The art of building relationships with business partners and employees is an important part of the multifaceted activity of a manager. One of the leading places here belongs to the ability to influence people. According to American scientists M, Woodcock and D. Francis, everything is important here, even, at first glance, minor things.
Clothing and appearance. It is appropriate for managers to recall the Russian proverb: "They meet according to their clothes - they see them off according to their mind."
Posture. An example of good posture is the position of the figure of a person who does not hide his head in his shoulders, looks into the eyes of the interlocutor. Conducted studies have established that there is a direct relationship between the emotional and physical state of a person, his posture. If the manager feels calm and confident, has the right posture, then this usually makes a positive impression on others.
Behavior. A confident manager usually speaks clearly and persuasively. He knows what he wants, his actions to achieve his goal are clear.
The main causes of insecurity: lack of practice, education, lack of clear goals, underestimation of oneself, inability to present oneself in the best possible way.
Ways to achieve confidence: avoid emotional situations; be easier; strive to achieve one's own, not allowing others (subordinates) to confuse oneself; in case of mistakes (which everyone makes) do not despair; persevere in the pursuit of the task at hand.
Improving personal relationships. The main ways to establish good personal relationships are: recognition (it is necessary to pay attention to the person); establishing individuality (each person is individual); interest (express interest in a person); expression of views (disclosure of thoughts and feelings); providing support (willingness to encourage).
Reward. There are two types of managers: one finds the positive in the work of employees and notes it; the other looks for the negative (mistakes) in subordinates and punishes them. The first method gives the best results.
Ability to give instructions to subordinates. There are the following approaches:
indefinite indications - the result is usually negative;
persuasion (appeal to the logic of the development of events, personal or common interest) - the result can be positive if the employee shares the beliefs;
threats (based on fear) - a feeling of resentment may arise, as a result, someone will lose, the case will suffer;
requests - the result is positive if between the manager and employees good relations;
providing an employee with certain benefits for harder work - the result is positive if promises are kept;
requirement (combines respect for the employee and observance of subordination), clear instructions (rather formal approach) - the result may cause offense, but the task, as a rule, is solved.
One of the most important qualities of a manager is ethics. Ethics (from Latin ethika - custom, character) is a system of norms, the morality of a person's moral behavior. Applied to a certain public]! a group of professions, we can talk, for example, about deputy ethics, medical ethics, the ethics of the manager.
The ethics of business communication in modern management is given increased attention. Business ethics plays a special role in Russia, which is in the process of becoming market economy. Compliance with ethics creates a favorable background for establishing strong, trusting, honest business relationships between a manager and work partners.
The activities of a manager are extremely diverse. In addition to the need to constantly address various issues of organizing production and sales of products, managing a team, he has, in fact, to face various ethical problems on a daily basis. Examples of such situations can be: the use of an official position for personal purposes, hiding from a higher management or one's subordinates omissions in one's own work, etc. Finally, the extreme degree of unethical behavior in relation to one's own company can be, for example, transferring information to a competing company about production costs, a strategy for operating in the market, a description of a new product model, which, in essence, can be called simply treason, betrayal. Thus, we can talk about the so-called business ethics, the ethics of the manager.
There is no doubt that ethics is directly related to the performance of the company, it affects the well-being of the team and the company as a whole. People have long wondered what is good and what is evil in human behavior, what is right and what is wrong. When they say that such and such a person is good, they usually mean that he is doing the right thing. And, accordingly, vice versa. Such a discussion of human behavior is what we most strongly associate with the concept of "ethics". Human behavior is the most general subject of ethical judgments. We can say that ethics deals with the question of what is good, correct behavior. The individual perception of the concepts of “good” and “evil” by a person is realized in his behavior and in his actions. The lifestyle and specific actions that embody human behavior provide an answer to the question of his ethics.
humanity for its long history developed the principles of ethics, its norms. These are, in essence, standards of behavior that make it possible to compare and compare concrete actions of a person with them. Such principles are, for example, the following: the end never justifies the means; never do evil for the purpose of doing good. Of course, it is necessary to take into account in each specific case real opportunities any action and its consequences. In other words, one should consider not only the relative value of different consequences, but also the relative possibility of their implementation.
The lesser good, which is most likely to be achieved, should be preferred to the greater good, but less likely, if the difference in the likelihood of both kinds of good happening is large enough to outweigh the difference in value.
Since practically every person gives preference to what closely concerns himself, it is considered right that a person strives more for the achievement of the good that excites him and in which he is personally interested.
Some actions usually evoke specific moral feelings, while others do not. For example, the term "duty" is usually applied only to that group of actions that cause moral approval or the non-performance of which causes moral disapproval.
Those actions with which moral feelings are associated have two features. One is that "duties" are among the things that many people are strongly tempted not to do. Another characteristic feature of such actions is that failure to perform duties in general leads to consequences that are unpleasant not for the person who did not fulfill his duty, but for someone else. The first of these traits is more common than the second. This is due to the fact that the consequences unpleasant for other people and arising from the failure to fulfill obligations towards oneself, as well as moderation and restraint, are not so obvious.
The age-old history of management has developed specific norms (canons) of business communication, which have become generally accepted in the civilized world. For a manager who seeks to strengthen business relations with partners, it is important not only to know them, but also to use them to create and strengthen their own positive image in the eyes of others.
Image is collective image(a set of impressions) that develops in the minds of people and is associated with specific ideas. You can talk about the image of a person, enterprise, product, country, etc.
Creation and maintenance of a worthy image, which is an important integral part The manager’s activities are facilitated by following ethically based service relations rules:
if you want to criticize an employee, then first note the positive aspects of his work;
do not speak with people in an orderly tone;
respect the opinions of others;
the best way to achieve the best result in a controversial situation is to avoid the dispute;
if you are wrong about something, then openly admit it.
The experience of outstanding managers confirms these recommendations. Thus, the American manager L. Iacocca, who at various times headed the well-known automotive corporations Ford Motors Company and Chrysler, said: “A good manager needs to be able to listen in the same way as to be able to speak. Too many people fail to realize that true communication is a two-way process. If you want to inspire people who work for you to work hard and take initiative, you need to be able to listen carefully. As a manager, it gives me the greatest satisfaction to see how an employee who has already been labeled mediocre or mediocre by the apparatus actually achieves recognition, and only because someone listened to him, delved into his difficulties and helped him overcome them. .
In the process of communicating with subordinates, a manager can use the so-called body language, i.e. with the help of facial expressions of a person, his postures and gestures, to determine with a certain degree of approximation the state of people, their thoughts and desires. Body language helps the manager to talk with people, understand and inspire their confidence in him, negotiate, resolve conflicts.
Consider some examples of variants of such a language:
Look: 1) first look at you, and then pause (the interlocutor is waiting for your answer); 2) a pause in speech, the interlocutor looks away (he asks not to interrupt him).
Position: 1) against each other (this is how the rivals sit); 2) nearby (desire for cooperation, open attitude towards you, expectation of success); 3) obliquely (the interlocutor makes it possible to look away, helps you to organize yourself correctly).
Posture: deviation back (the interlocutor wants to stop communication, the case you are discussing is hopeless. If the interlocutor agrees to accept the idea of the interlocutor, the posture will become different).
