The relationship of languages is the material proximity of two or more languages, manifested in the sound similarity of linguistic elements of different levels. Similarity, as a rule, is observed not only in words, but also in minimal significant elements (in root morphemes, in word-forming affixes, in grammatical forms, etc.). In the phonetic system of related languages, sound correspondences can be traced, representing the results of the historical evolution of the sounds of the source language (for example, the Russian sound "With" naturally corresponds to the Latin sound "k": Russian heart, lat. coz).
Linguistic kinship is usually established in the presence of a number of common structural elements presented in the aggregate. However, the most conclusive fact is the presence of a system of regular sound correspondences, reflecting the regular nature of the sound transformations of language units dating back to the proto-language (compare, for example, the fate of the Proto-Slavic combination *cake, which in Russian developed into torot: rus. crow, in Bulgarian in spend blg. crow, in Polish in trot: pls. shop).
The degree of linguistic kinship can be different: along with languages whose kinship ties are quite transparent (hence the possibility of an almost unhindered understanding of their speakers, compare, for example, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), there are languages whose kinship has been established as a result of special scientific research ( for example, the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages: Nenets, Enets, Selkup, which were not previously considered related to the Finno-Ugric languages).
A set of related languages that originated from one ancestor language (or proto-language) forms a family. The language family, therefore, is the genetic community of languages that inherited a significant part of the vocabulary from the parent language (most often it is vocabulary associated with the nature surrounding a person, with the names of body parts, with terms of kinship, with designations of sizes, etc.), similarity in the organization of phonetic and grammatical systems. Each family of languages is divided, as a rule, into smaller groups (for example, the Indo-European family of languages includes Slavic, Romance, Germanic, Iranian and other groups of languages), although there are cases when related languages within the language family are single (for example, Albanian or Armenian languages within the Indo-European family of languages). Therefore, the scope of the term “family of languages” can change terminologically: the same association of related languages can be called both a group and a family (for example, the Slavic languages in relation to the Indo-European family of languages are a group of related languages, and in relation to the Eastern , South and West Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- family).
In the history of linguistics, views on the problem of linguistic kinship have repeatedly changed: from the absolutization of the “family tree” model with its successive splitting into dialects and noddialects (A. Schleicher) to its complete denial (new grammar) and the advancement of the “wave theory”, according to which the processes of differentiation, occurring in the proto-language, were imperceptible transitions between dialects that did not have clear boundaries, diverging from the epicenters of innovations in all directions, like waves from a stone thrown into water (I. Schmidt).
Studies of linguistic geography have shown, however, that relations between related languages do not fit into these rigid patterns, since both processes of differentiation and integration have taken place in the history of language families. The proto-language not only split, but also consolidated at the same time, being formed in the course of the contact development of related dialects.
If the languages included in the same language family are characterized by material proximity inherited from the era of their linguistic unity (for example, the Slavic languages inherited it from the Proto-Slavic era), then the proximity of the languages included in the language union is acquired. A linguistic union is an areal-historical community of languages, manifested in the presence of a certain number of similar features (structural and material) that have developed in the process of long-term and intensive interaction of these languages within a single geographical space, i.e. unlike the language family, the ego community is not genetic, but acquired. The term "language union" was introduced into linguistics by N. S. Trubetskoy, who proposed in the article "The Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages" to distinguish between the concepts of "language union" and "language family". A language union, in Trubetskoy's understanding, is a group of languages that demonstrate significant similarities, primarily in morphology and syntax, have a common fund of "cultural words", but are not connected by a system of sound correspondences and similarities in elementary vocabulary (for example, in the terminology of kinship, flora or fauna). The main criterion for determining a language union is the complexity of multi-level similarities in the contacting languages.
A classic example of a linguistic union is the Balkan linguistic union, which combines Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian (mainly through Torlak dialects), Romanian, Albanian and Modern Greek. Although these languages belong to different groups of the Indo-European family of languages (namely, Slavic, Romance, Albanian, Greek), however, in the course of their historical development, they developed a number of common features, for example, the coincidence of dative and genitive cases (in Albanian and Greek), the absence of an infinitive (in Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian and Albanian), the formation of an analytic future tense with the help of an auxiliary verb with the meaning 'want' (in Romanian, Bulgarian and Greek). This was especially evident in the use of the article: if in many European languages the article is before the name (cf. French. la langue or him. die Sprache‘language’), then in Albanian, Bulgarian and Romanian it comes after the name (Blg. ezik ut, rum. limba jut). This similarity in grammatical forms arose due to a number of factors: language contacts, bilingualism (as a result of the migration of the population after the capture and development of the territories of the Ottoman Empire), the mixing of languages that occurred throughout the long history of the coexistence of these languages within a single geographical space.
Another example of a language union is the Volga (or Volga-Kama) language union, which includes the Finno-Ugric languages (Mari, Udmurt) and Turkic (Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash). Its distinguishing features are such multi-level correspondences as the phenomenon of vowel reduction, similarity in the system of tenses, similarity in the formation of the subjunctive mood, in the methods of constructing direct speech, in the nature of the functioning of adverbial phrases, etc.
The formation of a linguistic union is a process of long-term, versatile interaction of areally adjacent languages. It is formed as a result of the convergent development of contacting languages, as well as under the influence of general social conditions, economic structure, and elements of culture. In the history of the languages of the world, the situation of language unions was not uncommon; on the contrary, they played an important role in the development of systems of contacting languages, since in the structure of any language (unless, of course, it developed in isolation), one can find various layers (not only lexical, but and grammatical), which are the result of the entry of the language into certain linguistic unions. In eras of widespread ethnic migrations, such communities could arise at the junctions of very different cultures and languages, leading to the emergence of common regional innovations in them.
