Loss.ru
Chapter 11
................................................. ........... CONCLUSIONS From the above, it should be concluded that the fire superiority of the Red Army over the German army. Moreover, this fire superiority cannot be explained by quantitative superiority in gun barrels. Moreover, as a result of poor transport equipment, the Red Army made little use of its mortar weapons in the battalion and regimental level. After all, an 82 mm mine weighs 3 kg, and 30 pieces are fired per minute. For 10 minutes of shooting, you need 900 kg of ammunition for a mortar. Of course, the transport was provided primarily by artillery, not mortars. It turned out that a maneuverable, light artillery weapon was tied to ammunition points, and could not work in the interests of the battalions. The problem was solved by mixing mortars into mortar regiments, where they could be supplied with ammunition centrally. But as a result, the battalion, regimental and even divisional level turned out to be weaker than the German one, because mortars made up half of the trunks in the division in the pre-war states. The anti-tank artillery of the Soviet rifle divisions was weaker than the German one. As a result, three-inch light artillery regiments rolled out for direct fire. There were not enough air defense systems. We had to divert heavy machine guns and anti-tank rifles from the first line for these purposes. Due to what was fire superiority achieved from the first days of the war? Fire superiority by the Red Army was achieved through skill and courage. This is confirmed not only by the calculations of personnel losses, but also by the losses of military equipment, property, and transport.
Here is Halder's entry dated 11/18/41 says that out of 0.5 million vehicles that were in the German army on 06/22/41, 150 thousand were irretrievably lost and 275 thousand needed repair, and 300 thousand were needed for this repair. tons of spare parts. That is, about 1.1 tons of spare parts are needed to repair one car. What condition are these cars in? From them, only the frames remained! If we add to them those cars from which there are not even frames left, it turns out that all cars produced by German car factories in a year burn out in Russia in less than six months. So Hitler was worried about this circumstance, so Halder was forced to discuss these issues with General Bule.
But cars are not fighting in the first line of troops. What happened in the first line? Hell is hell! Now we need to compare all this with the losses of auto-tractor equipment in the Red Army. With the outbreak of war, the production of cars and tractors was sharply reduced in favor of tanks, and the production of artillery tractors ceased altogether. Nevertheless, by the autumn of 1942, the Soviet Union had lost only half of the pre-war fleet of artillery tractors, mainly in encirclement, and then, until the very victory, used the remaining half, with practically no losses in them. If the Germans in the first six months of the war lost almost all the vehicles that they had in the army at the beginning of the war, then the Soviet army lost 33% of the available and received vehicles over the same period. And for the whole of 1942, 14%. And by the end of the war, car losses were reduced to 3-5%.
But these losses repeat, according to the form of the loss graph, the irretrievable losses of the personnel of the Red Army, with the only difference being that the average monthly loss of vehicles is 10-15 times less. But after all, the number of cars at the front was just as many times less. It can be assumed that the loss of vehicles from enemy fire in 1941 in the Red Army was no more than 5-10%, and 23-28% of losses were due to maneuvering actions of German troops, encirclement. That is, the loss of vehicles can also serve to characterize the loss of personnel. Because they also reflect the fire capabilities of the parties. That is, if the fascist troops lose 90% of vehicles in 1941, then almost all of these losses are losses from the fire of the Soviet troops, and this is 15% of losses per month. It can be seen that the Soviet army is at least 1.5-3 times more effective than the German army.
In an entry dated December 9, 1941, Halder writes about the irretrievable average daily loss of 1,100 horses. Considering that horses were not put in the battle line and that horses at the front are 10 times less than people, the figure of 9465 people of average daily irretrievable losses for December 1941 from table 6 receives additional confirmation.
German losses in tanks can be estimated based on their availability at the beginning and end of the period of interest. As of June 1941, the Germans had about 5,000 of their own and Czechoslovak vehicles. In addition, in Halder's entry of December 23, 1940, the figure is 4930 captured vehicles, mostly French. There are about 10,000 cars in total. At the end of 1941, the German tank troops were equipped with tanks by 20-30%, that is, about 3000 vehicles remained in stock, of which about 500-600 captured French, which were then transferred from the front to protect the rear areas. Halder also writes about this. Even without taking into account the tanks produced by the German industry in half a year, without taking into account Soviet captured tanks used by the Germans, Soviet troops irretrievably destroyed about 7,000 German vehicles, not counting armored cars and armored personnel carriers, in the first 6 months of the war. In four years, this will amount to 56,000 vehicles destroyed by the Red Army. If we add here 3,800 tanks produced by the German industry in 1941 and 1,300 captured Soviet tanks captured by the Germans at storage bases, we get more than 12,000 destroyed German vehicles in the first six months of the war. During the war years, Germany produced about 50,000 vehicles, and the Germans had 10,000 vehicles before the war, as we calculated. The allies of the USSR could destroy 4-5 thousand tanks or so. Soviet troops lost about 100,000 tanks and self-propelled guns during the war, but it must be understood that the operational life of Soviet tanks was significantly less. Here there is a different approach to life, to technology, to war. Different ways to use tanks. Different tank ideology. The Soviet principles of tank building are well described in the trilogy by Mikhail Svirin under the general title "The History of the Soviet Tank 1919-1955", Moscow, "Yauza", "Eksmo", ("The armor is strong, 1919-1937", "Stalin's armor shield, 1937-1943 "," Stalin's Steel Fist, 1943-1955"). Soviet wartime tanks were calculated for one operation, had a resource of 100-200 km at the beginning of the war, up to 500 km by the end of the war, which reflected views on the operational use of tanks and the military economy. After the war, the resource of tanks had to be increased by a number of measures to 10-15 years of service, based on the needs of the peacetime economy and the new concept of the accumulation of weapons. Thus, tanks were initially conceived not to be spared. This is a weapon, why spare it, they need to fight. That is, the losses in the tanks of the USSR are 1.5-2 times higher, and the losses of people are 1.5-2 times lower.
