Ecologists are sounding the alarm about the catastrophic reduction of biodiversity on our planet, associated with the activities of modern man, who, for the most part, living in the city, practically does not encounter nature, has no idea about its diversity and can only see it on TV. This gives him a sense of non-involvement of biodiversity in everyday life, but this is not so.
What is biodiversity?
The term biodiversity is commonly understood by scientists as the diversity of life on Earth - plants, animals, insects, fungi, bacteria and the ecosystems they form. In this concept, there is also a relationship that is present between them. Biodiversity can flow:
- at the level of genes, determines the variability of individuals of a certain species;
- at the species level, reflects the diversity of species (plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms);
- diversity, this includes differences between them and different ecological processes).
It should be borne in mind that all the above types of diversity are interconnected. Many ecosystems and different landscapes create conditions for the emergence of new species, genetic diversity makes it possible to change within one species. The reduction of biodiversity indicates certain violations of these processes.
Currently, environmentalists are sounding the alarm due to the fact that human beings are violating living conditions, ecological processes, man is creating new types of plants and animals at the gene level. How this will affect future life on Earth is unknown. After all, everything in nature is interconnected. This is the so-called "butterfly effect". The science fiction writer Ray Bradbury told the world about him in his story "Thunder Came" back in the middle of the last century.
Impossibility of life without biodiversity
The most valuable and important thing that exists on earth is biological diversity. Whether we know about it or not, but our whole life depends on the biological wealth of the earth, since animals and vegetation give it to us. Thanks to plants, we get enough oxygen, and materials based on them give us not only food, but also wood, paper, fabrics.
In our technogenic age, a huge amount of energy is needed, obtained by burning fuel, which is produced from oil formed as a result of the decomposition of the remains of many organisms and plants. Human life without biological diversity is impossible.
Coming to the store, we buy food packaged in bags, thinking little about where it comes from. The life of the majority of the population takes place in an artificial environment, which is made up of asphalt, concrete, metal and artificial materials, but this does not mean that the consequences of biodiversity reduction will bypass mankind.
Life on Earth and its diversity
The history of planet Earth suggests that at various times it was inhabited by many living organisms, most of which, as a result of evolution, died out and gave way to new species. Conditions and reasons contributed to this, but even during periods of natural stagnation there was no reduction in biodiversity, diversity increased.
Nature is arranged in such a way that everything in it is in interaction. No species of living organisms can live and develop in a closed environment. This was shown by numerous experiments on the creation of isolated biosystems that suffered a complete collapse.
Modern scientists have described and studied 1.4 million species of living organisms, but according to calculations, there are from 5 to 30 million species on Earth that live and develop depending on conditions. This happens naturally. Living organisms populated the entire planet. They live in water, air, and land. They can be found in the desert and in the Northern and Southern belts. Nature provides everything necessary to continue life on Earth.
With the help of living organisms, the nitrogen and carbon cycle takes place, which, in turn, supports the renewal and processing of natural resources. The environment favorable for life, which the Earth's atmosphere creates, is also regulated by living organisms.
What contributes to the reduction of biodiversity?
First of all, the reduction of forest areas. As mentioned above, plants play a very important role in the life of the planet. The taiga and the jungle are called the lungs of the planet, thanks to them it receives a sufficient amount of oxygen. In addition, more than half of the species of living organisms exist in the jungle, which occupies only 6% of the earth's surface. They are called the genetic fund accumulated over 100 million years of evolution on Earth. Its loss will be irreplaceable and can lead the planet to a complete ecological catastrophe.
The reasons for the reduction of biodiversity are the activities of a person who transforms the planet in order to meet their own, not always reasonably increased, needs. Uncontrolled cutting of taiga and jungle leads to the disappearance of many species of life, even unexplored and not described by man, to disruption of ecosystems and water balance.
This is facilitated by deforestation and burning, the harvesting of various types of plants and fishing carried out in predatory sizes, the use of pesticides, the drainage of swamps, the death of coral reefs and the cutting down of mangroves, an increase in the number of agricultural lands and the area of \u200b\u200bsettlements.
It is clear that the development of technology, technical progress cannot be stopped. But steps must be taken to address the environmental problems of biodiversity loss.
