power structures, has disastrous consequences. With rare exceptions, all former civilizations have passed this thorny path.

The only exceptions can be those peoples and states that have disappeared from the face of the Earth due to purely external reasons beyond their control. For example, the Hyksos invasion destroyed Ancient Egypt, and the Spanish conquistadors put an end to the states of Mesoamerica. However, even in these cases, carrying out a deep analysis, one can find signs of the same stagnation and decay in the last stages of the life of disappeared civilizations.

Change of civilizations and their life cycle

Looking carefully at the history of mankind, one cannot fail to notice that the death of a civilization does not always entail the destruction of a people and its culture. Sometimes there is a process in which the collapse of one civilization is the birth of another. The most striking example is the Greek civilization, which gave way to the Roman, and it was replaced by the modern civilization of Europe. This gives grounds to speak about the ability of the life cycle of civilizations to repeat itself and reproduce itself. This feature underlies the progressive development of mankind and inspires hope in the irreversibility of the process.

Summing up the description of the stages of development of states and peoples, it should be noted that not every civilization goes through the above periods. What is the natural course of history, for example, in the face of natural disasters that can change its course in the blink of an eye? Suffice it to recall at least the Minoan civilization, which was in its heyday and destroyed by the Santorini volcano.

Eastern form of civilization

It is important to take into account the fact that the features of a civilization often depend on its geographical location. In addition, the national traits of the people who make up its population are of great importance. For example, the civilization of the East is full of unique features inherent only to it. This term covers states located not only in Asia, but also in Africa, and in the vastness of Oceania.

Eastern civilization is heterogeneous in its structure. It can be divided into Middle East-Muslim, Indian-South Asian and Chinese-Far East. Despite the individual characteristics of each of them, they contain many common features that give reason to talk about a single Eastern model of the development of society.

In this case, such characteristic features as the unlimited power of the bureaucratic elite not only over the peasant communities under its subordination, but also over representatives of the private sector are common: among them are artisans, usurers and all kinds of merchants. The power of the supreme ruler of the state is considered given by God and sanctified by religion. Almost every Eastern civilization has these features.

Western pattern of society

A completely different picture is presented on the European continent and in America. Western civilization is, first of all, a product of the assimilation, processing and transformation of the achievements of former cultures that have gone down in history. In its arsenal are religious impulses borrowed from the Jews, a philosophical breadth inherited from the Greeks, and a high degree of state organization based on Roman law.

All modern Western civilization is built on the philosophy of Christianity. On this basis, starting from the Middle Ages, human spirituality was formed, which resulted in its highest form, called humanism. Also, the most important contribution of the West to the development of world progress is science, which has changed the entire course of global history, and the implementation of institutions of political freedom.

Rationality is inherent in Western civilization, but, unlike the Eastern form of thinking, it is characterized by consistency, on the basis of which mathematics was developed and It also became the basis for the development of the legal foundations of the state. Its main principle is the dominance of individual rights over the interests of the collective and society. Throughout world history, there has been a confrontation between eastern and western civilizations.

The phenomenon of Russian civilization

When in the XIX century in the countries inhabited by Slavic peoples, the idea of ​​their unification on the basis of ethnic and linguistic community was born, the term "Russian civilization" appeared. He was especially popular among the Slavophiles. This concept focuses on the original features of Russian culture and history, emphasizes their difference from the cultures of the West and the East, puts their national origin at the forefront.

One of the theorists of Russian civilization was the famous historian and sociologist of the 19th century N.Ya. Danilevsky. In his writings, he predicted the West, which, in his opinion, had passed the apogee of its development, was close to decline and withering away. Russia, in his eyes, was the bearer of progress, and it was to her that the future belonged. Under her leadership, all Slavic peoples were to come to cultural and economic prosperity.

Among the outstanding figures of literature, Russian civilization also had its ardent supporters. Suffice it to recall F.M. Dostoevsky with his idea of ​​a “God-bearing people” and the opposition of the Orthodox understanding of Christianity to the Western one, in which he saw the coming of the Antichrist. It is also impossible not to mention L.N. Tolstoy and his idea of ​​a peasant community, based entirely on the Russian tradition.

For many years, disputes have not ceased about which civilization Russia belongs to with its bright originality. Some argue that its uniqueness is only external, and in its depths it is a manifestation of global processes. Others, insisting on its originality, emphasize the eastern origin and see in it an expression of the East Slavic community. Russophobes generally deny the uniqueness of Russian history.