In this case, it should be borne in mind that the Germans could restore up to 70% of the wrecked tanks within a week, according to Guderian. This means that if out of a hundred German tanks that entered the battle at the beginning of the month, 20 vehicles remained by the end of the month, then with irretrievable losses of 80 vehicles, the number of hits may exceed 250. And such a figure will appear in the reports of the Soviet troops. However, the Soviet General Staff, more or less accurately, corrected the reports of the troops, taking into account this circumstance. Therefore, in the operational report for December 16, 1941, announced by the Soviet Information Bureau, it is said that the Germans lost 15,000 tanks, 19,000 guns, about 13,000 aircraft and 6,000,000 people killed, wounded and captured in the first five months of the war. These figures are quite consistent with my calculations and quite accurately reflect the real losses of the German troops. If they are overpriced, then not very much, given the then situation. In any case, the Soviet General Staff assessed the situation much more realistically than the German General Staff even in 1941. In the future, the estimates became even more accurate.
The losses of aircraft by the German side are considered in the book by Kornyukhin G.V. "Air War over the USSR. 1941", LLC "Publishing House" Veche ", 2008. There is a table of calculations of the losses of German aircraft without taking into account training machines.
Table 18:
| War years | 1940 | 1941 | 1942 | 1943 | 1944 | 1945 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of aircraft produced in Germany | 10247 | 12401 | 15409 | 24807 | 40593 | 7539 |
| The same without training aircraft | 8377 | 11280 | 14331 | 22533 | 36900 | 7221 |
| Number of aircraft at the beginning of next year | 4471 (30.9.40) | 5178 (31.12.41) | 6107 (30.3.43) | 6642 (30.4.44) | 8365 (1.2.45) | 1000* |
| Theoretical loss | 8056 | 10573 | 13402 | 21998 | 35177 | 14586 |
| Losses in battles with allies according to their (allies) data | 8056 | 1300 | 2100 | 6650 | 17050 | 5700 |
| Theoretical losses on the "Eastern Front" | - | 9273 | 11302 | 15348 | 18127 | 8886 |
| Losses on the "Eastern Front" according to Soviet data** | - | 4200 | 11550 | 15200 | 17500 | 4400 |
| The same according to modern Russian sources *** | - | 2213 | 4348 | 3940 | 4525 | **** |
* The number of aircraft surrendered after the surrender
** According to the reference book "Soviet Aviation in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 in Figures"
*** An attempt to calculate the "squeeze" from the documents of the quartermaster general of the Luftwaffe, carried out by R. Larintsev and A. Zabolotsky.
**** For 1945, the Quartermaster General's papers could not be found, apparently he was tired of preparing propaganda opuses. It is unlikely that the Quartermaster General quit his job and went on vacation, rather, he quit the secondary work that the Ministry of Propaganda entrusted to him.
Table 18 shows that modern ideas about German losses in aviation are completely untrue. It can also be seen that the Soviet data differ significantly from the theoretically calculated values only in 1945 and 1941. In 1945, the discrepancies are due to the fact that half of the German aviation refused to fly, and was abandoned by the Germans at the airfields. In 1941, the discrepancy was formed from the poorly organized by the Soviet side accounting for downed German aircraft in the first two or three months of the war. And in the post-war history, the estimated figures from the time of the war, voiced by the Soviet Information Bureau, were ashamed to enter. Thus, 62936 German aircraft destroyed by the Soviet side are clearly visible. The combat losses of the Soviet Air Force amounted to 43,100 combat vehicles during the war. However, non-combat losses of combat vehicles of the Soviet Air Force are practically the same as combat ones. Here again the difference in the quality of technology and the attitude towards it is visible. This difference was fully recognized by the Soviet leadership; the USSR could compete with united Europe in the volume of military production only if it had a completely different view of the quality, nature and use of these products. Soviet vehicles, especially fighters, wore out very quickly in wartime conditions. Nevertheless, plywood-linen aircraft with engine life for several flights successfully resisted all-duralumin aviation with German-quality engines.
Hitler not for nothing believed that the Soviet industry would not be able to make up for the loss of weapons, and could not, if it had strived for a symmetrical response to the German challenge. Having 3-4 times fewer workers, the Soviet Union could produce 3-4 times less labor costs.
At the same time, one should not draw a conclusion about the mass death of Soviet pilots or tankers from the imperfection of technology. Such a conclusion will not find confirmation either in memoirs, or in reports, or in statistical studies. Because he is unfaithful. It's just that in the USSR there was a technical culture different from European, a different technogenic civilization. The book cites the losses of Soviet military equipment, including decommissioned equipment that has used up its resource, which is irreparable due to a lack of spare parts and a weak repair base. It should be remembered that in terms of the development of production, the USSR had a base of only two, albeit heroic, five-year plans. Therefore, the response to European technical equipment was not symmetrical. Soviet technology was designed for a shorter, but more intensive period of operation. Rather, it was not even calculated, but it turned out like this by itself. Lendliz cars did not last long in Soviet conditions either. To produce repair forces means to tear people away from production, from war, and to produce spare parts means to occupy those capacities that can produce finished machines. Of course, all this is necessary, the question is the balance of opportunities and needs. Considering the fact that in battle all this work can burn out in a minute, and all produced spare parts and repair shops will remain out of work. Therefore, when, for example, Shirokorad in the book "Three Wars of Great Finland" complains about the unsuitability of Budenovka or about the differences in the quality of the uniforms of soldiers and commanders of the Red Army, the question arises, did he think well? In order to pursue European quality, one must have a European industry, such was Germany, and not the USSR. Budyonovka or bogatyrka is a mobilization version of a headdress, they were invented at the end of the First World War, just because production was weak. As soon as the opportunity arose, they were replaced with normal hats. Who is to blame that such an opportunity appeared only in 1940? Honorary saint and honorary pope of our kingdom, Tsar Nicholas the bloody and his satraps. Democrats from the Kerensky gang. As well as the now sung white bandits. At the same time, the Germans wore winter caps. When Shirokorad in the book "The March on Vienna" complains that the gun turrets on armored boats were installed from tanks, and were not specially designed, he does not take into account that tank turrets were mass-produced at tank factories, and specially designed turrets should have been produced in a medium series at factories shipbuilding. Does a specialist in the history of technology not see the difference? Rather, he is looking for cheap sensations where there are none. And so it is with everything. Aircraft were produced at furniture factories, and cartridges at tobacco factories. Armored cars were produced at the crushing equipment plant in Vyksa, and PPS wherever there was a cold stamping press. The anecdote about the vertical take-off harvester, famous in Soviet times, is more suitable for Stalin's time than for later times.
