Italian campaign 1943–1945

Italian army after the defeats in 1942-1943 on Eastern Front(Stalingrad), in the East African and North African campaigns and the Tunisian operation had a very low morale and, accordingly, reduced combat effectiveness. Italy lost all her African colonies. The territory of Italy itself was regularly bombed by allied aircraft. The resistance movement grew rapidly. Italy was in front of a real threat of invasion of the country by allied forces.

The main forces of Germany were pinned down by the war on the Eastern Front. Its ability to supply additional forces and assets to Italy was limited.

Under these conditions, the Allies decided to carry out an invasion of Italy, defeat the Italian army and withdraw Italy from the war.

Italian campaign began on July 10, 1943 with the landing of the allies in Sicily. After landings in mainland Italy, battles on the "Gustav Line", at Monte Cassino and Anzio, the Italian campaign ended with the surrender of German troops in Northern Italy on May 2, 1945.

To conduct operations in the Italian campaign, the Allies created a grouping of troops, the commander-in-chief of which was the American General Dwight Eisenhower. Ground troops the groupings were consolidated into the 15th Army Group under the command of General Harold Alexander. It included the 7th American Army (General J. Paton) and the 8th British Army (General B. Montgomery). At the request of Canada, the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, which arrived from England from the 1st Canadian Army, was included in the 8th British Army.

The combined allied air forces of the Mediterranean, which included the Air Force of North-West Africa, the Air Force of the Middle East and the Air Force of Malta, had more than 4 thousand combat and 900 transport aircraft.

The Mediterranean Fleet of Great Britain (commanded by Admiral E. Cunningham) had 1,380 warships, landing and auxiliary ships, incl. 6 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 30 cruisers, and over 1,800 landing craft.

On the side of the American-British-Canadian troops in different time Australian (air force and navy), New Zealand, South African, Indian, Palestinian, Polish, Brazilian, Greek formations and units and troops of the Fighting France (Algerian, Moroccan, Senegalese) operated. Italian partisans also took part in the battles, and from September 8, 1943, the troops of the Italian kingdom.

Italy by the beginning of the Italian campaign, it had 82 divisions and 8 brigades, 825 combat-ready combat aircraft, 263 warships, including 6 battleships, 10 cruisers, 93 submarines. However, for the defense of the metropolis (mainland Italy), only 44 divisions of low combat readiness, 6 brigades, 600 combat-ready aircraft and 183 ships were concentrated. The rest of the troops fought with partisans in the Balkans and carried out occupational service in southern France.

The German command had only 7 divisions and one brigade, 500 aircraft and 60 ships in Italy.

Allied landing in Sicily

Operation Husky(Allied landing in Sicily) lasted from July 10 to August 17, 1943.

In Sicily, the 6th Italian Army was located under the command of General Alfredo Guzzoni. It included the 12th and 16th Coast Guard Corps and four infantry divisions, a total of nine Italian divisions and army units, as well as the German 14th Panzer Corps (two divisions, including the Hermann Goering Panzer Division , later - four divisions). In total, there were 300 thousand Italian and 40 thousand German soldiers, 147 tanks, 220 guns and about 600 aircraft in Sicily. Italian troops soon received reinforcements: 12 thousand people. and 91 tanks.

For the landing of the allies in Sicily, the two armies of the 15th Army Group had 13 divisions, 3 tank brigades, 3 Commando detachments and 3 Rangers battalions. The grouping of allied forces consisted of 470 thousand people and 600 tanks. For most of the Americans and for the entire Canadian contingent, this was the first battle.

It began on the morning of July 10, 1943 simultaneously from the sea and from the air on the south coast in the Gulf of Gela and south of Syracuse.

Marine landings in strong winds landed on the southern (Americans) and southeastern (British) coasts of Sicily. The Canadian division, with strong enemy resistance, landed on the southernmost tip of the island near the village of Pacino.

Due to bad weather conditions, many troops landed at the wrong place and six hours later than planned. But, using the factor of surprise, the British almost without resistance approached Syracuse. The Canadians met with a decisive rebuff from the Italian defenses located on the hills. The Canadians were driven back to the shore, but with the approach of reinforcements, they continued to advance.