In this regard, some scholars have proposed to single out cultural and linguistic unions, i.e. groups of languages united by a common cultural and historical past, reflected in the similarity of the dictionary (especially the semantics of a number of words), in the similarity of the writing system, style, and sometimes grammar. In each such association of languages, one or two languages \u200b\u200bare singled out, which served as international languages in a given region. Having generated a huge number of internationalisms, they enriched the rest of the languages of the region with "cultural" vocabulary.
One cultural and linguistic union covers the languages of Europe, the other - the countries of Asia and Africa (where Islam is widespread), the third - India and the countries of Southeast Asia, the fourth - China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
The European cultural and linguistic union began to take shape from the first centuries of our era. Two languages played an important role in its formation - Greek and Latin. The first examples of European international vocabulary were Latin borrowings from Greek, which were then adopted by all European languages. It was a vocabulary represented mainly by three thematic groups: 1) science and education ( atom, dean, dose, idea, chronicle); 2) Christianity ( bible, apostle, devil); 3) names of exotic plants, animals, substances (anise, balsam, dragon, coral, tiger). In the Middle Ages, the unity of the European cultural and linguistic union was supported by the dominance of the Latin language as the main language of writing. Borrowings from the Latin language covered a variety of areas: state (decree, document, chancellor, convention, confiscation, secretary, justice), religious ( cardinal, mass, order), scientific ( argument, globe, illusion, incident, proportion, perpendicular, figure, element), medical (infection, medicine, muscle) art (author, performance, statue).
By the Renaissance, European languages had accumulated such a stock of Greek-Latin vocabulary and morphemes that it became possible to create new words from this material that did not exist in antiquity. In Russian, for example, the first words of this type appear in the 16th century. - humanist, initiative, oculist, in the 17th century - geology, molecule, logarithm, in the 18th century - materialist, optimist, nostalgia, panorama etc. These words are genuine European internationalisms. Today they are created by hundreds and thousands and cover almost all spheres of science and life (cf. opportunist, militarism, imperialism, inflation, technology, television, biology etc.).
The second cultural and linguistic union was formed in Muslim countries. The Arabic language played a huge role here. Words of Arabic origin dominate the religious lexicon (Hah'God', saitan'devil', gtap'faith', saih‘spiritual mentor’). The vocabulary of science and education is saturated with Arabic words (Jann'the science', adab'upbringing', madrasa'school', tahsil‘teaching’, tahlil‘analysis’), art, literature (adabijat'literature',
talif "c cleansing', sair 1 poet", rubai'quatrain'). Arab internationalisms are represented in socio-political and military vocabulary (malik'tsar', mamlaka'a country', Daula'state', sulTan‘sultan’, sijasa'policy', rais'chapter', asir'captive'). The second most important language of this cultural and linguistic union was Persian, which also gave rise to many internationalisms (cf. darwis'dervish', diwan'collection of poems', wazir‘vizier, minister’, bazar‘bazaar’, Sarai'castle', maidan'square', namaz'prayer', anbar'warehouse', etc.).
The third cultural and linguistic union has been formed since ancient times in the sphere of influence of Indian culture and Sanskrit (the Indian subcontinent, Tibet, Burma, Indochina, the islands of the Malay Archipelago). International words of Indian origin cover a wide variety of areas of life.
In the fourth cultural-linguistic union, the Chinese language, especially Chinese hieroglyphics, played an important role. Chinese borrowings in Korean and Japanese still retain the old hieroglyphic spelling.
Convergence of languages can occur not only in pairs of languages, but also in groups of neighboring languages. For example, on the Balkan Peninsula, a new, non-genetic community of languages is gradually taking shape - the Balkan Language Union. It is formed by languages that are genealogically very distant from each other - Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian, Croatian), Romanian, Greek, Albanian.
I. A. Baudouin de Courtejae wrote about large areal communities of unrelated languages. Term language union strengthened after the classic work of N. S. Trubetskoy "The Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages" (1923; on the centenary of the author, the article was reprinted in an accessible edition, see: Trubetskoy 1990).
Language unions are formed in conditions of long-term, massive and equally prestigious multilingualism. Speaking about the individual psychological basis of the convergence of the languages of the Balkan Union, Bohuslav Gavranek wrote: “From the point of view of linguistic psychology, it would be difficult to understand how these ordinary people (and not in isolated cases, but as a rule) could really master many languages if these languages did not have common features. It can be assumed that for the speakers the structures of the languages at least partially coincided, becoming more or less the same structure" (New in Linguistics 1972, 100).
The commonality of the languages of the Balkan Linguistic Union is manifested in the simplification of the case system, in the development of the definite article (moreover, the postpositive, i.e., following the name), in the loss of the infinitive and its replacement by subordinate clauses, in the general models of some future and past tenses, in the similarity of models for the formation of numerals from And up to 19 and in a number of other grammatical features, as well as in a large amount of general vocabulary.
In addition to the Balkan linguistic union, there are several other large areal communities of unrelated languages: 1) the Volga (Volga-Kama) union, which includes Finno-Ugric languages (Mari, Udmurt) and Turkic (Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash); 2) Central Asian (Himalayan) union, uniting the languages of Central Asia of various families and groups: Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibetan-Chinese<см. статью В. П. Нерозяака "Языковой союз" в ЛЭС 1990).
With regard to some linguistic communities, it is not yet clear what factors - genetic or convergent - created their closeness. Such, for example, are the Paleo-Asiatic languages (including the Chukchi-Kamchatka, Eskimo-Aleut, Yenisei, Kzhagiro-Chuvan languages and the Nivkh language); nlo-Saharan languages in Africa; languages of Oceania.