The labor heroism of the Soviet people played a decisive role, but we must not forget about the merits of the Soviet government, personally Stalin, who correctly set priorities in the scientific, technical, industrial and military spheres. Now it is fashionable to complain that there were few walkie-talkies and a lot of tanks, but would it be better if there were fewer tanks and more walkie-talkies? The radios don't fire. Although they are needed, but where to get the funds for everything? Where necessary, there were walkie-talkies.
In this regard, I want to focus on a key moment in the history of the war, on the preparation of pre-war industry for mobilization in wartime. Special samples and modifications of all weapons were developed for release in wartime. Special technologies were developed for implementation in non-core industries, specialists were trained to implement these technologies. Since 1937, the army began to receive modern, domestic weapons, to replace the alterations and modifications of pre-revolutionary and licensed samples. Artillery and automatic rifles were the first to be introduced. Then priority was given to tanks and combat aircraft. Their production began to unfold only in 1940. New machine guns and automatic cannons were introduced during the course of the war. It was not possible to develop the automotive and radio industries to the required extent before the war. But they set up a lot of steam locomotives and wagons, and this is much more important. The capacity of specialized factories was sorely lacking, and the mobilization of non-core enterprises, prepared even before the war, gives the right to assert that Stalin deserved the title of generalissimo even before the war, even if he had done nothing more to win. And he did a lot more!
On the anniversary of the start of the war, the Soviet Information Bureau published operational reports summarizing the results of hostilities since the start of the war on an accrual basis. It is interesting to summarize these data in a table that will give an idea of the views of the Soviet command, of course, adjusted for some, forced, propaganda element in relation to their own casualties. But the nature of Soviet propaganda of that period is interesting in itself, because now it can be compared with the published data of the work.
Table 19:
| Date of the operational summary of the Sovinformburo | Germany (23.6.42) | USSR (23.6.42) | Germany (21.6.43) | USSR (21.6.43) | Germany (21.6.44) | USSR (21.6.44) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Losses since the beginning of the war | 10,000,000 total casualties (of which 3,000,000 killed) | 4.5 million people total losses | 6,400,000 killed and captured | 4,200,000 killed and missing | 7,800,000 killed and captured | 5,300,000 killed and missing |
| Losses of guns over 75 mm since the beginning of the war | 30500 | 22000 | 56500 | 35000 | 90000 | 48000 |
| Losses of tanks since the beginning of the war | 24000 | 15000 | 42400 | 30000 | 70000 | 49000 |
| Aircraft losses since the beginning of the war | 20000 | 9000 | 43000 | 23000 | 60000 | 30128 |
Table 19 shows that the Soviet government hid from the Soviet people only one figure - the loss of the missing in the encirclement. During the entire war, the losses of the USSR as missing and captured amounted to about 4 million people, of which less than 2 million people returned from captivity after the war. These figures were hidden in order to reduce the fears of the unstable part of the population before the German advance, to reduce the fear of encirclement among the unstable part of the military. And after the war, the Soviet government considered itself guilty before the people, for being unable to foresee and avoid such a development of events. Therefore, after the war, these figures were not advertised, although they were no longer hidden. After all, Konev quite openly declared after the war about more than 10,000,000 irretrievable losses of Soviet troops. He said it once, and there was nothing more to repeat, to reopen wounds.
The rest of the numbers are generally correct. During the entire war, the USSR lost 61,500 field artillery barrels, 96,500 tanks and self-propelled guns, but no more than 65,000 of them for combat reasons, 88,300 combat aircraft, but only 43,100 of them for combat reasons. About 6.7 million Soviet soldiers died in battle (including non-combat losses, but excluding those who died in captivity) during the entire war.
The losses of the enemy are also indicated correctly. Enemy personnel losses have been greatly underestimated since 1942, and in 1941 they are correctly indicated at 6,000,000 total losses. Only the losses of German tanks are perhaps slightly overestimated, by about 1.5 times. This is naturally related to the difficulty of accounting for the number of repaired and reused machines. In addition, in the reports of the troops, along with damaged tanks and self-propelled guns, other armored vehicles could also be indicated. The Germans had a lot of different combat vehicles on both half-track and wheeled chassis, which can be called self-propelled guns. Then the losses of the Germans in armored vehicles are also indicated correctly. A slight overestimation of the number of downed German aircraft is not significant. The loss of guns and mortars of all calibers and purposes for the Red Army amounted to 317,500 pieces during the war, and for Germany and its allies, the loss of 289,200 pieces is indicated in the work. But in the 12th volume of the "History of the Second World War", in table 11, it is said that Germany alone produced and lost 319900 pieces of guns, and the same Germany produced mortars and lost 78800 pieces. In total, the loss of guns and mortars in Germany alone will amount to 398,700 barrels, and it is not known whether rocket systems are included here, most likely they are not. In addition, this figure definitely does not include guns and mortars produced before 1939.
Since the summer of 1942, there has been a tendency in the Soviet General Staff to underestimate the number of Germans killed. Soviet military leaders began to assess the situation more carefully, fearing to underestimate the enemy at the final stage of the war. In any case, one can speak about special, propaganda loss figures published by the Sovinformburo only in relation to the number of captured and missing Soviet servicemen. Otherwise, the same figures were published that the Soviet General Staff used in their calculations.
The course and outcome of the war cannot be understood if we exclude from consideration the European fascist atrocities in relation to the peaceful Soviet population and prisoners of war. These atrocities constituted the purpose and meaning of the war for the German side and all of Germany's allies. The fighting was only a tool to ensure the unhindered implementation of these atrocities. The only goal of Europe united by the fascists in World War II was to conquer the entire European part of the USSR, and to destroy most of the population in the most brutal way, in order to intimidate and enslave the rest. These crimes are described in Alexander Dyukov's book "For what the Soviet people fought", Moscow, "Yauza", "Eksmo", 2007. 12-15 million Soviet civilians, including prisoners of war, became victims of these atrocities throughout the war, but we must remember that only during the first war winter, the Nazis planned to kill more than 30 million peaceful Soviet citizens in the occupied territories of the USSR. Thus, we can talk about the salvation by the Soviet army and partisans, the Soviet government and Stalin of more than 15 million lives of Soviet people planned for destruction in the first year of the occupation, and about 20 million planned for destruction in the future, not counting those saved from fascist slavery, which often was worse than death. Despite numerous sources, this point is extremely poorly covered by historical science. Historians simply avoid this topic, limiting themselves to rare and common phrases, and yet these crimes exceed in the number of victims all other crimes in history combined.