A special place in world history

Leaving aside these discussions, we note that many prominent historians, philosophers, theologians and religious figures of both our time and past years assign a very definite place to Russian civilization, highlighting it in a special category. Among those who were the first to emphasize the uniqueness of the ways of their fatherland in world history were such outstanding personalities as I. Aksakov, F. Tyutchev, I. Kireev and many others.

The position of the so-called Eurasians on this issue deserves attention. This philosophical and political direction appeared in the twenties of the last century. In their opinion, Russian civilization is a mixture of European and Asian features. But Russia synthesized them, turning them into something original. In it, they were not reduced to a simple set of borrowings. Only in such a system of coordinates, the Eurasianists say, can one consider the historical path of our Motherland.

Historical progress and civilization

What is a particular civilization outside the historical context that determines its forms? Based on the fact that it cannot but be localized in time and space, it is necessary for a comprehensive study, first of all, to compile the most complete picture of the historical period of its existence. However, history is not something static, immovable and changing only at certain moments. She is constantly on the move. Therefore, any of the considered world civilizations is like a river - with the similarity of its external outlines, it is constantly new and every moment filled with a different content. It can be full-flowing, carry its waters for long millennia, or it can become shallow and disappear without a trace.

Introduction

The history of the late nineteenth and early twenty-first centuries was marked by large-scale and dynamic changes that affected all spheres of society in most countries of the world. For the leaders of world development (the countries of North America and Europe), this time was the end of the modernization process, for other states - the era of its beginning. Modernization is one of the most important stages in the development of mankind. It means the transition from a traditional society to an industrial society, based on a market economy, developed industry and a democratic political system, including parliamentarism, civil liberties, separation of powers.

Modern world civilization: ways of development

The socio-economic and socio-cultural processes that took place in the 20th century led to the fact that by the end of the second millennium mankind entered a qualitatively new stage in its development. Radical changes in people's lives do not stretch, as before, for a century, but take place over decades, or even several years. The scale of these changes has acquired a global scope, there are no corners on the planet where the consequences of scientific and technological progress would not be felt, some would not be affected by mass culture. Changes affected all aspects of human life. All this allows us to assert that the individual civilization that arose in Europe at the end of the 18th century. And subsequently engulfing the whole world, gives way to a new, conditionally called post-industrial, informational civilization. The world at the beginning of the third millennium did not become the embodiment of the dream of science fiction writers of past eras about a society without poverty, hunger and war, when all peoples, having abolished borders, begin to live in fraternal unity. Other proposals, for example, about open inexhaustible sources of energy, the creation of intelligent machines, and the resettlement of people to the planets of the solar system, did not materialize. At the same time, pessimistic forecasts about the death of mankind in the fire of a new world war, monstrous overpopulation, and global catastrophes did not come true. The industrial West managed to maintain its leading position in the world throughout the 20th century. The attempts of the Soviet Union to compete with the West, implementing its own version of modernization based on communist ideology, were not successful. At the end of the 20th century, the principle of democracy of the market economy was established in most countries of the world. The socialist model remained intact only in Cuba and North Korea. At the same time, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a slowdown in the growth of the Western economy. The leaders in terms of growth were developing countries, primarily China, India, and Brazil. US economic growth has slowed down. In 2008, a large-scale economic crisis broke out here, which soon engulfed all countries of the world. Russia met the turn of the century with a rise in the economy - for the first time in the years of reforms, its real growth was outlined. The increase in gross domestic product in 2007 was 8.1%. The most actively progressed industries, the main export of which are oil, gas and other commodities. Therefore, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had a negative impact on the country's economic development. In the context of significant fluctuations in energy prices on world markets, Russia cannot be satisfied with the role of an exclusive supplier of raw materials. The country's leadership has set the task of increasing the competitiveness of domestic industry products, both in the domestic and foreign markets, primarily through the development of advanced, innovative technologies. The task of strengthening the country's position in the system of the international division of labor is its entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO). By the end of the second millennium, there were no large colonial possessions left on the world map, the number of independent states approached two hundred. Modernization outside of Europe and North America has been controversial in the 20th century. Some countries of Asia and Latin America have achieved significant success in mastering the achievements of Western civilization, and in some ways have surpassed their "teachers". But an important feature of modernization in these countries is the preservation of local national traditions and culture, successfully resisting the onslaught of Westernization. On the other hand, the peoples of Asia and Africa continue to live in poverty. They never managed to create a developed and efficient economy. Therefore, they occupy a marginal position in the world economy and politics, lagging behind the developed countries more and more. Nevertheless, the diversity and inconsistency of the modern world is no longer an obstacle to global cooperation. Economic processes in different regions of the planet are so interconnected that in the known world one can speak of a single world economy.