Sometimes language unions are interpreted very broadly - as<реальные объединения языков, характеризующиеся некоторыми общими чертами хотя бы на одном уровне - на фонологическом или грамматическом. Так, Б. Гавранек "общей среднеевропейской чертой" считал стабилизацию ударения на определенном слоге (в чешском, польском, немецком, венгерском, французском, английском). У. Вайнрайх видел конвергенцию а возникновении в греческом, в романских, германских языках новых прошедших времен, образованных по модели "иметь + причастие прошедшего времени". Б. Д. Поливанов указывал на конвергентное происхождение такой существенной фонологической черты, как различение твердых и мягких согласных (Ср. русск. .нал и crumpled, yula And Julia, choir And ferret etc.), which spread over a vast territory: "... from the Polish and Reval dialect of the Estonian language in the west through Russian And Eastern Finnish up to Dungan as the extreme southeastern representative of this region" (Polivanov 1968, 116), R. O. Yakobson, taking into account some phonological features of the languages, wrote about the "Eurasian linguistic union".
The influence of one language on another sometimes takes special forms. For example, the attitude of speakers to the language, to its styles, dialects, to vernacular, i.e., speaking more broadly, linguistic ideal and the tastes of the speakers may be shaped by such ideas in another society. This dependence is manifested in the typological similarity of the normative-stylistic systems of the respective languages (see pp. 39 - 48). This is how the proximity of Roman stylistic traditions to ancient Greek (the era of Hellenism) developed; Church Slavonic to Byzantine; Russian (Karamzin-Pushkin era) to French. At the same time, the condition for stylistic influence is not geographical proximity and not even coexistence in time (cf. ancient Greek and Latin), but the cultural and ideological proximity of the two societies.
In the modern world, the interaction of languages without direct territorial contacts is increasing - in the conditions of the so-called "cultural bilingualism". Mass borrowings penetrate languages "from above": through translators, international journalists, and in general any other people who speak a prestigious foreign language, as a result of international cultural, scientific, technical, sports, and tourist contacts. Wide channels of interlingual influences are news agencies of the rank "Associated Press", "France Press", "Prensa Latina", "Reuters"; press centers at major conferences, festivals, sports competitions, fairs, etc., supplying information and "semi-finished products" of various genres for mass media in many countries.
Thus, language contact is an extremely wide class of language processes due to various kinds of interaction between languages.
Language affinity- the origin of languages from one common ancestor language. Languages that are the results of different paths of evolution of one parent language are called related and are characterized by regular correspondences at various levels, explained by a common origin, and not by chance coincidence or borrowing: their original morphemes are in strictly defined correspondences, reflecting the effect of historical sound changes.
The relationship of languages can be determined by a set of features:
All or the vast majority of phonemes in the studied languages regularly correspond to each other, which is observed in some part of the vocabulary of the studied languages;
The share of vocabulary common to languages increases if a sample of more stable vocabulary is considered (for example, words from the Swadesh list).
Linguistic kinship is established using the comparative historical method. Measurement of the degree of relationship of languages can be carried out in several ways, including in glottochronology - using a statistical study of vocabulary
In the field of names of linguistic taxa, there are various options for terminology. From the point of view of "obviousness" of kinship, the following cases can be distinguished:
Trivial relationship - more than 95% of matches in the basic vocabulary, usually providing mutual intelligibility. Corresponds to the difference between adverbs, dialects, dialects or idiolects of the same language;
A noticeable relationship is about 70% of matches in the basic vocabulary. It is observed between closely related languages (for example, inter-Slavic), whose speakers themselves are aware of the similarity;
Conventional relationship - 15-35% of matches in the basic vocabulary. As a rule, it is not realized by the carriers, but it does not raise doubts among specialists. It is observed, in particular, within the Indo-European family of languages;
Distant relationship - 5-10% of matches in the basic vocabulary. It is often controversial among specialists, since non-random coincidences are difficult to distinguish from random ones.
Language unions- a special type of areal-historical community of languages, characterized by a certain number of similar structural and material features acquired as a result of a long and intensive contact and convergent development within a single geographical space. The idea of a linguistic union is contained in the writings of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. The concept and term "language union" was first formulated in the article "The Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages" (1923) by I. S. Trubetskoy, who proposed to distinguish between a language family and a language union. According to Trubetskoy, a language union is a group of languages that show significant similarities in syntax, morphology, and sometimes external similarities in phonetics and have a common fund of cultural words, but are not connected by a system of sound correspondences and original elementary vocabulary. An example of a language union is the Balkan language union.
The theory of language union has been further developed in relation to other areas of language contact. A language union as a special areal community of languages is characterized by a set of similar structural and material features at different levels of the language system - syntax, morphology, phonetics, syntactic stylistics, as well as commonality in vocabulary and phraseology.
Language unions include, in addition to the Balkan, the Volga (Volga-Kama) language union, which unites the Finno-Ugric languages, Mari and Udmurt, Turkic - Bashkir, Tatar, Chuvash, and the Himalayan language union, which includes the languages of Central Asia of various families and groups: Iranian , Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibetan-Chinese.
International languages- languages that serve as a means of communication between the peoples of different states. They are divided into natural languages and artificial languages.
Signs of an international language
Languages considered international have the following characteristics:
A large number of people consider this language to be their mother tongue.
Among those for whom this language is not native, there are a large number of people who speak it as a foreign or second language.
This language is spoken in many countries, on several continents and in different cultural circles.
In many countries this language is studied at school as a foreign language.
This language is used as an official language by international organizations, at international conferences and in large international firms.
Inter. Languages - English, Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, Russian and French.