In an entry dated November 24, 1941, Halder writes about the report of Colonel-General Fromm. The general military-economic situation is represented as a falling curve. Fromm believes that a truce is necessary. My conclusions confirm Fromm's conclusions.
It also indicates that the loss of personnel at the front is 180,000 people. If this is a loss of combat strength, then it is easily covered by recalling vacationers from vacation. Not to mention the conscription of the contingent born in 1922. Where is the falling curve here? Why, then, in the entry dated November 30, it says that 50-60 people remained in the companies? To make ends meet, Halder claims that 340,000 men make up half of the combat strength of the infantry. But this is ridiculous, the combat strength of the infantry is less than a tenth of the army. In fact, it should be read that the loss of troops at the front is 1.8 million people on 11/24/41 in combat strength and 3.4 million in the total number of troops of the "Eastern Front" on 11/30/41, and the regular number of troops " Eastern Front "6.8 million people. This is probably the right thing to do.
Perhaps someone will not believe my calculations about German losses, especially in 1941, when, according to modern ideas, the Red Army was completely defeated and supposedly the German army did not suffer losses in some cunning way. That's bullshit. You can't forge victory out of defeats and losses. From the very beginning, the German army suffered defeat, but the Reich leadership hoped that the USSR was having an even worse situation. Hitler spoke directly about this in the same diary of Halder.
The situation of the border battle was best conveyed by Dmitry Egorov in the book "June 41st. Defeat of the Western Front.", Moscow, "Yauza", "Eksmo", 2008.
Of course, the summer of 1941 was terribly difficult for the Soviet troops. Endless battles with no visible positive results. Endless environments where the choice was often between death and captivity. And many chose captivity. Maybe even the majority. But it must be borne in mind that mass surrenders began after one or two weeks of intense struggle in the environment, when the fighters ran out of ammunition even for small arms. The commanders, desperate to win, gave up command of the troops, sometimes even on a front-line scale, fled from their fighters and in small groups either tried to surrender or go to their east. The fighters fled from their units, dressed in civilian clothes or, left without leadership, huddled in crowds of thousands, hoping to surrender to the German detachments clearing the area. And yet the Germans were beaten. There were people who chose a more reliable position for themselves, stocked up on weapons and accepted their last battle, knowing in advance how it would end. Or they organized disorderly crowds of encircled people into combat detachments, attacked German cordons and broke through to their own. Sometimes it worked. There were commanders who kept control of their troops in the most difficult situations. There were divisions, corps and entire armies that attacked the enemy, inflicted defeats on the enemy, staunchly defended themselves, evaded German attacks and beat themselves. Yes, they beat me so much that it was 1.5-2 times more painful. Each blow was answered with a double blow.
This was the reason for the defeat of the fascist hordes. The irretrievable demographic losses of the German army amounted to about 15 million people. The irretrievable demographic losses of other Axis armies amounted to 4 million people. And in total, up to 19 million enemies of different nationalities and states had to be killed to win.
Our planet has known many bloody battles and battles. Our whole history consisted of various internecine conflicts. But only the human and material losses in World War II made mankind think about the importance of everyone's life. Only after it did people begin to understand how easy it is to unleash a massacre and how difficult it is to stop it. This war showed all the peoples of the Earth how important peace is for everyone.
The Importance of Studying the History of the 20th Century
The younger generation sometimes does not understand how the history differs over the years that have passed since their end, it has been rewritten many times, so the youth is no longer so interested in those distant events. Often these people do not even really know who took part in those events and what losses humanity suffered in the Second World War. But the history of your country should not be forgotten. If you watch American films about World War II today, you might think that it was only thanks to the US Army that victory over Nazi Germany became possible. That is why it is so necessary to convey to our younger generation the role of the Soviet Union in these sad events. In fact, it was the people of the USSR who suffered the greatest losses in World War II.
Background of the bloodiest war
This armed conflict between the two world military-political coalitions, which became the biggest massacre in the history of mankind, began on September 1, 1939 (in contrast to the Great Patriotic War, which lasted from June 22, 1941 to May 8, 1945 G.). It ended only on September 2, 1945. Thus, this war lasted 6 long years. There are several reasons for this conflict. These include: a deep global crisis in the economy, the aggressive policy of some states, the negative consequences of the Versailles-Washington system in force at that time.
Participants in the international conflict
62 countries were involved in this conflict to one degree or another. And this despite the fact that at that time there were only 73 sovereign states on Earth. Fierce battles took place on three continents. Naval battles were fought in four oceans (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Arctic). The number of opposing countries changed several times throughout the war. Some states participated in active hostilities, while others simply helped their coalition allies by any means (equipment, equipment, food).
Anti-Hitler coalition
Initially, there were 3 states in this coalition: Poland, France, Great Britain. This is due to the fact that it was after the attack on these countries that Germany began to conduct active hostilities on the territory of these countries. In 1941, such countries as the USSR, the USA, and China were drawn into the war. Further, Australia, Norway, Canada, Nepal, Yugoslavia, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Belgium, New Zealand, Denmark, Luxembourg, Albania, the Union of South Africa, San Marino, Turkey joined the coalition. To varying degrees, countries such as Guatemala, Peru, Costa Rica, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Panama, Mexico, Argentina, Honduras, Chile, Paraguay, Cuba, Ecuador, Venezuela, Uruguay, Nicaragua have become allies in the coalition. , Haiti, El Salvador, Bolivia. They were joined by Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia, Lebanon, Liberia, Mongolia. During the war years, even those states that had ceased to be allies of Germany joined the anti-Hitler coalition. These are Iran (since 1941), Iraq and Italy (since 1943), Bulgaria and Romania (since 1944), Finland and Hungary (since 1945).
On the side of the Nazi bloc were such states as Germany, Japan, Slovakia, Croatia, Iraq and Iran (until 1941), Finland, Bulgaria, Romania (until 1944), Italy (until 1943), Hungary (until 1945), Thailand (Siam), Manchukuo. In some occupied territories, this coalition created puppet states that had virtually no influence on the world battlefield. These include: Italian Social Republic, Vichy France, Albania, Serbia, Montenegro, Philippines, Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos. On the side of the Nazi bloc, various collaborationist troops, created from among the inhabitants of the opposing countries, often fought. The largest of them were RONA, ROA, SS divisions created from foreigners (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian, Estonian, Norwegian-Danish, 2 Belgian, Dutch, Latvian, Bosnian, Albanian and French each). Volunteer armies of such neutral countries as Spain, Portugal and Sweden fought on the side of this bloc.