Gesture: 1) open hands, relaxation (openness of the interlocutor and his trust in you); 2) unbuttoning the jacket, taking it off (the same); 3) crossed arms, the jacket is buttoned up (closeness of the partner, his readiness for defense or defense); 4) the partner’s hands are clasped (you need to stop persuading and insisting; the conversation should be transferred to another topic; transfer the initiative to the interlocutor); 5) the interlocutor sits on the edge of the chair, his gaze is unblinking, his legs firmly rested on the floor (higher attention to you and at the same time an assessment of what you are saying to him); 6) hand at the cheek, head tilted to the side, scratching the chin (the interlocutor doubts and thinks hard; “Okay, let's think again together”); 7) the business partner manipulates the glasses (this allows him to pause for reflection); 8) rearranges objects on the table (he lacks information); 9) a person paces around the room; (he is thinking, maybe trying to resolve the doubt. He should not be disturbed, trying to speak at this time); 10) covers his mouth with his hand, averts his eyes (a suspicion arose, he tries to hide his position, he completely disagrees with you); 11) the interlocutor turned his legs to the side, collects his papers, did something else, listening to you (the interlocutor has lost interest in you and wants to leave); 12) hands in pockets, body tilt forward (the interlocutor shows his superiority and confidence); 13) the interlocutor is sitting, crossed his ankles, his hands tightly squeeze the armrests of the chair (he is trying to control himself and not enter into conflict); 14) the partner is standing, hands are behind his back, the hands are squeezing the wrists (the same); 15) the head lies in the palm of your hand, the eyes are half-closed (the person tries to hide his boredom from communicating with you); 16) the palms of the hands are attached to the chest (a sign of honesty and openness); 17) leg by leg, arms crossed on the chest (the person is preoccupied, it is better not to approach him with your problems); 18) standing, the interlocutor keeps his hands in his pockets with thumbs sticking out, his leg is pushed forward (he shows that he is the master of the situation and is confident in himself); 19) “Napoleon’s pose”: chest forward, one hand tucked over the side of the jacket, the other, as a rule, in the pocket (the same); 20) the interlocutor is sitting, hands are behind the head (higher self-confidence); 21) a person has a lowered head, a bent body, crossed arms and legs (an extreme expression of closeness. The person is completely fenced off from you and does not perceive what you say to him. He must be left alone or try to get him out of this state).
Distance: 1) up to 0.5 m (emotionally close relationship); 2) about 1 m (informal business relationship); 3) more than 1 m (formal relationship or anxiety and nervousness in someone who stays away. The best way to build relationships with a partner is to move to a distance that is convenient for him); 4) a person sits far away from you, moves away or leans back (you are unpleasant to him or he is afraid of you).
In conclusion, we present the general recommendations developed by the two American scientists mentioned above for creating a favorable psychological climate a team. For Russian managers, they are of particular interest, because in a concise, figurative and lively form they provide rich information about ways to solve one of the most acute problems of management.
The process of creating a constructive environment in the team depends on a variety of factors. Many of them (views, motives and needs of people) are difficult to control. Human prejudices, prejudices, stereotypes can negate all the efforts of a manager. There are some general recommendations for creating an environment of trust and mutual understanding.
Creating an atmosphere of cooperation. At the time of the first meeting with employees and at the beginning of each subsequent one, you should spend a few minutes in an informal conversation. Representatives of the parties at the meeting should be given the same time to speak. From time to time it is necessary to emphasize the moments that bring employees together and unite the team.
Striving for clarity of communication. It is necessary to prepare for the meeting with the staff as carefully as possible. The manager prepares schemes, tables, drawings, diagrams, draft solutions in advance. This is done to ensure that information reaches employees quickly and without possible distortion. Equally important in communication is the ability to listen. It is useful to explain and summarize what others have said. Questions are also useful, but when there are too many, one of the parties involved in the discussion may become defensive.
Mastery of emotions. It is emotions that underlie the so-called gift of persuasion, which good speakers possess. However, emotions must be kept under strict control, otherwise logic may suffer. You need to calmly think: did your offender have any reason to treat you in this way? Instead of trying to convince the opposite side of the wrong, getting excited, the manager should explain why he treats the subordinate in this way and not otherwise. It is known that anger is a bad adviser. If someone treated you unfairly, do not rush to repay him with the same coin, "turn on your mind."
You should not be led by your feelings. Maybe the manager himself took a defensive stance in response to fair, but not delicately worded remarks? Having thought everything over and calmed down, you can safely express your claims and comments if you consider them justified.
Energetic pursuit of your goals. Usually people have much more energy than they realize.
You can increase your energy potential, for example, by improving your skills, developing innovative approaches, showing perseverance, taking risks.
Power is a necessary element of organizing the effective operation of an enterprise. To successfully manage production, the manager must have the appropriate authority. Influencing his subordinates, the manager must ensure the mobilization of the team to fulfill the tasks facing the enterprise.
Power can be based on coercion, reward, authority and knowledge, example, legal rights.
The concepts of "power" and "leadership" are interrelated. The manager, having the necessary power, must be a leader for subordinates, which requires a high level of professionalism from him.
The manager must strive to create and constantly maintain his own positive image, as this has a beneficial effect on the team of employees and business partners.
Among the famous military leaders of Armenian origin, the name of Hamazasp Khachaturovich Babajanyan rightfully occupies one of the leading places. In the Soviet Union, Hamazasp Babajanyan managed to build a brilliant military career, having risen to the rank of Chief Marshal of the Armored Forces. Hamazasp Babajanyan took part in the Great Patriotic War from July 1941, during the years of the war he was awarded numerous orders and medals, including the medal " Golden Star"and the honorary title Hero Soviet Union. Marshal Hamazasp Khachaturovich Babajanyan passed away 40 years ago on November 1, 1977.
Hamazasp Khachaturovich Babajanyan was born on February 5 (February 18, according to a new style) in 1906 in the village of Chardakhly, Elizavetpol province, today it is the territory of the Shamkir region of Azerbaijan. His parents were ordinary peasants. At the same time, the family of the future marshal was an average cell of the society of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, the family had many children, it had 8 children at once, all of them required care and attention. In order to feed big family Amazasp's father was almost never at home, as he was forced to constantly work, while his mother was busy with the housework and looked after the younger children. At the same time, the children in the Babajanyan family began to work early. Hamazasp Babajanyan, after graduating from the 5th grade of secondary school, began working on his father's farm, and then as a laborer.
It should be noted that early labor activity and only primary or secondary incomplete education is found in the biographies of many military and simply famous people of that era. For most ordinary people, especially not urban residents, study at that time was not in the first place. It was much more important to feed yourself, your family and children. At the same time, Hamazasp Babajanyan did not just work on the land, in 1923-1924 he worked on the construction of roads in the territory of today's Shamkir region.
In 1924, the future marshal of the Soviet Union joined the Komsomol, becoming the first secretary of the rural Komsomol cell. The Komsomol in those years gave people more opportunities for their development and self-realization, was one of the steps of new social elevators. Contemporaries noted that Babadzhanyan was an active member of the Komsomol, who literally gushed with various ideas and proposals. It can be said that young man with an active life position, they noticed and in September 1925 they were drafted into the ranks of the Red Army not according to the usual, but according to the Komsomol call. By distribution, he was sent to study at the Armenian Infantry School, which at that time was located in Yerevan, it was here that his brilliant officer career began. In September 1926, after this school was disbanded, he was transferred to the Transcaucasian Military Infantry School, which was located in Tbilisi.
After graduating from the infantry school, Hamazasp Babajanyan was sent to serve in the 7th Caucasian Rifle Regiment (Caucasian Red Banner Army), where he served as a platoon commander, secretary of the party bureau of a separate battalion, company commander. As part of the regiment, he took part in battles against gangs and participants in anti-Soviet demonstrations, and was wounded in one of the battles. Later, his colleagues recalled that Amazasp was a very mobile and enterprising person who did not like to sit still and was constantly busy with some business. At the same time, the fact that he always treated his subordinates and juniors with respect was especially emphasized.