International Convention on Biological Diversity
For this purpose, the “Convention on Biological Diversity” was adopted, which was signed by 181 countries, whose governments assumed obligations to preserve it in their countries, pledged to act jointly with other states and share the benefits of using genetic resources.
But this has not prevented the reduction of biodiversity on the planet. The ecological situation on Earth is becoming more threatening than ever. But there is hope that the common sense that God has given to man will prevail.
Evolution is the engine of life
The engine of life forward is evolution, as a result of which some species die out and new ones appear. All modern living beings have replaced the extinct ones, and, as scientists have calculated, of the entire variety of species that existed on Earth, their current number is only 1% of their total number.
The extinction of species is a natural moment of evolution, but the current rate of biodiversity reduction on the planet is rampant, there is a violation of natural self-regulation and this has become one of the most important environmental problems of mankind.
The role of the species in the biosphere
The knowledge of mankind about the role played by representatives of one species or another in the biosphere is negligible. But scientists know for certain that each species has a certain meaning in nature. The disappearance of one species and the inability to replace it with a new one can lead to a chain reaction that will lead to the extinction of man.
Necessary actions
First of all, humanity should try to save the rainforests. Thus, leaving the opportunity to save some species of living beings and plants from extinction. The preservation of the jungle will lead to climate stabilization.
The jungle is a direct source of the richest genetic material, a treasury of various types of living beings. In addition, it is a source of plants, on the basis of which a person creates unique medicines. By moistening the atmosphere, tropical forests prevent global climate change.
The biological diversity of the planet includes the genetic intraspecific, species and diversity of ecosystems. Genetic diversity is due to the diversity of traits and properties in individuals of the same species, an example is the many varieties of herbaceous bluebell - more than 300 species and subspecies of woodpecker - about 210 (Fig. 1).
Fig.1 Genetic diversity of bluebell and woodpecker
Species diversity is the variety of species of animals, plants, fungi, lichens and bacteria. According to the results of research by biologists published in the journal PLoS Biology for 2011, the number of described living organisms on the planet is approximately 1.7 million, and the total number of species is estimated at approximately 8.7 million. It is noted that 86% have yet to be discovered. land dwellers and 91% of ocean dwellers. Biologists estimate that a full description of unknown species will require at least 480 years of enhanced research. Thus, the total number of species on the planet will not be known for a long time. The biological diversity of ecosystems depends on natural and climatic conditions, ecosystems are distinguished by structure and functions, in scale from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere (Fig. 2).
Fig.2 Biological diversity of natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
Biological diversity is the main natural resource of the planet, which provides an opportunity for sustainable development and is of great ecological, social, aesthetic and economic importance. Our planet can be imagined as a complex multicellular organism that, through biological diversity, supports the self-organization of the biosphere, which is expressed in its restoration, resistance to negative natural and anthropogenic influences. Biodiversity allows you to regulate water flows, control erosion, form soils, perform climate-forming functions, and much more.
The genetic intraspecific, species and diversity of ecosystems are interconnected. Genetic diversity ensures species diversity, the diversity of natural ecosystems and landscapes creates conditions for the formation of new species, and an increase in species diversity increases the overall gene pool of the planet's biosphere. Therefore, each specific species contributes to biological diversity and cannot be without (with) beneficial or harmful. Each individual species will perform certain functions in any ecological system, and the loss of any animal or plant leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem. And the more species die out for a non-natural reason, the greater the imbalance. In confirmation of this, we can cite the words of the domestic scientist Nikolai Viktorovich Levashov, that "... the ecological system is nothing more than a balance between all forms and types of living organisms and their habitat ...". One cannot but agree with these words.