Consequences of the war
Despite the fact that during the long years of the Second World War the alignment on the world stage changed several times, the result of it was the complete victory of the anti-Hitler coalition. This was followed by the creation of the largest international United Nations Organization (abbreviated - UN). The result of victory in this war was the condemnation of fascist ideology and the prohibition of Nazism during the Nuremberg trials. After the end of this world conflict, the role of France and Great Britain in world politics significantly decreased, and the USA and the USSR became real superpowers, dividing new spheres of influence among themselves. Two camps of countries with diametrically opposed socio-political systems (capitalist and socialist) were created. After the Second World War, a period of decolonization of empires began throughout the planet.
theater of war
Germany, for which the Second World War was an attempt to become the only superpower, fought in five directions at once:
- Western European: Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, France.
- Mediterranean: Greece, Yugoslavia, Albania, Italy, Cyprus, Malta, Libya, Egypt, North Africa, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Iraq.
- East European: USSR, Poland, Norway, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Austria, Yugoslavia, Barents, Baltic and Black Seas.
- African: Ethiopia, Somalia, Madagascar, Kenya, Sudan, Equatorial Africa.
- Pacific (in commonwealth with Japan): China, Korea, South Sakhalin, Far East, Mongolia, Kuril Islands, Aleutian Islands, Hong Kong, Indochina, Burma, Malaya, Sarawak, Singapore, Dutch East Indies, Brunei, New Guinea, Sabah, Papua, Guam, Solomon Islands, Hawaii, Philippines, Midway, Marianas and numerous other Pacific Islands.
Beginning and end of the war
They began to be calculated from the moment the German troops invaded Poland. Hitler had been preparing the ground for an attack on this state for a long time. On August 31, 1939, the German press reported on the capture of the radio station in Gleiwitz by the Polish military (although this was a provocation by saboteurs), and already at 4 am on September 1, 1939, the Schleswig-Holstein warship began to shell the fortifications in Westerplatte (Poland). Together with the troops of Slovakia, Germany began to occupy foreign territories. France and Great Britain demanded that Hitler withdraw troops from Poland, but he refused. Already on September 3, 1939, France, Australia, England, New Zealand declared war on Germany. Then they were joined by Canada, Newfoundland, the Union of South Africa, Nepal. So the bloody World War II began to quickly gain momentum. The USSR, although it urgently introduced universal military duty, did not declare war on Germany until June 22, 1941.
In the spring of 1940, Hitler's troops began the occupation of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Then she went to France. In June 1940, Italy began to fight on Hitler's side. In the spring of 1941, she quickly captured Greece and Yugoslavia. On June 22, 1941, she attacked the USSR. On the side of Germany in these hostilities were Romania, Finland, Hungary, Italy. Up to 70% of all active Nazi divisions fought on all Soviet-German fronts. The defeat of the enemy in the battle for Moscow thwarted Hitler's notorious plan - "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war). Thanks to this, already in 1941, the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition began. On December 7, 1941, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States also entered this war. The army of this country for a long time fought with its enemies only in the Pacific Ocean. Great Britain and the United States promised to open the so-called second front in the summer of 1942. But, despite the fiercest battles on the territory of the Soviet Union, the partners in the anti-Hitler coalition were in no hurry to engage in hostilities in Western Europe. This is due to the fact that the United States and Britain were waiting for the complete weakening of the USSR. Only when it became obvious that it was rapidly beginning to liberate not only its own territory, but also the countries of Eastern Europe, the Allies hurried to open a Second Front. This happened on June 6, 1944 (2 years after the promised date). From that moment on, the Anglo-American coalition sought to be the first to liberate Europe from German troops. Despite all the efforts of the allies, the Soviet Army was the first to occupy the Reichstag, on which it erected its own. But even the unconditional surrender of Germany did not stop the Second World War. For some time there were hostilities in Czechoslovakia. Also in the Pacific, hostilities almost did not stop. Only after the atomic bombing of the cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945), carried out by the Americans, did the Japanese emperor understand the futility of further resistance. As a result of this attack, about 300 thousand civilians died. This bloody international conflict ended only on September 2, 1945. It was on this day that Japan signed the act of surrender.
Victims of the global conflict
The first large-scale losses in World War II were suffered by the Polish people. The army of this country could not resist a stronger enemy in the face of the German troops. This war had an unprecedented impact on all of humanity. About 80% of all people living on Earth at that time (more than 1.7 billion people) were drawn into the war. Military operations took place on the territory of more than 40 states. For 6 years of this world conflict, about 110 million people were mobilized into the armed forces of all armies. According to the latest data, human losses are about 50 million people. At the same time, only 27 million people were killed on the fronts. The rest of the victims were civilians. Most of the human lives lost were such countries as the USSR (27 million), Germany (13 million), Poland (6 million), Japan (2.5 million), China (5 million). The casualties of other warring countries were: Yugoslavia (1.7 million), Italy (0.5 million), Romania (0.5 million), Great Britain (0.4 million), Greece (0.4 million). ), Hungary (0.43 million), France (0.6 million), USA (0.3 million), New Zealand, Australia (40 thousand), Belgium (88 thousand), Africa (10 thousand .), Canada (40 thousand). More than 11 million people were killed in fascist concentration camps.
Losses from international conflict
It is simply amazing what losses the Second World War brought to mankind. History testifies to 4 trillion dollars that went to military spending. In the warring states, material costs amounted to about 70% of the national income. For several years, the industry of many countries was completely reoriented to the production of military equipment. Thus, the USA, USSR, Great Britain and Germany during the war years produced more than 600 thousand combat and transport aircraft. The weapons of World War II have become even more effective and deadly in 6 years. The most ingenious minds of the warring countries were busy only with its improvement. Many new weapons were forced to come up with the Second World War. The tanks of Germany and the Soviet Union were constantly modernized throughout the war. At the same time, more and more advanced machines were created to destroy the enemy. Their number numbered in the thousands. So, only armored vehicles, tanks, self-propelled guns were produced more than 280 thousand. More than 1 million various artillery pieces left the conveyors of military factories; about 5 million machine guns; 53 million submachine guns, carbines and rifles. The Second World War brought with it the colossal destruction and destruction of several thousand cities and other settlements. The history of mankind without it could go according to a completely different scenario. Because of it, all countries were thrown back in their development many years ago. Colossal funds and forces of millions of people were spent on eliminating the consequences of this international military conflict.