In March 1934, Hamazasp Babajanyan was transferred to the 3rd Machine Gun Regiment, which at that time was stationed in Baku. In the regiment, he served as commander of machine-gun companies and a battalion, as well as assistant chief of staff of the regiment. In October 1937, he was appointed to the post of head of the 1st department of the air defense point of the Transcaucasian military district in Baku. In August 1938, he was appointed chief of staff of the 3rd machine gun regiment, and in October of the same year he was transferred to the Leningrad Military District to the post of assistant commander of the 2nd machine gun regiment. As part of the units of the Leningrad Military District, Babadzhanyan took part in Soviet-Finnish war 1939-1940s. During one of the battles that took place on February 18, 1940, the future marshal was wounded for the second time in his life, this wound was not the last for him.
After recovering in December 1940, the officer was appointed to the post of deputy commander of the 493rd rifle regiment, and in January 1941 to the post of deputy commander of the 751st rifle regiment, both were located in the North Caucasian military district. Just before the war, in April 1941, Hamazasp Babajanyan was appointed to the post of assistant chief of the 1st department of the operational department of the headquarters of the 19th army, located in the Kiev Special Military District.
Since July 1941, Babajanyan took part in the Great Patriotic War, this month his 19th Army arrived at Western Front where the situation was very difficult. In August, he became commander of the 395th Infantry Regiment as part of the 127th Infantry Division. He took an active part in the Smolensk defensive battle and the Yelninsk offensive. Already on September 18, 1941, the 127th Rifle Division became the 2nd Guards, and the regiment commanded by Hamazasp Babajanyan became the 1st Guards Rifle Regiment.
At the end of September 1941, the guards were included in the operational group of A. N. Ermakov, which was transferred to the eastern Glukhov region, where they fought heavy defensive battles against superior enemy forces. On October 3, the division was transferred to Kursk, in November, parts of the division fought fierce defensive battles in the area of the city of Tim. In December 1941, the 2nd Guards Rifle Division took part in the counteroffensive. Soviet troops near Moscow, after which it was transferred to the South-Western Front, and then, as part of the 3rd Guards Rifle Corps, became part of the Southern Front. In March 1942, parts of the division took part in the offensive of the Soviet troops on Taganrog.
In April, according to other sources, at the beginning of June 1942, Babadzhanyan was sent from the front to study. He got on accelerated courses at the Military Academy named after M.V. Frunze, which was evacuated to Tashkent. He studied in Uzbekistan until the end of August 1942, after which he was again sent to the front, where he became commander of the 3rd mechanized brigade, which he led until September 1944. So the former infantryman suddenly became a tanker. Before that, of course, he had to interact with tanks in a combat situation, but he had a very remote idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure of combat vehicles. Therefore, literally immediately after the appointment, he had to master the new technique with persistence. According to his recollections, it took up to 18 hours a day to work. Immediately upon arrival at his mechanized brigade, he summoned the deputy for the technical part and asked him to work with him daily for 5 hours a day, explaining and talking about the design of tanks and their features. These lessons were not in vain, and he soon proved it in a combat situation. Already in October 1942, the brigade under his leadership received the Red Banner. The banner of the unit was personally presented by a member of the Military Council of the Moscow Defense Zone, Major General K.F. Telegin.
Together with his brigade, Colonel Hamazasp Babajanyan took part in the Battle of Kursk, for participation in which the brigade was presented to the Order of the Red Banner. In October 1943, she received the honorary title of Guards, becoming the 20th Guards Mechanized Brigade. Later, the soldiers of this unit took part in the Zhytomyr-Berdichev, Korsun-Shevchenkiv, Proskurov-Chernivtsi and Lvov-Sandomierz offensive operations Soviet troops, in which they won fame for themselves and their commander.
The 20th Guards Mechanized Brigade of Guards Colonel Babajanyan especially distinguished himself during the Proskurov-Chernivtsi offensive operation. The fighters of the brigade, together with other formations of the 1st Ukrainian Front, managed to break through the German defenses and from March 22 to March 24, 1944, a number of cities on the Right-Bank Ukraine were liberated from the enemy: Trembovl, Kopychintsy, Chertkov and Zalishchyky. One of the first formations of the front that crossed the Dniester was the 20th Guards Mechanized Brigade, whose fighters were able to hold an important bridgehead for the further offensive. Later, by order of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief V. I. Stalin, the brigade of Colonel Babadzhanyan was given the honorary name "Zaleshchitskaya", and gratitude was declared to the troops that took part in the liberation of the cities of Chertkov and Zalishchyky from the Nazis. In their honor, on March 24, 1944, a salute was fired in Moscow with 20 artillery volleys from 224 guns.
Modern panorama of the city of Zalishchyky
For the skillful leadership of the combat operations of the entrusted mechanized brigade, personal courage in battles and the successful crossing of the Dniester by the decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces of April 26, 1944, Guards Colonel Hamazasp Babajanyan was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union with the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star medal number 2077.
The success of the officer was rewarded by the fact that on August 25, 1944 he was appointed commander of the 11th Guards Tank Corps. Commanding the corps, Babadzhanyan took part in the Vistula-Oder and Berlin offensive operations. And again, his tankers were able to distinguish themselves in battles and cover themselves with the glory of the winners. For the liberation of the cities of Tomaszow, Lodz, Kutno, Lenchica and Gostyn, the corps was presented to the Order of the Red Banner, and for the capture of the cities of Tczew, Wejherowo and Puck awarded the order Suvorov II degree. Babajanyan's tankers also distinguished themselves in the battles for Berlin, for participation in the successful assault on the capital of the Third Reich, the corps was given the honorary name "Berlin". The awards and the corps commander were not bypassed. For excellent leadership of the troops during the storming of Berlin, personal courage, dedication and heroism, Babadzhanyan was nominated for the second title of Hero of the Soviet Union, but the award was replaced with the Order of Suvorov, I degree.
It is worth noting that Hamazasp Babajanyan was a real combat commander who did not hide behind the backs of his subordinates and actively participated in the battles. During the years of the Great Patriotic War he was badly wounded twice. The first time during the Battle of Kursk, the second - during the fighting on the Sandamir bridgehead. He was wounded in the throat by a fragment of an exploding shell, his trachea was damaged. Despite being wounded, he refused hospitalization and continued to lead the fight. At the same time, it was difficult for him to speak, and he gave commands in a whisper, and then began to write them down on paper.
After the end of the Great Patriotic War, Hamazasp Babajanyan continued to build his army career and improve himself. In January 1947, he was sent to study at the Higher Military Academy named after K. E. Voroshilov, after completing his studies, he received regular assignments to the active army. In particular, in 1950 he became commander of the 2nd Guards Mechanized Army. And in August 1953, he was already a lieutenant general of tank troops. In 1956, he again had to put his combat skills into practice, he took part in the suppression of anti-Soviet demonstrations in Hungary, receiving another military award - the Order of Kutuzov, I degree.
Further important milestones in his career were: appointment to the post of commander of the Odessa Military District in June 1959; head of the Military Academy of Armored Forces named after Marshal of the Soviet Union R. Ya. Malinovsky in September 1967; and finally, the pinnacle of his career - the post of chief of the tank forces of the Soviet Army and a member of the Military Council of the Ground Forces in May 1969. On April 29, 1975, Hamazasp Khachaturovich Babajanyan became the Chief Marshal of the Armored Forces, for the entire existence of the title " Chief Marshal"It was received by only 4 artillerymen, 7 pilots and only 2 tankers.
Amazasp Khachaturovich Babadzhanyan passed away in Moscow in the hospital named after P.V. Mandryka, this happened on November 1, 1977. He died at the age of 72. The Chief Marshal of the Armored Forces was buried with due honors in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery.