The distribution of species over the surface of the planet is uneven, and their biological diversity in natural ecosystems is greatest in tropical rainforests, which occupy 7% of the planet's surface and contain up to 70-80% of all animals and plants known to science. This is not surprising, since tropical forests are rich in plants, providing a huge number of ecological niches and, as a result, high species diversity. At the initial stages of the formation of the ecological system of the planet and up to the present day, a natural process of the emergence and disappearance of species has taken place and is taking place. The extinction of some species was compensated by the emergence of new species. This process was carried out without human intervention for a very long time. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in different geological epochs there was a process of extinction and appearance of species, which we can judge from the found fossils, imprints and traces of life activity (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Fossils of ammonites and shells of bivalve mollusks that lived on the planet about 150 million years ago, in the Jurassic period
However, at present, under the influence of human factors, there is a reduction in biological diversity. This became especially noticeable in the 20th century, when, under the influence of human activity, the rate of extinction of species exceeded the natural rate, which led to the destruction of the genetic potential of the biosphere of our planet. The main reasons for the reduction of the biodiversity of the planet can be considered hunting and fishing, forest fires (up to 90% of fires happen due to human fault), destruction and change of habitats (construction of roads, power lines, dishonest construction of residential complexes, deforestation, etc.) , pollution of natural components with chemicals, the introduction of alien species into unusual ecosystems, the selective use of natural resources, the introduction of GMO crops in agriculture (when pollinated by insects, genetically modified plants spread, which leads to the displacement of natural plant species from the ecosystem) and many other reasons . In confirmation of the above reasons, we can cite some facts of violations of natural ecosystems, which, unfortunately, are a huge number. So, on April 20, 2010, the largest man-made disaster occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, caused by an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform at the Macondo field (USA). As a result of this accident, about 5 million barrels of oil spilled into the Gulf of Mexico in 152 days, resulting in an oil slick with a total area of 75 thousand square kilometers (Fig. 4) . This is, according to the most conservative estimates, how much actually spilled out is unknown.
The ecological consequences for the ecosystem of the bay and coastal areas are difficult to assess, since oil pollution disrupts natural processes, changes the living conditions of all types of living organisms, and accumulates in biomass. Petroleum products have a long decay period and rather quickly cover the surface of the waters with a layer of oil film, which prevents the access of air and light. As of November 2, 2010, 6814 dead animals were collected as a result of the accident. But these are only the first losses, how many animals and plant organisms have died and will die when toxic substances enter the food chain is unknown. It is also unknown how such a man-made disaster will affect other regions of the planet. The natural ecosystem of the Gulf of Mexico and its coasts is capable of self-restoration, but this process can drag on for many years.
Another reason for the reduction of biological diversity is deforestation for the construction of roads, housing, agricultural land, etc. As a confirming fact, we can cite the construction of a high-speed highway Moscow - St. Petersburg through the Khimki forest. The Khimki forest was the largest undivided natural complex, which was part of the forest-park protective belt of Moscow and the Moscow region, and made it possible to maintain high biological diversity (Fig. 5). In addition, it served as the most important regulator of atmospheric air purity, a recreational natural complex for more than half a million residents of nearby settlements, capable of providing a favorable environment for living.
Fig. 5 Khimki forest before the construction of a high-speed highway
As a result of the construction of the high-speed highway, the Khimki forest park suffered irreparable environmental damage, which is expressed in the destruction of the only corridor that runs along the floodplain of the river. Klyazma and connecting the Khimki forest with neighboring forests (Fig. 6).
Rice. 6 Construction of a high-speed road through the Khimki forest
The migration routes of such animals as elk, wild boar, badger and other organisms have been disrupted, which will eventually lead to their disappearance from the Khimki forest. The construction of the road further led to the fragmentation of the forest, which will further increase the adverse edge effects on natural ecosystems (chemical pollution, the impact of acoustic noise, the collapse of forest walls adjacent to the highway, etc.) (Fig. 7). Unfortunately, there are a huge number of such examples throughout the country and around the world, and all together this causes irreparable environmental damage to biological diversity.
The fact of biodiversity reduction is also confirmed by (c) studies, which can be found in the works and. According to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, the total biodiversity of the planet has declined by approximately 28% since 1970. Considering that a huge number of living organisms have not yet been described and the fact that only known species were taken into account in the assessment of biodiversity, it can be assumed that biodiversity loss is mainly occurring at the regional level. However, if a person continues to develop in a technocratic and consumer way and does not take real actions to change the situation, then there is a real threat to global biodiversity, and, as a result, the possible death of civilization. The decrease in the diversity of life leads to a decrease in the maintenance of the functions of the biosphere in its natural state. Ignorance and denial of the laws of nature often leads to the misconception that the loss of one species of animal or plant in nature is interchangeable. Yes, this is so, if it is caused by the natural course of the evolution of living matter. However, today "intelligent" human activity has begun to predominate. I would like to recall one of the laws of ecology of the American ecologist Barry Commoner: "Everything is connected with everything." The law shows the integrity of the ecological system from the living organisms that form it and the environment. I would like to finish my little reflection with the words of the Bulgarian aphorist Veselin Georgiev: “Take care of nature in yourself, and not yourself in nature.”