USSR losses
A very high price had to be paid for the fact that the Second World War ended faster. The losses of the USSR amounted to about 27 million people. (according to the last count of 1990). Unfortunately, it is unlikely that it will ever be possible to obtain accurate data, but this figure is most consistent with the truth. There are several different estimates of the losses of the USSR. So, according to the latest method, about 6.3 million are considered killed or died from their wounds; 0.5 million who died from diseases, were sentenced to death, died in accidents; 4.5 million missing and captured. The total demographic losses of the Soviet Union amount to more than 26.6 million people. In addition to the huge number of deaths in this conflict, the USSR suffered huge material losses. According to estimates, they amounted to more than 2600 billion rubles. During World War II, hundreds of cities were partially or completely destroyed. More than 70 thousand villages were wiped off the face of the earth. 32 thousand large industrial enterprises were completely destroyed. The agriculture of the European part of the USSR was almost completely destroyed. It took several years of incredible efforts and enormous expenses to restore the country to the pre-war level.
For the first time after the end of the Second World War, it was impossible to count the losses. Scientists tried to keep accurate statistics of the dead of the Second World War by nationality, but the information became really accessible only after the collapse of the USSR. Many believed that the victory over the Nazis was due to the large number of dead. The statistics of the Second World War were not seriously kept by anyone.
The Soviet government deliberately manipulated the numbers. Initially, the number of deaths during the war was about 50 million people. But by the end of the 1990s, the figure had risen to 72 million.
The table provides a comparison of the losses of two large 20th century:
| Wars of the 20th century | 1 world war | 2 World War II |
| Duration of hostilities | 4.3 years | 6 years |
| Number of dead | About 10 million people | 72 million people |
| Number of wounded | 20 million people | 35 million people |
| Number of countries where fighting took place | 14 | 40 |
| The number of people who were officially called up for military service | 70 million people | 110 million people |
Briefly about the beginning of hostilities
The USSR entered the war without a single ally (1941–1942). Initially, the battles were fought with defeat. The statistics of the victims of the Second World War in those years demonstrates a huge number of irretrievably lost soldiers and military equipment. The main destructive moment was the seizure of territories by the enemy, rich in the defense industry.
The SS authorities suspected a possible attack on the country. But, visible preparations for war were not conducted. The effect of a surprise attack played into the hands of the aggressor. The seizure of the territories of the USSR was carried out with great speed. Military equipment and weapons in Germany were enough for a large-scale military campaign.
The number of deaths during WWII
The statistics of losses in World War II are only approximate. Each researcher has his own data and calculations. 61 states participated in this battle, and hostilities took place on the territory of 40 countries. The war affected about 1.7 billion people. The main blow was taken by the Soviet Union. According to historians, the losses of the USSR amounted to about 26 million people.
At the beginning of the war, the Soviet Union was very weak in terms of the production of equipment and military weapons. However, the statistics of those who died in World War II show that the number of deaths by year by the end of the battle had significantly decreased. The reason is the rapid development of the economy. The country learned to produce high-quality defensive means against the aggressor, and the technique had multiple advantages over the fascist industrial blocs.
As for the prisoners of war, most of them were from the USSR. In 1941, the prison camps were overcrowded. Later, the Germans began to let them go. At the end of this year, about 320,000 prisoners of war were released. The bulk of them were Ukrainians, Belarusians and Balts.
Official statistics of those killed in World War II points to colossal losses among Ukrainians. Their number is much greater than the French, Americans and British combined. As the statistics of the Second World War show, Ukraine lost about 8-10 million people. This includes all combatants (killed, dead, prisoners, evacuees).
The price of the victory of the Soviet authorities over the aggressor could be much less. The main reason is the unpreparedness of the USSR for a sudden invasion of German troops. Stockpiles of ammunition and equipment did not correspond to the scale of the unfolding war.
About 3% of men born in 1923 survived. The reason is the lack of military training. The guys were taken to the front straight from school. Persons with an average were sent to fast courses for pilots or to train platoon commanders.
German losses
The Germans very carefully concealed the statistics of those killed in World War II. It is somehow strange that in the battle of the century the number of military units lost by the aggressor was only 4.5 million. The statistics of the Second World War regarding the dead, wounded or captured were underestimated by the Germans several times. The remains of the dead are still being dug up in the battlefields.
However, the German was strong and persistent. Hitler at the end of 1941 was ready to celebrate the victory over the Soviet people. Thanks to the allies, the SS was prepared both in terms of food and logistics. The SS factories produced many high-quality weapons. However, losses in the Second World War began to grow significantly.
After a while, the fuse of the Germans began to decrease. The soldiers understood that they could not withstand the popular fury. The Soviet command began to correctly build military plans and tactics. The statistics of the Second World War in terms of the dead began to change.
In wartime around the world, the population died not only from hostilities by the enemy, but also from the spread of various kinds of hunger. The losses of China in the Second World War are especially noticeable. The statistics of the dead is in second place after the USSR. More than 11 million Chinese died. Although the Chinese have their own statistics of those killed in World War II. It does not correspond to the numerous opinions of historians.
Results of the Second World War
Given the scale of hostilities, as well as the lack of desire to reduce losses, it affected the number of victims. It was not possible to prevent the losses of countries in the Second World War, the statistics of which were studied by different historians.
The statistics of the Second World War (infographics) would have been different if not for the many mistakes made by the commanders in chief, who initially did not attach importance to the production and preparation of military equipment and technology.
The results of the second world war according to statistics more than cruel, not only in terms of shed blood, but also in the destructive scale of cities and villages. World War II statistics (losses by country):
- The Soviet Union - about 26 million people.
- China - more than 11 million
- Germany - more than 7 million
- Poland - about 7 million
- Japan - 1.8 million
- Yugoslavia - 1.7 million
- Romania - about 1 million
- France - more than 800 thousand.
- Hungary - 750 thousand
- Austria - more than 500 thousand.