Monument to the Chief Marshal of Armored Troops Hamazasp Babajanyan in Yerevan
Streets in Yerevan and Odessa, a square in the North-Western administrative district of Moscow were named in honor of the famous Soviet military leader. His name is also secondary school in Etchmiadzin (Armenia). On May 23, 2016, a monument dedicated to the Chief Marshal of the Armored Forces was solemnly opened in Yerevan. There is still a unit with which Babajanyan took Berlin. After the end of the war, the 11th Guards Tank Corps has come a long way, already in June 1945 it was reorganized into the 11th Guards Tank Division, and today it is the 11th Guards Separate Carpathian-Berlin Red Banner Order of Suvorov II degree mechanized brigade, which is the pride of the armed forces of the Republic of Belarus.
Based on materials from open sources
There are a lot of recipes for cooking. Each method is original and unique. From the same products, an experienced culinary specialist can prepare several different dishes that have a peculiar taste and aroma.
Religious beliefs had a great influence on the culinary recipes of different countries. For example, in the countries of the East it is forbidden to eat pork and alcoholic beverages. These products successfully replace other types of meat and various sauces, juices, soft drinks, which are used in the preparation of a particular dish instead of wine.
In European countries, many recipes include a small amount of alcoholic beverages, which give dishes an unusual taste.
In addition, in Europe, wine and other alcoholic beverages are not only used in cooking, but are also traditionally served with any dish. Gourmets are of the opinion that wine sets off the taste of food, gives it piquancy and sophistication.
Depending on the geographical location of a particular country, changes were made to the same recipes over a long period of time. Cooks replaced the used products, added seasonings, spices, which changed the taste of the finished dish.
The kitchen utensils in which it is cooked play a significant role in the taste and aroma of food. For example, in eastern countries, a cauldron is used to cook pilaf. In another container, this dish will not be so fragrant and tasty.
This book contains the most popular recipes from Russia, China, Azerbaijan, Armenia, England, France, Mexico, the United States of America and Australia.
The cuisine of each of these countries is interesting and original. The recipes in the book can be prepared at home.
Some of the dishes presented here are quite simple and do not take much time to create. Other recipes are original.
Chapter 2 provides recipes for Eastern states such as China, Azerbaijan, Armenia.
They are characterized by spicy seasonings, sauces served with meat (mainly lamb). Fish dishes are popular among the peoples of the East.
These states are characterized by light food. This is primarily salads, sandwiches, sandwiches. The dishes are traditionally served with various wines and sauces.
Chapter 4 contains recipes from Mexico and the United States of America.
Cold appetizers, poultry, vegetable dishes and seafood are widely used in the cuisine of these countries. Dishes are also popular. fast food that do not require much time and effort.
Chapter 5 contains Australian recipes. The population of this state prefers vegetable and fruit salads, meat dishes.
Chapter 1. Russian cuisine
One of the leading places among the most popular culinary recipes around the world is occupied by recipes of Russian cuisine. This is due to the fact that in the territory of our country since ancient times various peoples whose traditions have influenced the way food is prepared. Due to the fact that Russia is located in two parts of the world, Europe and Asia, the cuisine of our country successfully combines recipes popular with European and Asian peoples.
In Russian cuisine there are flour and fish dishes, pickles, jams, typical only for Russia. pickled vegetables, as well as salads, common in Europe, and hot sauces, which are an integral part of Asian cuisine.
Despite the close proximity of other states, Russian cuisine has not lost its national character. Many dishes traditional for Russia are widely known outside our country.
It is hardly possible to meet a tourist who came from another country who would not have tasted traditional Russian cabbage soup, pancakes, kulebyaki and pies.
Cold snacks
Salad "Royal"
Ingredients:
Beef - 80 g, pickled champignons - 50 g, pickled cucumber - 1 pc., onion - 1 pc., mayonnaise - 2 tbsp. spoons, cucumber marinade - 2 tbsp. spoons, green onion, dill, salt and pepper to taste.
Cooking method:
The meat is washed, the films are removed, put in a saucepan and boiled over medium heat until tender. The beef is cooled and cut into strips.
The onion is peeled and cut into half rings. Part of the green onions and dill are chopped, a few branches are left to decorate the dish.
Beef, onions and dill are placed in a deep container.
Separately mix cucumber marinade and mayonnaise, add to beef and leave for 1–2 hours in the refrigerator.
Chopped pickled mushrooms are mixed with chopped cucumber, beef, onion and dill. Salad salt, pepper, mix thoroughly.
The finished dish is placed in a salad bowl, decorated with dill sprigs and green onion feathers.
Salad "Urban"
Ingredients:
Pork ham - 60–80 g, cucumbers - 2 pcs., Potatoes - 1 pc., Carrots - 1 pc., Egg - 1 pc., Mayonnaise - 1 tbsp. spoon, tomato sauce - 1 tbsp. spoon, lettuce, parsley, salt and pepper to taste.
Cooking method:
Potatoes and carrots are boiled, peeled, cut into cubes. A hard-boiled egg is peeled and finely chopped. One peeled cucumber cut into cubes.
Another cucumber, without peeling, cut into thin slices and leave to decorate the salad. The ham is cut into strips. 2-3 lettuce leaves are left to decorate the dish, and the rest are chopped.
Mayonnaise is mixed in a shallow container, tomato sauce, pepper. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed. Then vegetables, ham, egg, salt, pepper, chopped lettuce leaves are added and mixed again.
The finished salad is laid out in a deep salad bowl, decorated with herbs and cucumber slices.
beef salad
Ingredients:
Canned red beans - 150 g, beef - 100 g, eggs - 2 pcs., carrots - 1 pc., potatoes - 1 pc., green apple - 1 pc., mayonnaise - 2 tbsp. spoons, butter - 1 tbsp. spoon, lettuce, green onion, salt to taste.
Cooking method:
Potatoes and carrots are boiled, peeled, cut into cubes. A green apple is cut into cubes without peeling, but removing the core. Eggs are hard boiled, one of them is finely chopped, the other is left to decorate the salad.
The beef is thoroughly washed, cut into pieces, put in a pan, fried in butter, cooled, cut into strips and placed in a deep container. Chopped vegetables, an apple, a chopped egg, canned red beans, mayonnaise and salt are added to the meat. The salad is thoroughly mixed and laid out in a dish on lettuce leaves.
Decorate with onion, egg and serve.
Salad "Autumn"
Ingredients:
Beef - 100-120 g, champignons - 100 g, eggs - 2 pcs., Vegetable oil - 1-2 tbsp. spoons, spinach leaves, salt and pepper to taste.
Cooking method:
Beef is cut into strips, put in a pan and fried in vegetable oil until golden brown, stirring constantly. The meat is cooled and laid out in a deep container.
Eggs are hard-boiled, peeled, one of them is crushed and mixed with fried meat. The second egg is cut into 3-4 parts and left to decorate the finished salad.
One of the leading places among diseases caused by viruses of the family herpesviridae, is occupied by cytomegalovirus infection (CMVI), the increase in the prevalence of which is currently noted in all countries of the world. Over the past decade, the list of diseases has significantly expanded, one of the causes of which is also cytomegalovirus (CMV). The concept of CMVI covers the problems of intrauterine infection, seronegative mononucleosis, hepatitis, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, post-transfusion syndrome, organ and tissue transplantation, oncogenesis, HIV infection, since CMVI is defined by WHO experts as an AIDS indicator disease. The following definition of this disease seems to be the most successful: “Cytomegalovirus infection is a widespread viral disease mainly in young children, characterized by a wide variety of clinical manifestations and a standard two-component morphological picture, including peculiar, similar to an owl’s eye, cytomegalic cells and lymphohistiocytic infiltrates.”