According to the population census as of January 1, 2011, the population of the Republic of Tajikistan reached 7 million 616 thousand people, including the urban population - 2 million 17 thousand people (26.49%). The ratio of the number of men and women (according to the statistics committee) : the number of men is 3 million 813 thousand, and women 3 million 752 thousand. According to these data, there are 984 women per 1 thousand men in the republic. The number of rural population increased by 1 million 59 thousand people, or by 23.5%.
The population of Tajikistan has long been growing at a rapid pace: in 1959 there were 1981 thousand people, in 1989 - 5109 thousand and, unlike the European CIS countries, continued to grow in 1989-1999, despite a significant migration outflow of the population from the republic (437 thousand people in 11 years). The main factor in population growth is high natural increase.
In the period between 1989-2000, only the population of most large cities of the country, including the capital, the city of Dushanbe, decreased as a result of the migration outflow of the Russian-speaking, and then the Tajik-Uzbek population. Since the collapse of the USSR, the national composition of the country's population has changed markedly. Indigenous nationalities are characterized by high natural growth, although its rates have declined in the post-Soviet period.
If before 1990 Tajikistan was a trinational republic (Tajiks-Uzbeks-Russians), then after 1990 it became de facto binational (Tajiks-Uzbeks).
The share of Uzbeks in the population has fallen from 23% to less than 17% (although an underestimation of the Uzbek population is likely as a result of long-standing historical tensions between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, as the natural population of Uzbeks remains high); the share of the Kyrgyz remained the same - just over 1%. At the same time, during the intercensal period, the number and proportion of Tajiks significantly increased: in 1989 there were 3172.4 thousand (62.3%), in 2000 - 4898.4 thousand (79.9%).
The state language of the republic is Tajik (Indo-European, a version of Farsi with Cyrillic graphics), the language of interethnic communication in accordance with the Constitution of Tajikistan is Russian. Uzbek and Kyrgyz languages are widely spoken in a number of regions.
The concept of language union. External factors in the development of languages (substratum, superstratum, adstratum, koine, lingua franca, pidgin, creole languages).
EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGES
The development of languages is influenced by internal and external language
Internal factors include simplification of the phonetic system
and grammatical constructions, and external factors are associated with
the influence of other languages.
SUBSTRATE (lat. substratum - sublayer, lower layer) - language,
which turned out to be supplanted by another language, but traces
of the repressed language are retained in the language of the newcomer. For example,
substrate - Celtic in French, Finnish in northern Russian dialects.
These traces can be in the form:
a) material (lexical and grammatical) borrowing;
b) phonetic borrowing. For example, phonetic substratum
noticeable in the Indo-European languages of India, which supplanted
Dravidian languages from the north;
c) tracing
The Celts had a twenty-decimal calculus, which was reflected under
influence of the Gallic substrate in French, for example, in
tracing and number ninety-quatre-vingt-dix (literally: four-
twenty to ten). This has its correspondence in modern
Irish - deich is ceithre fichid (ten and four twenty).
According to the Slavic model (one-over-tsat), the designation was traced
numerals (from 11 to 19) and in Romanian unsprezece,
doisprezece, treisprezece, etc. (Romanian spre = lat. supra).
Differences in Romance languages, descendants of Latin (French,
Spanish, Romanian, etc.), are largely related to the influence
different languages, supplanted by the language of the Romans.
SUPERSTRATE - layering of alien features of another language or language-
alien to the original basis of the local language. Usually language
conquerors, superimposed on the local language, dissolves in it.
Superstrat - Germanic in French (legacy of the Frankish Empire),
French in English (a legacy of the Norman Conquest).
ADSTRATE - the assimilation of some features of another language, provided
territorial neighborhood. Adstrat - Polish in Belarusian;
Tatar in Chuvash, Mari, Udmurt; Turkish in
Balkan; Turkic in Persian and Tajik.
INTERSTRAT - interaction of neighboring languages
For example, the mutual influence of languages on the territory of Russia and the CIS countries.
KOINE - a common language based on a mixture of related languages or
dialects. For example, the common Greek koine in Ancient Greece,
formed from the Attic and Ionian dialects.
LINGUA FRANCA - an oral means of interethnic communication,
which does not force other languages out of use, but coexists with
them in the same area.
Lingua Franca ( Frankish language- so the Arabs called the Europeans) was
mixed language of the Mediterranean (a mixture of Romance languages with
an admixture of Eastern vocabulary), used for trade
Arab and Turkish merchants with Europeans. Now this term
has a broader meaning - the language of interethnic communication.
Most often, the function of the lingua franca is already performed by
an established language, for example, the Russian language in the CIS countries,
Hausa in West Africa, Swahili in East Africa south
Equator, Malay in Southeast Asia.
PIGIN - an auxiliary trading language in the former colonial
countries. A pidgin is a lingua franca that is not native to either
whom. This is a means of communication between the natives among themselves (formerly also with
colonizers). Pidgin languages are common in Oceania, on
Far East, West Africa.
Pidgin languages are based on the following features:
Words are formed from distorted elements of the European language
(usually, eng.) with an admixture of local dialects. The very word
"pidgin" is a distortion of eng. business (business) in Chinese. pidgin.
Poor vocabulary, and the words are polysemantic;
Simplified or local grammar. Temporary forms
missing. For example, in pidgin beach la mar, distributed on
Tahiti and Samoa are two prepositions - eng. belong (belong)
expresses the genitive case, and eng. along (along) replaces everything
other suggestions. Eng. all (all) - for the plural,
bymbye - for the future tense. Has an adjective suffix
“fela (pe1a)” (from ‘fellow’ - guy) e.g., strongpela - strong.