Some countries or certain groups of people fundamentally fought on the side of the Germans, as they did not like the Soviet policy and Stalin's approach to leading the country. But, despite this, the military campaign ended with the victory of the Soviet government over the Nazis. World War II served as a good lesson for the politicians of that time. Such casualties could have been avoided in the Second World War on one condition - preparation for an invasion, regardless of whether the country was threatened with an attack.
The main factor that contributed to the victory of the USSR in the fight against fascism was the unity of the nation and the desire to defend the honor of their homeland.
World War II refers to the fighting that took place in various theaters of operations from September 1, 1939 to September 2, 1945.
The beginning of World War II is considered to be the German attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, and its end is the signing of the unconditional surrender of Japan on board the American battleship Missouri on September 2, 1945.
2. The Second World War, which lasted six years and one day, has no analogues in world history in terms of scale. In one form or another, 61 states out of 73 that existed at that time on the planet took part in it. 80 percent of the world's population was involved in the war, and hostilities were fought on the territory of three continents and in the waters of four oceans.
3. Six states during World War II took part in it on the side of both the Nazi bloc and the anti-Hitler coalition - these are Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland and Iraq. The last of this list to join the fight against Nazism was Finland - September 19, 1944. Finland entered the war on the side of Germany on June 26, 1941, having attacked the USSR.
4. The participation of the Soviet Union in World War II is divided into two periods: the Great Patriotic War (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945) and the Soviet-Japanese War (August 9 - September 2, 1945).
In Soviet historiography, it was not customary to include in the Second World War such episodes as the Polish campaign of the Red Army in 1939, the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940 and the conflict at Khalkhin Gol in 1939.
5. Of the "Big Three" of the anti-Hitler coalition (USSR, USA, Great Britain), the United States was the last to enter World War II, which declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941.
6. World War II remains the only armed conflict in which atomic weapons were used.
On August 6, 1945, a bomb called "Kid" was dropped by American aircraft on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and on August 9, a charge called "Fat Man" was dropped by the US Air Force on Nagasaki. The total death toll ranged from 90 to 166 thousand people in Hiroshima and from 60 to 80 thousand people in Nagasaki.
7. Despite the fact that 68 years have passed since the end of World War II, a peace treaty has not been concluded between Russia and Japan. This happened because of the territorial dispute over the four islands of the South Kuril ridge - Kunashir, Iturup, Hibomai and Shikotan. Thus, formally, the state of war between Russia, as the legal successor of the USSR, and Japan remains to this day.
During the Second World War, the participating countries mobilized a total of more than 110 million people into the army, of which about 25 million people died.
The total number of deaths in World War II, including civilians, was more than 65 million people. Accurate data on the number of deaths have not been finally established to this day.
Only in the Soviet Union were destroyed 1710 cities, more than 70 thousand villages, 32 thousand plants and factories.
The total financial losses of states in World War II are estimated, according to various sources, at between 1.5 and 4 trillion dollars. Material costs reached 60-70 percent of the national income of the warring states.
In the photo: the head of the USSR delegation at the conference in San Francisco, A.A. Gromyko signs the UN charter. June 26, 1945.
10. On the basis of the anti-Hitler coalition formed during the Second World War, the United Nations was created, the main task of which was to prevent world wars in the future. The name "United Nations" was first used in the Declaration of the United Nations, signed on January 1, 1942. The UN Charter was approved and signed at the San Francisco Conference on June 26, 1945 by representatives of 50 states.
(for 1939)
soldier
(all reasons)
soldiers
(all reasons)
Financial losses
| A country | Financial losses ($ billion) |
|---|---|
| USSR | 610 |
| USA | 137 |
| Great Britain | 150 |
| Germany | 300 |
| Italy | 100 |
| Japan | 150 |
| Other countries | 350 |
| Total | 2 600 |
Memory of the victims
To date (May 2016), it has been established that during the Great Patriotic War the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union lost about 8.9 million people, reports with reference to the assistant to the deputy defense minister, member of the council of the military historical society Alexander Kirilin. “8 million 866 thousand 400 people is a figure that was obtained thanks to many years of research in the archives,” the Major General said on air on RSN. "This number includes combat losses, those killed in captivity and missing," he stressed. At the same time, he noted that "about 1.8 million people returned from captivity to their homeland."
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Notes
Literature
- Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. St. Petersburg: Polygon, 2000.
- Military Historical Journal, 1990 No. 3 p.14
Links
- , Moscow, Olma-Press, 2001, ISBN 5224015154
- Arntz G. Human losses in World War II. In: Results of the Second World War. M.: Publishing house of foreign literature, 1957. Pp. 593-604
- en.fallen.io/ww2/
- ww2stats.com/cas_ger_tot.html Human Losses in War World II, German Statistics and Documents
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An excerpt characterizing the losses in World War II
The eldest, Vera, was good, she was not stupid, she studied well, she was well brought up, her voice was pleasant, what she said was fair and appropriate; but, strange to say, everyone, both the guest and the countess, looked back at her, as if surprised why she had said this, and felt awkward.“They are always wise with older children, they want to do something extraordinary,” said the guest.
- What a sin to conceal, ma chere! The countess was wiser with Vera, said the count. - Well, yes, well! all the same, she came out glorious,” he added, winking approvingly at Vera.
The guests got up and left, promising to arrive at dinner.
- What a manner! Already sitting, sitting! - said the countess, seeing off the guests.
When Natasha came out of the living room and ran, she only ran as far as the flower shop. In this room she stopped, listening to the conversation in the living room and waiting for Boris to come out. She was already beginning to get impatient and, stamping her foot, was about to cry because he was not walking right away, when not quiet, not quick, decent steps of a young man were heard.
Natasha quickly rushed between the tubs of flowers and hid.
Boris stopped in the middle of the room, looked around, brushed a speck off the sleeve of his uniform with his hand, and went up to the mirror, examining his handsome face. Natasha, hushed, peered out of her ambush, waiting for what he would do. He stood for some time in front of the mirror, smiled and went to the exit door. Natasha wanted to call him, but then changed her mind. Let him search, she told herself. As soon as Boris left, a flushed Sonya came out of another door, whispering something angrily through her tears. Natasha refrained from her first movement to run out to her and remained in her ambush, as if under an invisible cap, looking out for what was happening in the world. She experienced a special new pleasure. Sonya whispered something and looked back at the drawing-room door. Nicholas came out of the door.
– Sonya! What happened to you? Is it possible? Nikolay said, running up to her.
“Nothing, nothing, leave me!” Sonya sobbed.