Etiology
CMVI was first described in 1881 by the German pathologist M. Ribbert, who discovered cytomegalic cells (CMCs) in kidney tissue in congenital syphilis. E. Goodpasture and F. Talbot in 1921 proposed the name "children's cytomegaly", which is still used today. CMV was isolated from cell culture by M. Smith in 1956.
The diameter of CMV virions is 120-150 nm. The virion is covered with a glycoprotein-lipid membrane. The CMV virus has the form of an ixahedron, the protein coat of which (capsid) consists of 162 symmetrically arranged capsomeres. The CMV genome is represented by double-stranded DNA. CMV is thermolabile, inactivated at a temperature of +56°C, its optimal pH is 7.2-8.0. Currently, three CMV strains have been isolated: Davis, AD 169, Kerr.
Epidemiology
Only man is the reservoir of CMV in nature. From the infected organism, the virus is excreted in urine, saliva and lacrimal fluid. Transmission factors for CMV include maternal blood, cervical and vaginal secretions, breast milk, and semen. The prevalence of CMVI depends on the socio-economic and hygienic conditions of people's lives. Screening studies using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) revealed antibodies to CMV in 33% of children under 2 years of age and in 50% of adults in countries with high level life. In developing countries, specific antibodies are present in 69% of children and 100% of adults.
The main source of infection of children are mothers - carriers of CMV. Intrauterine infection of the fetus can occur at any time of antenatal development. Transplacental hematogenous infection of the fetus is facilitated by reactivation of CMVI in pregnant women and insufficient barrier function of the placenta. The risk of infection penetrating the placental barrier increases with prolonged viremia and the chronic nature of the infection. In the cervical secret, CMV is found in the first trimester of pregnancy in 2% of women, in the second - in 7%, in the third - in 12%. The fetus can aspirate amniotic fluid infected with CMV, damage to the external integument of the fetus can also serve as the entrance gate of CMV infection. 5% of newborns are infected intranatally. Infection of the fetus in the early stages of intrauterine development is the most dangerous and is often accompanied by spontaneous abortion or disorders of organogenesis and histogenesis. In CMV-infected patients later after birth, cytomegaly syndrome, transient jaundice, and hepatosplenomegaly are observed. In the future, from 10 to 30% of these children suffer from brain lesions, expressed in microcephaly with ventricular calcification, atrophy of the auditory nerve and mental retardation.
Infants can become infected through breastfeeding milk. However, with mother's milk, the child receives secretory IgA, which does not cross the placenta and is not produced in the child in the first months of postnatal life. Secretory IgA increases the resistance of the newborn to viral and bacterial infections; therefore, children infected through mother's milk suffer only a latent form of CMVI.
With close contact between mother and child, saliva can become a factor in transmitting the virus to him. There is evidence that half of children under 3 years of age attending kindergartens become infected with CMV from their peers, and then infect their mothers.
The source of CMV for adults and children can be the urine of a patient or a virus carrier.
A frequent route of infection is sexual, as the virus is contained in semen in high concentrations for a long time.
There is also an airborne route of infection. In patients with severe ARVI, which is often caused by CMVI, cytomegalovirus is found in swabs from the nasopharynx.
Blood transfusions, infusion therapy, organ and tissue transplantation are also dangerous, since biological preparations or tissues from CMV-infected donors are often introduced into the recipient's body. There is a lot of information in the literature about the infection of recipients after these manipulations. The use of immunosuppressants and cytostatics in patients after organ transplantation not only promotes the reactivation of a previously acquired latent infection, but also increases their susceptibility to primary CMVI infection.
The presence of antigenically different strains of CMV explains the possibility of reinfection with the development of a manifest form of the disease at any age.
Pathogenesis
CMV has a pronounced tropism for the tissues of the salivary glands. With a latent form of the course, the virus is found only in the epithelium of the salivary tubes, therefore sometimes CMVI is rightly called the “kissing disease”.
CMV causes significant disturbances in the regulation of the immune response, which are based on damage to the interleukin system. As a rule, the ability of infected immunocompetent cells to synthesize interleukins is suppressed due to excessive production of prostaglandins, and the reactions of target cells to IL-1 and IL-2 also change. Virus-induced immunosuppression develops with a sharp inhibition of the function of natural killers.
CMV penetrated into the blood is reproduced in leukocytes and the system of mononuclear phagocytes or persists in lymphoid organs. CMV virions are adsorbed on cell membranes, penetrate the cytoplasm and induce cytomegalic cell metamorphosis. Viral RNA is found in T-helpers and T-suppressors even in the long term of convalescence.
Pathoanatomy
A characteristic pathological sign of CMV is giant cells detected in tissues, saliva, sputum, urine sediment and cerebrospinal fluid. Cells have intranuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions and contain a multiplying virus. Changes in the nucleus of the cell give it a resemblance to an owl's eye. Giant cells are localized mainly in the epithelium of the excretory ducts of the salivary glands, in the epithelium of the distal nephron in the kidneys, in the epithelium of the bile ducts in the liver, and in the epithelium of the ependymal ventricles of the brain.
In response to exposure to CMV, lymphohistiocytic infiltrates appear in the surrounding interstitial tissue, sometimes having the character of nodules. In the generalized form, damage to the lungs, kidneys and intestines is more often observed, less often - to the liver and other organs. Along with giant cells and lymphohistiocytic infiltrates, a picture of interstitial pneumonia is found in the lungs, interstitial nephritis in the kidneys, ulcerative enterocolitis in the intestines, and cholestatic hepatitis in the liver.
Congenital generalized CMVI is also characterized by hemorrhagic rashes on the skin and mucous membranes, hemorrhages in the internal organs and brain, significant anemia, and the development of foci of myeloblastosis in the liver, spleen and kidneys. Eye damage is also noted - uveitis, clouding of the lens and subatrophy of the iris.
CMVI classification (A.P. Kazantsev, N.I. Popova, 1980):
- congenital CMVI - acute form, chronic form;
- acquired CMVI - latent form, acute mononucleosis-like form, generalized form.
Clinic of CMVI in children
Acute form of congenital CMVI. The clinic of the acute form of CMVI is characterized by the most severe course with pronounced signs of toxicosis, enlargement of the liver and spleen, thrombocytopenia, hemorrhagic syndrome, changes in the blood count and CNS damage. This form of the disease is often referred to as fetal cytomegalovirus syndrome. Children are born prematurely, with low body weight, reflexes are depressed, sometimes there are disorders of sucking and swallowing. Jaundice occurs in 60% of cases possible reasons which may be CMV hepatitis or increased hemolysis of red blood cells. Jaundice resembles physiological, but the intensity of the disease gradually increases, and it persists for 1-2 months. In 90% of children, the liver is enlarged and protrudes 3-5 cm below the edge of the costal arch. The spleen is enlarged in 42% of cases, it is dense, painless. In the blood, 70% of children have thrombocytopenia, elevated bilirubin levels, as well as an increase in transaminase activity - up to 150 IU / l and alkaline phosphatase - up to 28 IU.
The acute form of CMVI proceeds under the guise of hemolytic disease of the newborn. Often there are also lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, dyspeptic syndrome and progressive dystrophy predominate.
In the acute form of congenital CMVI, the death of children occurs in the first weeks or months of life, most often from associated bacterial infections.
Chronic form of congenital CMVI. In children who have had an acute form of the disease, there is an undulating course of the chronic form of CMVI. Congenital malformations of the central nervous system are often formed, in particular microcephaly - in 40% of cases. Chronic hepatitis can develop, in rare cases turning into cirrhosis. Changes in the lungs in 25% of children are characterized by the development of pneumosclerosis and fibrosis.