When foreigners hear a Far Eastern pidgin, they consider it
whale. language, and the pidgin speakers themselves believe that this is ang. lang.
The vocabulary of a pidgin (in this case, Pacific) is peculiar
Woman - men, bad - nogut (bad), spirits (scourge) - water
belong him stink (water belong to him stink);
I'm hungry - belly belong me walk about (belly belong to me
walk around) conscience - talk inside (conversation inside);
Head - grass belong head ( grass belong head);
Bald man (scourge) - coconut belong him no grass
(coconut belong to him no grass);
French - man-a-wee-wee ( wee-wee man: "woo" -“yes” in French);
Piano (scourge) - big fella box, you fight him, he cry
(big box guy, you beat him, he scream).
CREOLE LANGUAGES are the pidgins that were the first
native languages for a certain nationality. For example, based on
English. - tokpisin - in Papua New Guinea, krio - in Sierra Leone,
Jagwataak - in Jamaica, based on French. - Haitian in Haiti.
Tok-pisin, akin to pidgin beach-la-mar, became a native language
for tens of thousands of people and one of the official languages of Papua
New Guinea, spoken by half of the four million
the population of the country. The second official language is a pidgin language hiri
motu. The similarity of talk pidgin with the Pacific
pidgins can be seen from the following example: pukpuk hia i gat bikpela
tis (aHr.crocodile here got big teeth) This crocodile has big teeth.
In addition to English, there are a lot of Melanesian in Tok Pisin, as well as German.
words (the north of the country is a former German colony), e.g. links
(left), shutman (policeman).
LANGUAGE union
This is a historically (and not genetically) established community of languages.
The most typical examples are Western European and Balkan
language unions, as well as the Volga language union.
For the languages of the Indo-European linguistic union, it is characteristic, in
particular
The presence of prepositive articles in nouns;
The presence of an analytic perfect in verbs.
The Balkan language union includes such different Indo-European
languages like Bulgarian (Slavic group), Romanian
(Romance group) and Albanian (Albanian group).
On the periphery of this union (i.e. partly included) - Greek
language and Serbian (Croatian).
These languages have, in particular, the following common properties:
Loss or limited use of the infinitive, e.g.,
use of a subordinate clause instead of an infinitive in
compound verb predicates, i.e. instead of "I like to read"
the construction ≪ I love that (I) read≫ is used.
Descriptive formation of the future tense with a verb
≪want≫:
- The class structure of society and new dialect divisions. Monoglossia and diglossia.
The dialect division of the Russian language is created on the basis of studying the patterns of the linguistic landscape of the language, i.e. areas, areas of distribution of language factors. When studying dialects, it is important not only the features by which they differ, are similar, it is important to identify the territory within the boundaries of which a set of distinctive features is defined, which is presented especially clearly.
Features are significantly homogeneous in dialects. The Russian language is different from the German language. But each dialect or group of dialects is characterized by its own special lexical, phonetic, grammatical characteristics, which make it possible to oppose this dialect to others. Classification according to distinctive features and features is the main principle of the classification of dialects, adopted in dialectology. There are other principles that are determined by the task set before the researchers. In particular, in relation to the literary language, all dialects are distributed according to the center-periphery principle, depending on how dialects differ from the literary norm in their characteristics, they move away from the center. Historically, according to the nature of distribution, dialects are divided into indigenous (maternal), common in the central regions of Europe and new dialects, i.e. late territories of settlement (Siberian).
From the point of view of origin, North Russian, South Russian dialects are distinguished, with Central Russian transitions between them. The 2 main groups of Russian dialects available today combine 2 principles of classification, this is the origin of the dialect and its distinctive features.
Within the three main groups (two dialects and Central Russian dialects), groups and subgroups of dialects are distinguished:
- northern dialect: Ladoga-Tikhvinskaya, Vologda, Kostroma;
- Central Russian dialects: Gdovskaya, Pskovskaya, Vladimir-Volga;
- southern dialect: Kursk-Oryol, Ryazan.
Central Russian dialects, primarily the Moscow dialect, formed the basis of the literary Russian language.
With diglossia, one of the forms of existence of the language acts as the main, dominant, and the second - as an addition to it. Schemes of compatibility of different forms of the existence of a language are quite diverse. We will name them, and then we will note the typical, most common in the Russian language and the languages of the peoples of the USSR.
1st variant of diglossia: literary language - colloquial language. Example: Czech literary language and Czech vernacular (see above);
2nd variant of diglossia: literary language - supra-dialect koine. Examples: Russian literary language of the national pre-socialist period and urban koine; the modern Avar literary language and Bolmats - an interdialect that arose on the basis of the northern dialects of the Avar language
3rd variant of diglossia: literary language - vernacular.
This is a rather rare combination, but it still occurs, since in some situations those who own the literary norm can switch to deliberately reduced, non-standardized speech (sometimes pursuing stylistic goals);
4th option: the literary language is a pidgin that arose on its basis. Also a rare case, but theoretically permissible, for example, the transition to a pidgin (or Kyakhta dialect) of persons who speak a literary language (English, Russian).