On the night of July 10, the allies dropped 4 airborne assault forces. American landing of the 505th regiment of the 82nd airborne division due to strong wind veered off course, and half of the American paratroopers did not reach their destinations. In the British landing of 12 gliders, only one reached the target, while many fell into the sea.

Start of Operation Husky. Allied landing in Sicily 10 July 1943

First day of the Allied landings in Sicily, 10 July 1943


Source: Collections IWM Photo No.: A 17916

On July 11, Patton ordered the landing regiments, which were in reserve, to drop in the center of the coast. But the British Mediterranean Fleet was not informed of this and opened fire on the C-47 transport aircraft that were transporting troops to the landing site. As a result, out of 114 transport aircraft, 33 were shot down and 37 damaged, 318 people were victims of friendly fire.

By July 14, the landing on the bridgehead was completed. Vizzini was captured in the west and Augusta in the east. Then, in the British sector, enemy resistance increased.

On the western coast of Sicily, the Italians managed to hold back the American advance in the Castrofilippo Naro area.

The explosion of the American transport ship "Robert Rowan", hit by German bombers, near Gela during the Allied landings in Sicily, July 11, 1943


U.S. Army Signal Corps Photo no. MM-43-L-1-23. Photo: Lt. longini.

The explosion of the American transport ship "Robert Rowan" (the SS Robert Rowan) K-40 Liberty class hit by German Ju-88 bombers near Gela during the Allied landings in Sicily, 11 July 1943

Vessel "Liberty" The SS Robert Rowan was built by the North Carolina Shipbuilding Company. (the North Carolina Shipbuilding Company) in Wilmington, North Carolina (USA). It was laid down on 3 March 1943 and launched on 13 April. Its first voyage was launched on May 14, 1943 from Hampton Roads, Virginia (USA), to Oran (Algeria) as part of the UGS-8A convoy. In July, the ship took part in the Allied landings in Sicily and was sent to Gela. It reached Gela on 11 July 1943 with a load of ammunition and 334 soldiers of the 18th Infantry Division. It also carried 36 American sailors guarding the cargo and 41 crew members. At 2 p.m., German Junkers Ju-88 bombers launched an attack on landing craft in the bay. During the attack, the Robert Rowan was hit by three 500-kilogram bombs. One bomb went through the ship, but two others exploded in the hold. Due to the nature of the cargo, the ship was abandoned without any attempt to put out the fire. All 421 men evacuated safely to neighboring destroyers. Twenty minutes later, the fire reached the ammunition, and a huge explosion tore the ship in half. Partially sunk aground, it illuminated Gela Bay with its fire all night.

fighting in Sicily from 12 July to 17 August 1943


Source: Army brochure - Sicily 1943.

On July 22, American troops captured Palermo. Italian and German troops retreated to Messina. A fortified line was prepared around Messina (the "Etna line") to ensure an organized retreat of the Italo-German troops to the Apennine Peninsula (to mainland Italy).

July 25 in Italy palace coup. By order of King B. Mussolini was arrested, and the government was headed by Marshal P. Badoglio.

The Germans and Italians managed to keep the main forces of their troops in Sicily from capture and organizedly evacuate them from the island along with military equipment. After all the troops not engaged in the defense of the Etna line were evacuated, its defenders also crossed over to the Apennine Peninsula under cover of night. The evacuation was successful. The last German-Italian units left Sicily on August 17, 1943. Parts of the US 3rd Infantry Division entered Messina a few hours after the end of the evacuation of the German-Italian troops.

Losses German and Italian troops amounted to 29 thousand people killed, 140 thousand (mostly Italians) were captured. American losses were 2,237 killed and 6,544 wounded or captured. 2,721 British soldiers died, 10,122 were wounded or captured. Canadian troops lost 562 killed and 1,848 wounded or taken prisoner.

The Allied landing operation in Sicily was the largest amphibious operation at the time. In the future, the experience of the landings in Sicily will be used to carry out the landings in Normandy, an even larger amphibious operation - the largest amphibious assault in history.