The differential diagnosis of congenital CMVI is carried out with rubella, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis, as well as with hemolytic disease of the newborn, congenital syphilis and sepsis.
Latent form of acquired CMVI. The latent form is not clinically manifested in any way and is detected only during a virological examination.
Acute mononucleosis-like form of acquired CMVI. The acute form in clinical manifestations in older children resembles infectious mononucleosis and often occurs after blood transfusions. The disease is characterized by an acute onset with a rise in temperature and the appearance of symptoms of intoxication. Lymphadenopathy, tenderness on palpation of the parotid region, symptoms of acute respiratory infections, hepatomegaly are recorded. Characterized by leukocytosis, an increase in the number of neutrophilic granulocytes and atypical mononuclear cells. It is recommended to set up the Paul-Bunnel and Hoff-Bauer reactions, which are positive in the case of infectious mononucleosis and negative in cytomegalovirus mononucleosis-like syndrome.
Generalized form of acquired CMVI. The generalized form is characterized by lymphadenopathy, intoxication, fever. First of all, symptoms of damage to the respiratory organs are detected: dry, agonizing cough, shortness of breath of a mixed type. Auscultation of the lungs revealed dry and moist rales. Developing pneumonia is characterized by a protracted course, which determines the severity of the underlying disease. Due to the layering of bacterial and fungal infection, it can be difficult to isolate the symptoms of generalized CMVI.
Often CMVI occurs in association with other diseases of viral or bacterial etiology. The combination of CMVI and ARVI is especially common, in which cytomegalovirus is isolated in 30% of sick children. This flu is more severe and contributes to the activation of CMVI by suppressing immune responses.
Clinic of CMVI in adults
CMVI in adults occurs in a latent (localized) and generalized form. The latent form usually does not show clear clinical symptoms. Sometimes there are mild flu-like illnesses, unclear subfebrile condition. Diagnosis of this form of CMVI is based on the results of laboratory tests.
The generalized form of acquired CMVI in adults is rare. As a rule, its clinical signs are detected against the background of some other disease that sharply reduces immunity: after major surgical operations, against the background of leukemia or neoplasms. In these cases, the use of various immunosuppressants in the treatment of patients has pathogenetic significance. Generalized CMVI in adults is manifested by sluggish pneumonia or a kind of acute infectious disease characterized by fever, enlargement and tenderness of the liver, an increase in the number of mononuclear cells in the blood (mononucleosis caused by CMV), and damage to the gastrointestinal tract. Lymphadenopathy and tonsillitis are absent.
It is difficult to diagnose the disease. In women, latent CMVI can be suspected with repeated miscarriages and stillbirths. The diagnosis is based on the data of cytological and virological studies.
Liver pathology occupies a special place in CMVI. Cytomegalovirus hepatitis, which develops in response to the introduction of CMV, is characterized by the degeneration of the epithelium of the biliary tract and hepatocytes, stellate endothelial cells and vascular endothelium. They form cytomegalic cells, surrounded by inflammatory mononuclear infiltrates. The combination of these changes leads to intrahepatic cholestasis. Cytomegalic cells are exfoliated, fill the gaps of the bile ducts, causing the mechanical component of jaundice. At the same time, degenerate CMV hepatocytes are destructively changed, up to necrosis, which leads to the development of cytolysis syndrome. It should be noted that in CMV hepatitis, which has a prolonged, subacute or chronic course, the leading role belongs to the cholestasis syndrome.
In the diagnosis of CMV hepatitis great importance have the results of a puncture biopsy of the liver (detection in the punctate of giant, 25-40 microns in diameter, cytomegalic cells in the form of an owl's eye with a huge nucleus and a narrow border of the cytoplasm), as well as cytological (detection of cytomegalic cells in the urine sediment) and serological (detection of IgM antibodies to CMVI) methods. Differential diagnosis of CMV hepatitis is carried out with other viral hepatitis: B, Epstein-Barr, herpetic hepatitis.
With CMVI, as a rule, the salivary glands are affected. They show mononuclear infiltrates. Sialoadenitis is chronic. Simultaneously with the defeat of the salivary glands, degeneration of the epithelium of the stomach and intestines is observed with the development of erosions and ulcers and lymphohistiocytic infiltrates in the thickness of the intestinal wall.
The defeat of the lymph nodes is characteristic of CMVI. At the same time, all the signs typical of this infection are preserved. It is the pathology of the lymphatic system that exacerbates the organ and systemic manifestations of CMVI.
The defeat of the respiratory system in CMVI is characterized by the development of interstitial pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchiolitis. At the same time, the epithelium of the alveoli, bronchi, bronchioles and surrounding lymph nodes undergoes specific changes. In the peribronchial tissue, infiltrates are formed from mononuclear cells, macrophages and plasma cells. CMV pneumonia often occurs with a staphylococcal layer, accompanied by purulent bronchiolitis and abscess formation. The presence of CMV is confirmed by the detection of cytomegalic cells. Often, CMV pneumonia is combined with pneumocystosis with an extremely severe course of the disease.
Kidney damage in CMVI is also observed frequently. In this case, cells of the epithelium of the convoluted tubules, the epithelium of the capsules of the glomeruli, as well as the ureters and the bladder, undergo a specific ("giant cell") change. This explains the detection of cytomegalic cells in the urine sediment.
CNS involvement in adults is rare and occurs as subacute encephalitis.
Eye lesions in CMVI are characterized by the development of chorioretinitis. Chorioretinitis is very often combined with CMV encephalitis.
Laboratory diagnostics
Currently, there are several reliable methods for determining CMV.
- Traditional isolation of the virus on the culture of embryonic fibroblasts and the culture of human diploid cells, in which CMV exhibits its cytopathic effect. The method is the most reliable and sensitive (determination time is 2-3 weeks).
- Accelerated virus culture method for 6 hours using monoclonal antibodies to indicate early antigens.
- The method of cytoscopy of urine and saliva sediments, as well as light and electron microscopy of histological preparations, in particular liver biopsy, which makes it possible to identify giant CMV cells in the form of an owl's eye, with a narrow border of cytoplasm and a large nucleus.
Various methods are used to determine antibodies to CMV.
- Complement fixation reaction (RSC). The most common way to study specific humoral immunity in CMVI. The method is not sensitive enough, since only total antibodies are detected. RSK with a titer of 1:4 is negative, 1:8 is weakly positive, 1:16 is positive, 1:32 is sharply positive.
- Immunofluorescent analysis. Determines the increase in the titer of antibodies Ig classes M and G to CMV. This method is more sensitive than RSC.
- ELISA (peroxidase) analysis.
- Solid phase radioimmunoassay. It also allows you to determine Ig classes M and G.
- Immunoblotting. Using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, it evaluates antibodies to CMV of various classes. This is the most modern method of specific diagnostics; it can be used to determine the entire spectrum of antibodies to CMV.
Treatment
There is no reliable antiviral therapy for CMVI yet. In particular, this is due to the fact that CMV uses the metabolic apparatus of the host cell for its own reproduction. The tactics of treating patients should take into account the possibility of a primary, latent stage and repeated diseases. With congenital CMVI, complex pathogenetic treatment is carried out, depending on the severity of certain clinical manifestations. With jaundice and liver damage, the general principles of the treatment of viral hepatitis are guided. With pneumonia, often of a mixed viral-bacterial nature, antibiotics are prescribed in the usual manner. A number of drugs with different activity against CMV have been proposed in our country and abroad. These are ribavirin (virazole, rebetol), acyclovir (lovir, cyclovir, zovirax, herperax), interferon (viferon, interal, infagel), etc. The principle of their action is that they prevent the incorporation of nucleotides into the synthesized viral DNA.