The concept of "biodiversity" came into wide scientific use in 1972 at the UN Stockholm Conference on the Environment, where environmentalists managed to convince the political leaders of the countries of the world community that the protection of wildlife should be a priority in any human activity on Earth. Twenty years later, in 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, during the UN Conference on Environment and Development, the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted, which was signed by more than 180 countries, including Russia. Active implementation of the Convention on Biodiversity in Russia began after its ratification by the State Duma in 1995. At the federal level, a number of environmental laws were adopted, and in 1996, by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, the “Concept for the transition of the Russian Federation to sustainable development” was approved, which considers the conservation of biodiversity as one of the most important directions for the development of Russia. Russia, like other countries that have signed and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, does not act alone. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) project for the conservation of biodiversity in Russia, funded by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, started in December 1996. Since then, the National Biodiversity Strategy of Russia has been developed and adopted in 2001, mechanisms for biodiversity conservation are being developed, national parks and reserves are being supported, and measures are being taken to preserve biodiversity and improve the environmental situation in various regions.
This series of tutorials and reference materials is intended to fill at least some of the vacuum that exists in Russia. It would seem that the problem of biodiversity conservation, discussed at various levels, should have long been reflected in curricula, educational standards, at least in environmental specialties. However, as a thorough analysis of the State Educational Standards has shown, sections related to the study of the phenomenon of biodiversity, methods of its assessment, the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development, etc., are not explicitly included in any of them. There are practically no textbooks on this subject.
What is biological diversity?
biodiversity – these are hundreds of thousands of species, and diversity within the populations of each species, and the diversity of biocenoses, that is, diversity is observed at every level - from genes to ecosystems. This phenomenon has long interested man. First, out of simple curiosity, and then quite consciously and often for practical purposes, a person studies his living environment. This process has no end, since with each century new tasks arise and the ways of understanding the composition and structure of the biosphere change. They are solved by the whole complex of biological sciences. The study of the diversity of the organic world of our planet became especially relevant after the role of diversity itself in maintaining the stability of the biosphere began to be clarified.
Conservation of biological diversity is the central task of the biology of wildlife conservation. Biodiversity is defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (1989) as “the entire diversity of life forms on earth, the millions of species of plants, animals, micro-organisms with their gene sets, and the complex ecosystems that make up wildlife”. Therefore, biodiversity should
considered on three levels.
genetic diversity, reflecting intraspecific diversity and due to the variability of individuals;
species diversity, reflecting the diversity of living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms). At present, about 1.7 million species have been described, although their total number, according to some estimates, is up to 50 million;
diversity of ecosystems covers differences between ecosystem types, habitat diversity and ecological processes. They note the diversity of ecosystems not only in terms of structural and functional components, but also in terms of scale - from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
the variability of living organisms from all sources, including but not limited to terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this concept includes diversity within species, between species and ecosystem diversity (Convention on Biological Diversity.)
Edwart. Terms and definitions for environmental protection, nature management and environmental safety. Dictionary, 2010
Biodiversity
the diversity of species in a particular ecosystem, in a particular area or on the entire planet. At present, about 2.5 million species are known to science, with 74% of the species associated with the tropical belt, 24% with temperate latitudes and 2% with polar regions. It is believed that this list is very incomplete, since many small animals (in particular, insects and arachnids), fungi, bacteria (especially in the tropics, where the B.R. is the highest) have not been identified. Scientists suggest that the total number of species on the planet is from 5 to 30 million B.R. different groups of organisms differ significantly. The most species-rich group of organisms are insects. There are almost 1.5 million species of them. B.r. usually estimated by individual groups of organisms: the number of species of vascular plants (flowering, gymnosperms, ferns, club mosses, horsetails), mosses, lichens, large fungi visible to the eye (they are called macromycetes), microscopic fungi (micromycetes), algae, insects, soil animals (also visible to the eye, they are called mesofauna), birds, mammals, bacteria, etc. Similarly, B.r. is estimated by groups. aquatic ecosystems (groups of plankton and benthos - phytoplankton, zooplankton, phytobenthos, zoobenthos, nekton, macrophyte plants). The totality of plant species is called flora, and animal species is called fauna. Between B.r. different trophic levels, the relationship “diversity generates diversity” was noted: the more autotrophic species, the more heterotrophic species (consumers and decomposers). There is no direct connection between B.R., the stability of ecosystems and their biological products. Ecosystems with low B.R. may be more productive. For example, when fertilizing their meadows, their B.r. decreases sharply, and production - increases. Resilient (i.e., capable of self-healing after disturbance) are often ecosystems with a low B.R., such as deserts.