The strategic goals that were set in the Allied landing operation in Sicily were achieved: the Italian and German troops were driven out of the island, the Mediterranean sea ​​routes became more secure, the Italian dictator was overthrown Benito Mussolini, and soon began landing on the Apennine Peninsula - in mainland Italy.

Allied landings in mainland Italy

On September 3, formations of the 8th British Army landed in the south of mainland Italy in the region of Reggio di Calabria during Operation Baytown. After the landing, the army formations began to advance north.

The loss of Sicily, the growth of the Italian Resistance, the defeat of German troops on Kursk Bulge, as well as the beginning of the Allied landings in mainland Italy, forced the government of Marshal Badoglio on September 3 to sign the terms of Italy's surrender. On September 8, the unified command of the allied forces announced the agreement on the surrender of Italy.

After the capitulation of Italy, the Wehrmacht High Command hastily transferred 10 more divisions to Italy. They disarmed almost the entire Italian army and occupied most territory of mainland Italy. The Italian government and the high command of the Italian armed forces fled to the location of the Allied forces. On the territory of Italy occupied by German troops, a fascist Italian government was formed (the Italian Social Republic or the Republic of Salo, which existed until April 25, 1945), headed by Benito Mussolini, who was released from prison by a detachment of paratroopers and SS men led by Skorzeny.

Allied landings in mainland Italy in 1943

On September 9, in the Salerno area, with strong German resistance, the troops of the 5th American army landed during Operation Avalanche, and an additional contingent of British troops landed in Taranto during Operation Slapstick and began to move north as part of the 8th British Army.

The coastal bridgehead of the 5th American Army at Salerno by the end of September 11, 1943

Allied artillery landing on the coast of Salerno. September 1943


Photo #80-G-54600 US Navy.

In the early days of the offensive, the 8th British Army advanced rapidly on the western coast of Italy, captured the port of Bari and large airfields near Foggia. The landing of American troops near Salerno, where they were opposed by the main forces of the 10th German army, was on the verge of failure, but the Americans managed to create a bridgehead. Then the efforts of the American troops were directed to the capture of Naples. Assistance to the ground forces was provided by Allied aviation based in Sicily.

Fighting on the "Gustav Line", near Monte Cassino and Anzio

In the middle of mainland Italy, the Apennine mountains and numerous rivers, representing natural frontiers convenient for defense, were a serious obstacle to the advancing Allied troops. In addition to them, the German troops arranged additional obstacles in the form of flooding of large areas.

In October 1943, the commander of the German troops in southern Italy, Field Marshal Kesselring, began to build defensive lines in central Italy, using the difficult mountainous terrain.

To the south of Rome, several lines of defensive fortifications were created. The forward defensive lines of the "Volturno Line" and "Barbara Line" were intended to temporarily contain the Allied forces, while the construction of a powerful main network of fortifications, the "Winter Line", which consisted of the "Gustav Line" and two additional lines of fortifications starting in the Apennine mountains and descending to the Tyrrhenian Sea: the Bernhardt Line and the Adolf Hitler Line. The "Winter Line" and its basis - the "Gustav Line" at the end of 1943 - the beginning of 1944 were the main obstacle for the Allied troops.

German defensive lines south of Rome in 1943-1944

By the beginning of November 1943, German troops retreated to the prepared line of defense along the Garigliano and Sangro rivers - the “Gustav Line”.

On November 15, 1943, the command of the German troops in Italy was expanded and transformed into a command in the South-West, which included the newly formed Army Group C (Heeresgruppe C - 10th and 14th armies) and the command of the Luftwaffe in the South . Field Marshal Kesselring became commander in the South-West and commander of Army Group C, to whom all German armed forces in Italy were now subordinate.

"Gustav Line" stopped the advance of the 5th American army along the western coast of Italy and in the area of ​​Monte Cassino. On the eastern Adriatic coast, the British 8th Army broke through the "Gustav Line" and captured Ortona. However, in late December, heavy snow and blizzards halted the British advance. On the western coast of Italy, sheltered by the Apennine mountains, the weather was better, and the Allies launched an offensive through the valley of the Liri River, from where a direct route to Rome opened, but failed.