5th variant of diglossia: literary language - Creole language; an example is the assimilation by native speakers of literary languages (English, Spanish, Portuguese, French) of Negro-English, Negro-Spanish, Negro-French and other Creole languages in Africa, as well as in the Caribbean, on the islands of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans;
6th variant of diglossia: literary language - territorial dialect; a fairly common case, which consists in the fact that a native speaker, being in a dialect environment for a long time, learns the local dialect and uses it in conversation with fellow villagers. This
a variant of diglossia can also arise in another way: a native of the village has fully mastered the literary language, but has not forgotten his native dialect;
7th variant of diglossia: literary language is a social dialect (one or more of its types). This is the case when the native speakers of the literary language, for example, pupils, students, soldiers, use "youth jargon";
8th variant of diglossia: colloquial language - literary language;
9th variant of diglossia: vernacular language - supra-dialect koine;
10th variant of diglossia: colloquial language - vernacular;
11th variant of diglossia≫ colloquial language - pidgin;
12th variant of diglossia: colloquial language - Creole;
13th variant of diglossia: vernacular language - territorial dialect;
14th variant of diglossia: vernacular language - social dialect;
15th-21st diglossia options: Koine (a supradialectal language) in combination with a literary language, colloquial form, vernacular, pidgin, Creole, territorial dialects, social dialects. The following diglossia options (at least 30) are obtained by combining vernacular with other variants of the language, pidgin with other variants of the language, Creole with some other forms, territorial dialect with another territorial dialect, as well as other socio-functional variants of the language.
Diglossia (from other Greek δυο - “two” and γλωσσα / γλωττα - language) is a special variant of bilingualism, in which two languages or two forms of one language coexist in a certain territory or society, used by their speakers in various functional areas. Diglossia is characterized by a situation of unbalanced bilingualism, when one of the languages or variants acts as "high" and the other as "low". At the same time, situations are possible when the “low” language is the native spoken language for the entire population of the territory or part of it, and the “high” language is related to the native language (for example, Church Slavonic and Russian in pre-Petrine Russia) or an unrelated supra-ethnic language of territories with diverse ethnic composition of the population.
Monoglossia (Uniglossia) Ownership and use by an individual of only one form of language existence. M. is characteristic of the initial stages of language development, when each person owned and used one language that did not yet have dialect fragmentation, and was not stylistically differentiated. At present, cases of pure monoglossy can only occur as a rare exception, for example, in Iceland, where the only language is represented by one form of existence. In addition, monoglossy is inherent in individuals with an extremely limited code repertoire, which in various situations of communication is able to use only the same language subsystem.
- The originality of the linguistic situation in Ancient Rus' (9th-14th centuries) and England (7th-15th centuries). The formation of nations and the formation of national languages.
Language and nation. national languages.
The ancient syncretism of the meanings "language" and "people" in the word language, which goes back to Old Slavonic texts, is known to languages of various families: Indo-European (for example, Latin lingua), Finno-Ugric (and not only Finnish or Hungarian, but also Komi-Mari ), Turkish, some African languages. This semantic duality speaks of the close connection between the concepts of "language" and "people" in the minds of people: one people is those who speak the same language, and the language is what the people speak, it unites the people and distinguishes them from others. peoples. Indeed, the ethnic and linguistic principles of population grouping largely coincide and are interconnected. At the same time, both principles are opposed to anthropological (racial).
Races unite people according to hereditary biological similarity (skin color, the nature of the hairline, the structure of the skull, the color and shape of the eyes, the shape of the lips, etc.). The sound language of man is older than the races. The formation of the language and the formation of the species Homo sapiens are mutually related, this happened about 50 - 40 thousand years ago. The division of mankind into races is associated with the settlement of tribes from the common ancestral home of mankind (Central or South Africa, according to anthropologists) throughout the Earth and occurred much later, under the long-term influence of climatic and geographical conditions. On the other hand, the modern genealogical grouping of languages (depending on the degree of kinship of languages originating from a common source language - the parent language) also took shape regardless of further splitting and mixing of races.
Naturally, there are certain correspondences between the boundaries of territories inhabited by one race and the boundaries of language families. For example, languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family are not spoken by any people of the Eurasian (white) race; on the contrary, the languages of the Caucasian family are not found in the territories inhabited by the peoples of the Negroid (black) and Mongoloid (yellow) races. However, this is only a geographical coincidence of fundamentally different entities.
Like everything genetic, biological, the racial factor subtly and deeply determines the mentality of peoples. It is natural to assume that languages could also experience such a general impact. However, there is no evidence for such a relationship. At the individual level, which language is native (mother) for a particular person does not depend on his anthropological characteristics, but on the language community in which he grew up. In the US, English is the native language of both whites and blacks, as well as many Indians. In Kazakhstan, according to the 1979 census, more than one percent of Kazakhs named Russian as their mother tongue. Thus, there is no "anthropological" predisposition of people of different races to the languages of certain families or groups.
The map of the peoples of the world and the map of the languages of the world correlate with each other in a completely different way. They not only coincide in many respects, but are also essentially mutually conditioned. The fact is that the very formation of a separate ethnic community (tribe, nationality) is associated with the linguistic association of the population of a certain territory. The commonality of language, along with the commonality of territory, economic life, a well-known commonality of culture and ethnic self-consciousness, is an essential feature of an ethnos. On the other hand, a specific language entity is perceived as a language (and not as a dialect or jargon) only if it serves a particular people and, at the same time, the whole of this people.
The genealogical classification of the languages of the world (from the Greek genealogia - genealogy) reveals family ties between languages that make up a separate language family (for example, Indo-European, or Turkic, or Semitic-Hamitic, Afroasian, Finno-Ugric, etc.; more than 20 families of languages are known) . Language families are divided into groups of languages (for example, in the circle of the Indo-European family there are groups of Indian, Iranian, Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Romance, Celtic, Greek, Albanian, Armenian, Anatolian, Tocharian). The map of world languages is built on the basis of the genealogical classification of languages.
Is language a mandatory feature of an ethnic group?
At the same time, in reality - in historical and geographical reality - the parallelism between the ethnic and linguistic community does not always exist. Often one people uses not one, but several languages. So, in modern Switzerland, which is the state of the Swiss nation, four languages coexist: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Two languages - English and Irish - are used by the Irish. Two very different Finno-Ugric languages - Moksha and Erzya - are spoken by the Mordovian nation.