Two purine nucleosides, cytarabine and vidarabine, are also effective inhibitors of viral DNA replication. They completely inhibit viral DNA polymerase, and are also incorporated into cellular and viral DNA. Since these drugs are non-specific, they have some cytotoxicity.
The action of zovirax is more specific. Zovirax is low toxic, easily penetrates virus-infected cells. It is more effective in the treatment of CMVI than cytarabine and vidarabine.
With the acquired latent form of CMVI in pregnant women, the main task is to prevent the generalization of infection and intrauterine infection of the fetus. For this purpose, desensitizing and restorative therapy is carried out, vitamins are prescribed (adaptovit, aquadetrim, alvitil, alphaVIT, benfogamma, biovital, vikasol, vitabalance 2000, vitrum prenatal, gendevit, geriavit, gerimaks, dodex, doppelgerz vitamin E, complivit, macrovit, nikodin, revivon, tocopher-200, triovit, cebion, evitol, enduracin). Normal human immunoglobulin containing specific antibodies against CMV is used as a specific agent. The drug is administered intramuscularly in doses of 6-12 ml with an interval of 2-3 weeks in the first trimester of pregnancy. Levamisole (Decaris, Levamisole) is prescribed 50 mg twice a day after meals for 3 months. If there is no effect, they switch to T-activin 100 mcg subcutaneously 2 times a week. The number of stillbirths with such tactics of treatment is reduced by 5 times.
In patients with a transplanted heart, there is a positive experience of treating CMVI with ganciclovir at a dose of 1 mg/kg/day for 2-3 weeks. In addition, ganciclovir (cemeven) is effective in 70-90% of HIV patients treated for CMV retinitis and colitis. The initial dose of the drug was 5 mg/kg 2 times a day intravenously for 2-3 weeks, the maintenance dose was 5 mg/kg/day intravenously. Neutropenia, the main toxic effect, can be reduced by the use of colony-stimulating factors. In bone marrow recipients, the use of ganciclovir and CMV immune globulin resulted in a positive result in 50-70% of patients with CMV pneumonitis.
For varieties of CMV resistant to ganciclovir, foscarnet (sodium foscarnet, gefin) is effective (in the treatment of patients with CMV retinitis with HIV infection). The initial dose of foscarnet is 60 mg/kg every 8 hours for 2-3 weeks, then it is administered daily by infusion at a dose of 90-120 mg/kg. In patients after bone marrow transplantation, foscarnet is used at an average daily dose of 100 mg/kg for 3 weeks. In 70% of patients, recovery from CMVI was observed, the temperature returned to normal, and laboratory parameters improved.
Currently, new promising chemotherapy drugs against CMVI are being developed and tested.
With congenital CMVI with CNS damage, the prognosis is unfavorable, while with acquired generalized CMVI, it is determined by the underlying disease. With a latent form of acquired CMVI, the prognosis is favorable.
Prevention
It is necessary to exclude the contact of pregnant women with children with congenital CMVI. If a woman gives birth to a child with congenital CMVI, the next pregnancy can be recommended no earlier than 2 years later (the period of persistence of the virus in localized acquired CMVI).
Currently, an active search for vaccines against CMVI is underway. Live vaccines have already been created in the United States and Great Britain, which are now undergoing a period of clinical trials.
It is important to remember that CMVI requires physicians to be aware of various fields of medicine and to be creative in order to effectively use proven methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Early detection of CMVI contributes to an increase in the effectiveness of care for this category of patients, as well as timely recognition of cases of HIV infection and AIDS. n
Literature
- . Rakhmanova A. G., Isakov V. A., Chaika N. A. Cytomegalovirus infection and AIDS. - L .: Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology. Pasteur, 1990.
- Demidova S. A., Semenova E. I., Zhdanov V. M., Gavrilov V. I. Human cytomegalovirus infection. — M.: Medicine, 1976.
- Farber N. A. Cytomegalovirus infection in clinical medicine //Ter. Archive, 1989. - No. 11.
- Farber N. A. Cytomegalovirus infection and pregnancy // Obstetrics and Gynecology. - 1989. - No. 12.
- Samokhin P.A. Cytomegalovirus infection in children. — M.: Medicine, 1987.
- Kazantsev A.P., Popova N.I. Intrauterine infectious diseases and their prevention. - L .: Medicine, 1980.
- Report of the WHO scientific group "Immunological deficiency". — M.: Medicine, 1980.
- Kozlova S. I., Semanova E., Demikova N. S., Blinnikova O. E. Hereditary syndromes and genetic counseling. - L .: Medicine, 1987.
- Harrison J. Guide to internal diseases: In 10 volumes - 1998. - V. 5.
- Lawlor Jr G, Fisher T, Adelman D. Clinical Immunology and Allergology. — M.: Practice, 2000.
V. V. Skvortsov,Candidate of Medical Sciences
R. G. Myazin
D. N. Emelyanov, Candidate of Medical Sciences
Volgograd State medical University, Volgograd
IntroductionWelding equipment and technology occupy one of the leading places in modern production. The hulls of giant supertankers and the retina of the human eye, miniature parts of semiconductor devices and human bones during surgical operations are welded together. Many designs of modern machines and structures, such as space rockets, submarines, gas and oil pipelines, cannot be made without the help of welding. The development of technology makes ever new demands on production methods and, in particular, on welding technology. Today, materials are being welded that until relatively recently were considered exotic. These are titanium, niobium and beryllium alloys, molybdenum, tungsten, composite high-strength materials, ceramics, as well as all kinds of combinations of dissimilar materials. Welded parts of electronics with a thickness of several microns and parts of heavy equipment with a thickness of several meters. The conditions under which welding work is carried out are constantly becoming more complicated: it is necessary to weld under water, at high temperatures, in a deep vacuum, with increased radiation, in weightlessness.
All this imposes increased requirements on the qualifications of specialists in the field of welding, especially welders, since it is they who directly master new welding methods and techniques, new welding machines. Today, it is not enough for a working welder to be able to perform several, even complex, operations of the welding method he has mastered. He must understand the physical essence of the main processes occurring during welding, know the features of welding various structural materials, as well as the meaning and technological capabilities of other, both traditional and new, promising welding methods.
Product Description
The intended product is intended for use as a support for the installation and installation of load-bearing columns in the construction of industrial buildings.
The support is a welded box-type structure.
platform
30
shell
spacer
edge
640
Fig.1. Product design
All parts of this design are made of steel grade 09G2S.
Steel 09G2S refers to low-carbon, low-alloy steels.
Steels of this class have good weldability in all types of arc welding and are widely used for the manufacture of welded structures used in the construction industry.
Table 1
Chemical composition of steel 09G2S
table 2
Mechanical properties of steel 09G2S
| Rolled thickness, mm | Tensile strength σ V, MPa | Yield strength σ T, MPa | Relative elongation δ 5 % | Impact strength KCU, J/cm², at temperature, |
||
| +20 | -40 | -70 |
||||
| 10-20 | 470 | 325 | 21 | 59 | 29 |
|
Welded structures used as load-bearing elements in the construction of buildings and structures belong to the II group of responsibility, because their destruction during operation can lead to high material costs.
Group II responsibility requires increased attention to the quality of the work of the entire production cycle (from the procurement of material to the volume of the final control of the product).
Taking into account the design features of the product, the material of the incoming parts, as well as the annual production program (2000 pieces), the most optimal manufacturing method will be semi-automatic welding in carbon dioxide.