Between November 1943 and May 1944, the Allied forces made several unsuccessful attempts to break through the enemy defenses on the Gustav Line.

Repair of the German tank Pz.Kpfw IV during the battle near Monte Cassino,
January 1944


Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-312-0998-27, Monte Cassino, Panzerreparatur während Kampf. Foto: Enz.

German paratroopers with a mortar at Monte Cassino, 1944


Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-577-1917-08, Monte Cassino, Fallschirmjäger mit Granatwerfer. Foto: Haas.

Monte Cassino. Paratroopers in a destroyed building, 1944.


Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-578-1928-23A, Monte Cassino, Fallschirmjager in Gebäude. Foto: Wagner.
Italy, Monte Cassino. A group of paratroopers takes up position in a destroyed building next to the Sturmgeschütz assault gun. Without a headdress, Captain Rudolf-Paul Renneke (Rennecke Rudolf-Paul), holder of the Knight's Cross (RK).

To loosen the German defenses on the Gustav Line, on January 22, the Americans landed an amphibious assault in the port area Anzio. By February 6, the entire 6th American Corps, consisting of three divisions, concentrated on the bridgehead, which by that time had been expanded. The Americans had a numerical superiority in forces and means, but could not break through the German defenses. The 6th American Corps found itself locked in a coastal bridgehead measuring less than 30 km along the front and 12-18 km in depth.

Expansion of the Allied beachhead at Anzio on February 1, 1944

U.S. Army Center of Military History Doc# 72-19

From January to May 1944, four major offensives were carried out on the Gustav Line. By the beginning of May 1944, the Allied forces in Italy (Commander-in-Chief General G. M. Wilson) were brought up to 25 divisions (including 5 armored), 8 brigades (4 armored and 1 commando brigade), which supported 3,960 aircraft. The German Army Group "C" consisted of 19 divisions (one tank) and 320 aircraft.

On May 11, 1944, the Allied troops went on the offensive in the area south of Monte Cassino. The strike force of the 5th American and 8th British armies was concentrated on a 32-kilometer front between Monte Cassino and the west coast. The Allied forces included American, British, Canadian, French and Polish formations. After stubborn fighting, the "Gustav Line" was finally broken through.

At the same time, the 6th American Corps, located in the Anzio region, broke through the German defenses, left the bridgehead into the operational space and began to advance along west coast to Rome. At the same time, he missed the opportunity to cut off the retreat of the retreating German 10th Army with its subsequent destruction.

By May 26, the Allied troops advancing from the Monte Cassino region advanced 30-60 kilometers and connected with the 6th American Corps.

The Germans declared Rome open city and withdrew their garrison from the city. On June 4, American troops entered Rome.

Allied offensive from the Gustav Line near Monte Cassino (Operation Diadem) and Allied breakthrough from the bridgehead at Anzio, 11-30 May 1944

On the territory occupied by German troops, a broad resistance movement unfolded. The partisan detachments were led by the Communist Party, socialists, Catholics, the Action Party, and others. In May 1944, there were about 80,000 partisans in Italy. They controlled a significant part of the regions of Lombardy, the Marche, and others. To fight the partisans, the Germans were forced to send large military units.

Fighting in Northern Italy

After the Allied landings in Normandy in June 1944, many American and French formations were transferred to France. The total number of troops withdrawn from Italy in the summer of 1944 was seven divisions. These troops took part in the Allied landings on the southern coast of France. To replace them, the Brazilian 1st Infantry Division and a Brazilian naval formation arrived in Italy.

From June to August 1944, Allied troops advanced from Rome to northern Italy. On August 13, they entered Florence, already liberated by Italian partisans.

On August 15, the 15th Allied Army Group reached the line southeast of Rimini - Florence - the Arno River and approached the last German defensive line - the "Gothic line". This defensive line ran from the west coast (30 km north of Pisa) along the Apennine mountains between Florence and Bologna to the Adriatic coast south of Rimini

On August 25, 1944, the Allied forces launched an autumn offensive - Operation Oliva. By September 5, the Allied troops had overcome the foreground and on September 15 began an assault on the "Gothic line". The enemy defense was stubborn. Only by the end of the year, the Allied forces were able to break through the "Gothic line" in several places, but a significant breakthrough could not be achieved. The planned exit to the Po Valley did not take place. In the autumn of 1944, the Allied forces suffered heavy losses during the fighting in Northern Italy. In December 1944, the commander of the 5th US Army, General Mark Wayne Clark, was appointed commander of the combined allied forces in Italy.