Another kind of asymmetry is widespread in the world: one language is used by several or many peoples.
English is spoken by the British, Americans, Canadians, Australians, South Africans; in 19 African countries, English is recognized as official (in some cases, along with some other language); it is also the second official language of India (after Hindi). German is spoken by Germans and Austrians; in Spanish - in Spain, 20 countries in Latin America and the Philippines; in Portuguese - in Portugal, Brazil; Portuguese is the official language in 5 African countries. Three South Slavic peoples - Serbs, Montenegrins and Bosniaks - speak Serbo-Croatian. In the Russian Federation, the Karachay-Balkar language is spoken by two Turkic peoples - Karachays and Balkars; Kabardians and Circassians have one language - Kabardian-Circassian (Iberian-Caucasian language family). The language situations in Africa, Asia, Oceania are even further from the one-to-one correspondence "one ethnic group - one language." Thus, in crucial cases - for example, when resolving territorial disputes, interethnic conflicts, changing the state-administrative structure, etc. - determining the ethnic status of a certain community of people (i.e., whether this community forms an independent people or not) cannot be made dependent on what language these people speak: "separate" and "independent", or the language of neighbors, or several languages. We need another criterion.
The defining feature of an ethnos is ethnic identity.
The formation of the Russian national language.
The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the Kievan state.
This language had a great similarity with the languages of other Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 6th-8th centuries.
In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of the Kyiv state, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages.
The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the 1st half of the X century. refers to the inscription on the korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdovo (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the name of the owner. From the 2nd half of the X century. also preserved a number of inscriptions indicating the belonging of objects.
After the baptism of Rus' in 988, book writing arose. The Chronicle reports on "many scribes" who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavonic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version (variant) of the Church Slavonic language.
In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, the lives of the saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law.
The oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Archangel Gospel of 1092
The original compositions of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the bookish language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance with language norms depended on the author's well-read and his ability to reproduce those forms and constructions that he knew from model texts.
Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture of spiritual content. Therefore, the annals were written in the bookish language and were guided by the same corpus of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (concrete events, local realities), the language of the annals was supplemented with non-bookish elements.
Separately from the book tradition, a non-book written tradition developed in Rus': administrative and judicial texts, official and private office work, household records. These documents differed from book texts in both syntactic constructions and morphology. At the center of this written tradition were legal codes, beginning with Russkaya Pravda, the oldest copy of which dates back to 1282.
Legal acts of an official and private nature adjoin this tradition: interstate and interprincely agreements, donations, contributions, wills, bills of sale, etc. The oldest text of this kind is the charter of the Grand Duke Mstislav to the Yuryev Monastery (c. 1130).
Graffiti occupies a special position. For the most part, these are prayer texts written on the walls of churches, although there are graffiti and other (factual, chronographic, act) content.
Starting from the 1st half of the XIII century. there is a division of the ancient Russian people into the inhabitants of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', later Muscovite Rus', and Western Rus' (later Ukraine and Belarus).
As a result of the development of dialects in the 2nd half of the XII century. - 1st half of the XIII century. on the future Great Russian territory, Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov-Suzdal dialects and the aka dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim developed.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are taking shape, this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. In the 17th century the Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language is beginning to take shape.
During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of the national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language and the development of a language of a common type, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, the old dialect features become very stable.
In the 2nd half of the XVI century. in the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries.
In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed.
Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing.
In the XVIII century. society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. A special role in the creation of the literary language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. Possessing great talent, he wanted to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, wrote "Russian Grammar", in which he gave a set of grammatical rules, showed the richest possibilities of the language.
It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people needed it for "a concordant common cause of the flow, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts." According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why their very "existence is vain and useless."
M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the "Russian Grammar": "The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also by its own space and contentment is great in front of everyone in Europe. Incredibly, this will seem foreign and some natural Russians, who applied more to foreign languages than to their own labors. And further: “Charles the Fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, to I would add to this that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for I found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, the richness and brevity of the Greek and Latin language, strong in the images.
Since the 18th century The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. Creativity A.S. Pushkin laid the foundation for the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.
If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today
- Ethnic and cultural bilingualism. The concept of culture. The ideas of W. von Humboldt and A.A. Potebni about language and culture. Natural and cultural features of the language. Gender and language.
- Historically established linguistic community. Areal linguistics. Diglossia as a kind of cultural bilingualism. Diasporas and compact residence of language groups.
- Bilingualism. Characteristics of the language situation of modern times.
Bilingualism - the ability of certain groups of the population to communicate in two languages.
People who speak two languages are called bilinguals, more than two - polylinguals, more than six - polyglots.
language union Language union -
a special type of areal-historical community of languages, characterized by a certain number of similar structural and material features acquired as a result of long and intensive development within a single geographical space. The idea of a linguistic union is contained in the writings of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. The concept and term "language union" was first formulated in the article "The Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages" (1923) by I. S. Trubetskoy, who proposed to distinguish between a language family and a language union. According to Trubetskoy, a language union is a group of languages that show a significant similarity in, sometimes an external similarity in and have a common fund of cultural words, but are not connected by a system of sound correspondences and the original elementary. An example of a language union is.
The theory of language union has been further developed in relation to other areas of language contact. A language union as a special community of languages is characterized by a set of similar structural and material features at different levels of the language system - syntax, morphology, phonetics, syntactic, as well as commonality in vocabulary and. The complexity of multi-level linguistic characteristics in the contacting languages is the main criterion for postulating a linguistic union. The syntax of interacting languages is most susceptible. In the Balkan language union, for example, there are about 20 syntactic Balkanisms - elementary syntactic constructions. The phonetic level lends itself less than others to convergence within the framework of a linguistic union.