Welding method
Shielded gas welding is one of the arc welding methods. With this method, a protective gas is supplied to the arc zone, the jet of which, flowing around the electric arc and the weld pool, protects the molten metal from exposure to atmospheric air, oxidation and nitriding. Welding in shielding gases has the following advantages: high productivity (2 ... 3 times higher than conventional arc welding), the ability to weld in any spatial position, good protection of the welding zone from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen, no need to clean the seam from slag and clean the seam in multilayer welding; small heat-affected zone; relatively small deformations of products; the possibility of monitoring the process of seam formation; availability of mechanization and automation. The disadvantages of this welding method are the need to take measures to prevent the shielding gas jet from blowing off during welding, the use of gas equipment, and in some cases the use of relatively expensive shielding gases.
The following types of welding in shielding gas are known: in inert monatomic gases (argon, helium), in neutral diatomic gases (nitrogen, hydrogen), in carbon dioxide. In practice, argon-arc welding and welding in carbon dioxide have received the widest application. Inert gas - helium is used very rarely due to its high cost. For welding critical structures, welding in a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide gases in a ratio of 85% argon and 15% CO 2 is widely used. The quality of this steel welding is very high. The arc is powered by direct current sources with a rigid characteristic. In recent years, mainly welded rectifiers of the VDU series with a universal external characteristic, i.e. rigid or steeply falling by simply switching the packet.
Alternating current is not used due to the low stability of the arcing process, poor formation and Bad quality seam. The voltage on the arc when welding in CO 2 should be no more than 30 V, since spatter and oxidation increase with increasing voltage and arc length. Typically arc voltage is 22-28V, welding speed is 20-80m/h, gas flow is 7-20l/min. Welding in CO 2 with wire gives a deeper penetration than electrodes, therefore, when switching from manual welding, it is considered justified to reduce the legs by about 10%. This is due to the increased current density per 1 mm 2 of the electrode wire. The main elements of the welding mode in CO 2 in Table 1.
Table 3
Typical parameters of the welding mode in CO 2
| Wire diameter, m | Welding current, A | Speed wire feed | Arc tension, V | Consumption l/min | Wire extension, mm |
| 0,8 | 50-110 | installed selection under the regime | 18-20 | 5-7 | 6-12 |
| 1,0 | 70-150 | 19-21 | 7-9 | 7-13 |
|
| 1,2 | 90-230 | 21-25 | 12-15 | 8-15 |
|
| 1,6 | 150-300 | 23-28 | 12-17 | 13-20 |
Welding in carbon dioxide is carried out in almost all spatial positions, which is very important in the production of construction and installation works. Welding is carried out when the arc is powered by direct current of reverse polarity. When welding with direct current of direct polarity, the stability of the arc burning decreases, the formation of the seam worsens, and the losses of the electrode metal due to waste and spatter increase. However, the deposition coefficient is 1.6...1.8 times higher than with reverse polarity. This quality is used in surfacing work Sheet material from carbon and low alloy steels is successfully welded in carbon dioxide; sheets with a thickness of 0.6 ... 1.0 mm are welded with edge flanging. It is also allowed to weld without flanging, but with a gap between the edges of not more than 0.3 ... 0.5 mm. Sheets with a thickness of 1.0 ... 8.0 mm are welded without cutting edges; in this case, the gap between the welded edges should be no more than 1 mm. Sheets with a thickness of 8 ... 12 mm are welded with a V-shaped seam, and for large thicknesses - X-seam. Before welding, the edges of the product must be thoroughly cleaned of dirt, paint, oxides and scale. Welding current and welding speed largely depend on the size of the groove of the weld being welded, i.e., on the amount of deposited metal. The voltage is set in such a way as to obtain a stable welding process with the shortest possible arc (1.5 ... 4.0 mm). With a longer arc length, the welding process is unstable, metal spatter increases, and the possibility of oxidation and nitriding of the deposited metal increases.
Rice. 2. Movement of the electrode during welding in carbon dioxide when performing a multi-layer weld
The figure shows the movements of the electrode during welding in carbon dioxide when performing a multi-layer weld. It is recommended to weld the first layer at a low welding current to reduce the risk of cracking. The seam should be completed by filling the crater with metal. Then the electrode wire feed is stopped and the current is turned off. The gas supply to the welded crater continues until the metal is completely solidified.
Part of the equipment
The composition of the technological equipment necessary for welding in gas-shielded mechanized arc welding includes:
power supply;
assembly and welding fixtures;
gas equipment;
gas pipeline devices;
welding machine (semiautomatic).
3.1 Power supply
Power supply
(IP) of the welding arc is called a device that provides the necessary type and strength of the arc current.
The power source and the welding arc form an interconnected energy system in which the IP performs the following main functions: provides the conditions for the initial excitation (ignition) of the arc, its stable burning during the welding process and the ability to adjust (regulate) the mode parameters.
An important technical characteristic of the IP, which makes it possible to work with one or another type of arc, is the dependence of the voltage on the "welding" clamps (terminals) of the IP on the welding current. This dependence is called the external current-voltage characteristic (CVC) of the IP. The most characteristic I–V characteristics for well-known IPs are: steeply dipping, gently dipping, and rigid .
According to the type of current in the welding circuit, there are:
alternating current sources - welding single-phase and three-phase transformers, specialized installations for welding aluminum alloys;
DC sources - welding rectifiers and generators with drives of various types.
In this case, we use a modern powerful 400-ampere inverter power supply for semi-automatic welding and surfacing in a shielding or active gas environment brand DC 400.33.
This IP has:
Remote control welding voltage.
Digital indicator of welding current and voltage.
Function >.
Food both from a stationary network and from the diesel generator.
Table 4
Specifications for inverter DC 400.33
| Supply voltage, V | 3 80,+10% -15 % |
| | 20 |
| Source voltage (long-term regulated), V | 16-36 |
| Welding current (continuously adjustable), A | _ |
| Rated operating mode PN, % (at +40 С) | 60 |
| Maximum current at PN= 100%, A | 300 |
| Operating temperature range, C | From - 40 to + 40 |
| Weight, kg | 44 |
| Overall dimensions, mm | 610x280x535 |
For IP brand DC 400.33 we have selected a feeder brand PM-4.33. It is designed for solid steel, aluminum and flux-cored wires from 0.6 to 2.4 mm when working with the device DS400.33, DS400.33UKP or any other source with a current-voltage characteristic.
This PM has:
Execution with "open" and "closed coil"
Digital display of wire feed speed, welding current and voltage
Infinitely adjustable wire feed speed and arc voltage
Digital setting of all welding parameters
smooth ignition of the arc, thanks to the installation of a wire deceleration at the beginning of welding
setting the purge time at the beginning of welding and gas purge after welding
smooth arc quenching due to setting of wire deceleration at the end of welding
Four-roller wire feeder from COOPTIM Ltd., (the profile of the roller depends on the diameter and type of welding wire)
Gear meshing of feed and pressure rollers
Adjustable clamping force
Operation at a distance of up to 50 m from the welding source is possible
Shielding gas cutter
"Gas Test" and "Wire Test" on the front panel
Remote control wire feed speed
Table 5
Specifications PM-4.33
| Supply voltage, V | ~36V |
| Power consumption, kVA, no more | 0,2 |
| Wire feed speed, m/s | 1-17 |
| Wire diameter, mm |
|
| -Solid | 0.6-1.6 |
| - Aluminum | 1.0-2.4 |
| - Powder | 0.9-2.4 |
| Operating temperature range, °С | -40 to +40 |
| Weight, kg | 14 |
| Overall dimensions, mm | 580x202x423 |