B.r. individual biocenoses is determined by the interaction of many factors, the main of which are the following.
1. Favorable environmental conditions. Ecosystems with rich, well-drained soils and warm climates can have more species than ecosystems with poor, cold, and very dry soils. However, in the tundra, the decrease in B.r. vascular plants is compensated by an increase in B.r. mosses and lichens, which are very small in size.
2. General "reserve" of landscape types. If the landscape in the past was subject to severe disturbances, which impoverished its flora and fauna, then even under favorable conditions and after a long time after the disturbance, the biocenoses will have a very low B.r.
3. Violation mode. With moderate disturbances of ecosystems (light grazing, selective logging or windfall in a limited area, periodic ground fires) B.r. increases. Under such conditions, dominant species cannot become stronger enough to capture the "lion's share" of resources. B.r. is increasing. herbaceous layer in suburban forests if they are moderately disturbed by trampling. At the same time, any severe violation reduces B.r.
B.r. also depends on the heterogeneity of the territory. On the plain, it will always be lower than in the mountains, where many different ecotopes are represented in a limited area. This is due to the different heights of the plots above sea level, different exposure, different geological rocks (acidic granites, alkaline limestones), etc.
B.r. - the most important biological indicator of the state of the biosphere and its constituent biomes, which is sensitive to human influences. At present, there is a clear trend towards a decrease in B.r. Since 1600, 63 species of mammals and 74 species of birds have disappeared. Among the extinct species are tour, tarpan, quagga zebra, marsupial wolf, Steller's sea cow, European ibis, etc.
In the modern world, from 1 to 10 species of animals disappear daily and 1 species of plants disappears weekly. The death of one plant species leads to the destruction of approximately 30 species of small animals (primarily insects and roundworms - nematodes) associated with it in the process of feeding. Security B.R. is one of the most important requirements in building a sustainable development society (see Models of the world).
Edwart. Glossary of environmental terms and definitions, 2010
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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (biodiversity), a concept that came into wide use in the 1980s in the fields of fundamental and applied biology, the exploitation of biological resources, policy in connection with the strengthening of the environmental movement, the awareness of the uniqueness of each biological species and the need to preserve all the diversity of life for sustainable development biosphere and human society. This was reflected in the International Convention on Biological Diversity adopted in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (signed by Russia in 1995). In the scientific literature, the concept of "biological diversity" is used in a broad sense to denote the richness of life in general and its constituent parts, or as a set of parameters of floras, faunas and communities (the number of species and a set of adaptive types, indices reflecting the ratio of species by the number of individuals - evenness , dominance, etc.). Forms of biological diversity can be identified at all levels of life organization. They talk about species, taxonomic, genotypic, population, biocenotic, floristic, faunistic, etc. diversity. Each level has its own systems, categories and methods for assessing diversity. By the beginning of the 21st century, biologists counted up to 2 million species of all groups of organisms: multicellular animals - about 1.4 million species (including insects - about 1 million), higher plants - 290 thousand species (including angiosperms - 255 thousand), mushrooms - 120 thousand species, algae - 40 thousand, protests - 40 thousand, lichens - 20 thousand, bacteria - 5 thousand species. Some authors, taking into account the estimated number of species not yet described, estimate the richness of the modern organic world as a much larger number of species - up to 15 million. In ecology, when analyzing the structure and dynamics of communities, the system of biological diversity of the American ecologist R. Whittaker is widely used. Of the categories of biological diversity he proposed, the most commonly used are alpha diversity (the species structure of a particular community), beta diversity (changes in a number of communities, for example, depending on temperature conditions) and gamma diversity (the structure of biota on the scale of the entire landscape). Syntaxonomy is intensively developing - the classification of plant communities based on their species diversity.