- No, I know what.
- Well, you know, and fine, and go to her.
- Sooonya! One word! Is it possible to torment me and yourself like that because of fantasy? Nikolai said, taking her by the hand.
Sonya did not tear her hand away from him and stopped crying.
Natasha, without moving or breathing, looked from her ambush with shining heads. "What will happen now"? she thought.
– Sonya! I don't need the whole world! You alone are everything to me,” Nikolai said. - I'll prove it to you.
“I don't like it when you talk like that.
- Well, I won’t, sorry, Sonya! He pulled her towards him and kissed her.
"Oh, how good!" Natasha thought, and when Sonya and Nikolai left the room, she followed them and called Boris to her.
“Boris, come here,” she said with a significant and sly air. “I need to tell you one thing. Here, here,” she said, and led him into the flower shop to the place between the tubs where she had been hidden. Boris, smiling, followed her.
What is this one thing? - he asked.
She was embarrassed, looked around her and, seeing her doll thrown on a tub, took it in her hands.
“Kiss the doll,” she said.
Boris looked into her lively face with an attentive, affectionate look and did not answer.
- You do not want? Well, then come here, - she said and went deeper into the flowers and threw the doll. - Closer, closer! she whispered. She caught the officer by the cuffs with her hands, and solemnity and fear were visible in her reddened face.
- Do you want to kiss me? she whispered in a barely audible voice, looking at him from under her brows, smiling and almost crying with excitement.
Boris blushed.
- How funny you are! he said, leaning towards her, blushing even more, but doing nothing and waiting.
She suddenly jumped up on the tub, so that she stood taller than him, hugged him with both arms, so that her thin bare arms bent above his neck, and throwing her hair back with a movement of her head, kissed him on the very lips.
She slipped between the pots to the other side of the flowers and, head down, stopped.
“Natasha,” he said, “you know that I love you, but ...
- Are you in love with me? Natasha interrupted him.
- Yes, I am in love, but please, let's not do what is now ... Four more years ... Then I will ask for your hand.
Natasha thought.
“Thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen…” she said, counting on her thin fingers. - Fine! Is it over?
And a smile of joy and reassurance lit up her lively face.
- It's over! Boris said.
- Forever? – said the girl. - Until death?
And, taking him by the arm, she quietly walked beside him into the sofa with a happy face.
The countess was so tired of visiting that she did not order to receive anyone else, and the porter was only ordered to call everyone who would still come with congratulations to eat without fail. The Countess wanted to talk face to face with her childhood friend, Princess Anna Mikhailovna, whom she had not seen well since her arrival from Petersburg. Anna Mikhailovna, with her tearful and pleasant face, moved closer to the countess's chair.
"I'll be completely frank with you," said Anna Mikhailovna. “There aren’t many of us left, old friends!” That's why I treasure your friendship.
Anna Mikhailovna looked at Vera and stopped. The countess shook hands with her friend.
“Vera,” said the countess, turning to her eldest daughter, who was obviously unloved. How do you have no idea? Don't you feel like you're out of place here? Go to your sisters, or...
Beautiful Vera smiled contemptuously, apparently not feeling the slightest insult.
“If you had told me long ago, mother, I would have left at once,” she said, and went to her room.
But, passing by the sofa, she noticed that two couples were sitting symmetrically in it at two windows. She stopped and smiled contemptuously. Sonya was sitting close beside Nikolai, who was copying for her the poems he had composed for the first time. Boris and Natasha were sitting at the other window and fell silent when Vera entered. Sonya and Natasha looked at Vera with guilty and happy faces.
It was fun and touching to look at these girls in love, but the sight of them, obviously, did not arouse a pleasant feeling in Vera.
“How many times have I asked you,” she said, “not to take my things, you have your own room.
She took the inkwell from Nikolai.
“Now, now,” he said, wetting his pen.
“You know how to do everything at the wrong time,” Vera said. - Then they ran into the living room, so that everyone felt ashamed for you.
In spite of the fact, or precisely because what she said was perfectly true, no one answered her, and all four only looked at each other. She hesitated in the room with an inkwell in her hand.
- And what secrets can there be between Natasha and Boris and between you at your age - all just nonsense!
“Well, what do you care, Vera? - Natasha spoke intercessively in a quiet voice.
She, apparently, was to everyone even more than always, on this day kind and affectionate.
“It’s very stupid,” Vera said, “I’m ashamed of you. What are the secrets?...
- Everyone has their own secrets. We don’t touch you and Berg,” Natasha said, getting excited.
“I think you don’t touch it,” Vera said, “because there can never be anything bad in my actions. But I'll tell my mother how you get along with Boris.
“Natalia Ilyinishna treats me very well,” said Boris. “I can't complain,” he said.
- Leave it, Boris, you are such a diplomat (the word diplomat was in great use among children in the special meaning that they attached to this word); even boring,” said Natasha in an offended, trembling voice. Why is she coming to me? You will never understand this,” she said, turning to Vera, “because you have never loved anyone; you have no heart, you are only madame de Genlis [Madame Genlis] (this nickname, considered very offensive, was given to Vera by Nikolai), and your first pleasure is to make trouble for others. You flirt with Berg as much as you like,” she said quickly.
- Yes, I’m sure I won’t run after a young man in front of the guests ...
“Well, she got her way,” Nikolai intervened, “she told everyone troubles, upset everyone. Let's go to the nursery.
All four, like a flock of frightened birds, got up and left the room.
“They told me trouble, but I didn’t give anything to anyone,” Vera said.
— Madame de Genlis! Madame de Genlis! laughing voices said from behind the door.
The beautiful Vera, who produced such an irritating, unpleasant effect on everyone, smiled and, apparently not affected by what she was told, went to the mirror and straightened her scarf and her hair. Looking at her beautiful face, she seemed to become even colder and calmer.
The conversation continued in the living room.
- Ah! chere, - said the countess, - and in my life tout n "est pas rose. Can't I see that du train, que nous allons, [not all roses. - with our way of life,] our state will not last long! And it's all a club, and its kindness. We live in the country, do we rest? Theatres, hunts, and God knows what. But what can I say about me! Well, how did you arrange all this? I often wonder at you, Annette, how it is you, at your age, ride alone in a wagon, to Moscow, to Petersburg, to all the ministers, to all the nobility, you know how to get along with everyone, I'm surprised!