Language unions include, in addition to the Balkan, the Volga (Volga-Kama) language union, which unites the languages \u200b\u200band, Turkic -, and the Central Asian (Himalayan) language union, which includes the languages of Central Asia of various families and groups:,.
The constitutive features of the Volga language union are: in syntax - ways of constructing direct speech and the important role of turns with the formant -ganda, in morphology - similarities in the system of tenses, in the formation of the subjunctive, in the use of excretory, the use of the possessive suffix of the 3rd l. units hours in the function of a certain, in phonetics - the appearance. For the languages of the Central Asian linguistic union, complexity, presence, and the combination of the foundations of the 1st and 2nd literals are common. pl. h., conservation of pronominal clitics, the use of constructions and the vigesimal counting system. According to the latest research, the development of languages according to the type of linguistic union takes place in some regions of Southeast Asia, Africa and Oceania.
Attempts have been made to postulate linguistic unions on the basis of common features at only one linguistic level. The idea of a "Caucasian phonological union" was put forward by Trubetskoy; later, R. O. Yakobson put forward and developed in detail the position on the so-called Eurasian language union, which was the construction of a single-level structural community based on minimal typological similarities in a large number of European and Asian languages \u200b\u200b- monotone and softness. Such constructions, which do not take into account the direct areal interaction of languages, should be regarded as purely typological and cannot serve as a basis for postulating language unions.
On the basis of convergence at the same phonetic-phonological level, the Central Asian language union was also initially singled out (V. N. Toporov). The legitimacy of the substantiation of this areal community was later supported by the identified similarities at other levels of the linguistic structure.
Language unions in the proper sense of the word are sometimes called intensive, while single-level structural communities like the "Eurasian language union" are called extensive (G. Birnbaum). Common features that unite languages in a linguistic union at many levels are defined as convergence isoglosses, while common single-level features are defined as structural and typological similarities. Establishing the boundaries of language unions is carried out by identifying convergence isoglosses. The defining trend of convergent development according to the type of linguistic union is the simplification of grammatical means, the phenomenon of so-called agrammatism.
In the aspect of speech communication, a language union is a special kind of communicative one, where the distribution according to the principle of similarity / dissimilarity in the languages \u200b\u200bthat make up the language union is brought to life by the needs of a constant in conditions of equal prestige. The formation of a linguistic union is a long historical process of diverse linguistic interaction. An important role in its formation is played by a complex set of internal and external factors in the development of interacting languages, including the genetic affiliation of the contacting languages, the ethnocultural and social conditions for their development, the impact of deep () and surface () development catalysts.
The language union is a complex linguistic object, studied by the methods of historical, areal and structural-typological linguistics. A significant contribution to the study of the problem was made by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetskoy, later - Jacobson, Birnbaum, V. Skalichka, V. Georgiev and Soviet linguists A. V. Desnitskaya, B. A. Serebrennikov, Toporov, T. V. Tsivyan, G. V. Tsereteli, T. S. Sharadzenidze, D. I. Edelman.
- Trubetskoy N. S., The Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages, in the book: Eurasian Timepiece, vol. 3, Berlin, 1923;
- Jacobson R., On the characteristics of the Eurasian language union, in his book: Selected writings. I. Phonological studies, 's-Gravenhage, 1962;
- Axes V.N., Several remarks on the phonological characteristics of the Central Asian language union, in the book: Symbolae linguisticae in honorem Georgii Kuryłowicz,Wroclaw - Warsz. - Kraków, 1965;
- Serebrennikov B. A., On some distinguishing features of the Volgokamsk language union, in the book: Language contacts in Bashkiria, Ufa, 1972;
- Edelman D. I., On the theory of language union, VYa, 1978, No. 3;
- Tsivyan T. V., Syntactic structure of the Balkan language union, M., 1979;
- Neroznak V. P., Language unions, in the book: Linguistic typology, M., 1985.
V. P. Neroznak.
Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .
See what "Language Union" is in other dictionaries:
LANGUAGE UNION- a set of languages, similar features in the structure of which appeared as a result of the influence of common socio-historical, geographical and other factors ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
language union- (German Sprachbund, a German term proposed by Trubetskoy, used in many other languages without translation) a special type of commonality of languages that arose as a result of contact and convergent development. The concept of a language union for the first time ... ... Wikipedia
language union- a set of languages, similar features in the structure of which appeared as a result of the influence of common socio-historical, geographical and other factors. * * * LANGUAGE UNION LANGUAGE UNION, a set of languages, similar features in the structure of which ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
language union- A special type of areal-historical community of non-closely related or unrelated languages, characterized by a certain number of similar structural and material features acquired as a result of prolonged intensive contact and ... ... Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms
language union- A type of linguistic integration, due to the long-term coexistence of peoples in similar historical conditions and consisting in the appearance of signs of secondary (non-genetic) similarity in immediate and distantly related languages ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
language union- language. a community that arises as a result of intense processes of interference due to language contacts; consists of languages that show great similarity in syntax. and morphological. system, in the field of cultural vocabulary, in the sound system. ... ... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic dictionary
Balkan Language Union- The Balkan language union is a group of languages \u200b\u200bbelonging to different branches of the Indo-European family of languages, but showing significant and systematic similarities in phonetic, phonological, morphosyntactic, syntactic, lexical, ... ... Wikipedia
Mesoamerican Language Union- Mesoamerican Language Union, Engl. Mesoamerican Linguistic Area (lit. Mesoamerican language area) is a language union that includes many of the Indian languages of Mesoamerica. A number of unrelated languages of Mesoamerica, ... ... Wikipedia