Biological diversity is the main result and at the same time a factor of the evolutionary process. The emergence of new species and life forms complicates the environment and determines the progressive development of organisms. The most complex, evolutionarily advanced forms arise and flourish in the conditions of the equatorial and tropical zones, where the maximum species richness is noted. And life itself could develop as a planetary phenomenon on the basis of the division of functions in primary ecosystems, that is, at a certain level of diversity of organisms. The circulation of substances in the biosphere can only be carried out with sufficient biological diversity, on which the mechanisms of stability and regulation of the dynamics of ecological systems are based. Such important features of their structure as interchangeability, ecological vicariate, multiple provision of functions are possible only with significant species and adaptive (adaptive forms) diversity.
The level of biological diversity on Earth is primarily determined by the amount of heat. From the equator to the poles, all indicators of biological diversity are sharply reduced. Thus, the share of flora and fauna of the equatorial and tropical zones accounts for at least 85% of the total species richness of the organic world; species living in temperate zones make up about 15%, and in the Arctic - only about 1%. In the conditions of the temperate zone, in which most of Russia is located, the highest level of biological diversity is in its southern strip. For example, the number of bird species from the forest-steppe and broad-leaved forests to the tundra decreases by 3 times, flowering plants - by 5 times. In accordance with the change of natural belts and zones, the structure of the entire biological diversity naturally changes. Against the background of a general decrease in the species richness of the organic world towards the poles, individual groups retain its rather high level and their share in fauna and flora, as well as their biocenotic role, increase. The more severe the living conditions, the higher the proportion of relatively primitive groups of organisms in the biota. For example, the diversity of flowering plants, which form the basis of the Earth's flora, decreases much more sharply with advancement to high latitudes than bryophytes, which in the tundra are not inferior to them in terms of species richness, and are twice as rich in polar deserts. Under conditions of extreme climatic pessimism, for example, in the Antarctic oases, mainly prokaryotes and single species of lichens, mosses, algae, and microscopic animals live.
Increasing the specificity of the environment, extremeness (very high or low temperature, high salinity, high pressure, the presence of toxic compounds, high acidity, and so on) reduce the parameters of biological diversity, in particular, the species diversity of communities. But at the same time, certain species or groups of organisms that are resistant to this factor (for example, some cyanobacteria in heavily polluted water bodies) can multiply in extremely large quantities. In ecology, the so-called basic biocenotic law or Tinemann's rule has been formulated: biotopes with conditions that are sharply different from optimal are inhabited by a smaller number of species, which, however, are represented by a large number of individuals. In other words, the depletion of the species composition is compensated by an increase in the population density of individual species.
Among the areas of study of biological diversity, first of all, there is an inventory of species composition based on taxonomy. Floristics and faunistics, areaology, phyto- and zoogeography are associated with the latter. It is extremely important to know the factors and understand the mechanisms of evolution of biological diversity, the genetic foundations of the diversity of organisms and populations, the ecological and evolutionary role of polymorphism, the laws of adaptive radiation, and the processes of delimitation of ecological niches in ecosystems. The study of biological diversity in these aspects is connected with the most important areas of modern theoretical and applied biology. A special role is given to the nomenclature, typology and inventory of communities, vegetation and animal populations, the creation of databases on various components of ecological systems, which is necessary to assess the state of the entire living cover of the Earth and the biosphere, to solve specific problems of environmental protection, conservation management, the use of bioresources, many pressing issues of biodiversity conservation at the regional, state and global levels.
Lit.: Chernov Yu.I. Biological diversity: essence and problems // Successes of modern biology. 1991. Vol. 111. Issue. 4; Alimov A.F. et al. Problems of studying the diversity of the animal world in Russia // Journal of General Biology. 1996. V. 57. No. 2; Groombridge V., Jenkins M.D. global biodiversity. Camb., 2000; Alekseev A.S., Dmitriev V.Yu., Ponomarenko A.G. Evolution of taxonomic diversity. M., 2001.