Bad weather conditions at the very beginning of 1945, as well as heavy losses in the autumn battles, did not allow the Allied troops to continue the offensive. In addition, some British formations were transferred from Italy to Greece, and the 1st Canadian Corps to Belgium. Therefore, the command of the Allied forces used the strategy of "offensive defense" and at the same time was preparing for the spring offensive.

In February 1945, the 4th American Corps, with the support of parts of the 2nd American Corps, knocked out German troops from the heights dominating Bologna, where German artillery was located, shooting through the approaches to Bologna and the surrounding area.

On March 21, Allied aircraft raided German transport ships with troops and equipment in the harbor of Venice (“Operation Bauler”).

In March 1945, General Heinrich von Fetinghoff was appointed commander of Army Group C to replace the departed Western Front Field Marshal Kesselring.

Allied offensive in northern Italy in the spring of 1945

The last offensive of the Allied troops in Italy began only on April 9, 1945. Before the start of the offensive, the enemy troops were subjected to a massive air raid and a powerful artillery strike. At this time, the Allies had 27 divisions against 21 German. The superiority in the number of divisions was 1.3 times, in tanks and assault guns 7.5 times (3100 versus 396), in guns 3 times (3000 versus 1087) and in aviation 30 times (4000 versus 130). In the direction of the main attack (south of Bologna), the Allied command created a triple superiority over the enemy in the number of divisions, in artillery - six times and in tanks - fourteen times superiority.

On April 18, troops of the 8th British Army broke through the German defenses at the Argenta Pass. British armored units were advancing around Bologna on the right to meet with the troops of the 4th American Corps, which was moving through the Apennine mountains to complete the encirclement around the city.

By April 21, Allied troops had broken through the German defenses to the full depth and advanced 40 kilometers. On April 21, Bologna was taken by units of the 34th American Infantry Division and the 3rd Polish Carpathian Rifle Division with the active assistance of Italian partisans. The US 10th Mountain Division outflanked Bologna on the left and reached the Po River on 22 April. On April 23, the 8th Indian Infantry Division of the 8th British Army also approached the river. On April 24, Allied troops crossed the Po River.

On the night of April 25, in Genoa, Milan, Venice and other cities of Northern Italy, at the call of the Communist Party, the Socialist Party and other leftist forces, a general uprising began, led by the Italian Partisan Liberation Committee.

On April 25, after crossing the Po River, the troops of the British 8th Army, with their right flank, began to move northeast towards Venice and further to Trieste.

On April 26, a partisan uprising engulfed all of Northern Italy, most of whose territory was liberated by the Italian Resistance. Using the success of the uprising, units of the 5th American Army moved north towards Austria and northwest towards Milan. The US 92nd Infantry Division (a Buffalo trooper division, composed of African Americans) marched along the west coast towards Genoa. At the same time, the Brazilian division, with a rapid advance on Turin, caught the German-Italian army of Liguria by surprise, which led to its defeat.

At the end of April, the German Army Group C lost most of its troops and almost all of its territory after retreating in all sectors of the front. On April 29, the commander of Army Group C, General Heinrich von Fetinghoff, signed an agreement on the surrender of all troops in Italy. The treaty entered into force on May 2, 1945. Italian campaign 1943-1945 gg.

In the Italian campaign 1943-1945 gg. more than 50 thousand German soldiers died. The total losses of the Germans (including losses from the actions of the Italian partisans) amounted to 536 thousand people, of which 300 thousand were captured. Italian troops fighting on the side of Germany lost 122 thousand people.

The total losses of the allies in the Italian campaign amounted to 320 thousand people, of which about 60 thousand people were killed. The British Commonwealth of Nations lost 198 thousand people, the USA - 114 thousand, Brazil - 443 people. The troops of the Fighting France and Poland had losses.

Italian campaign 1943-1945 was the most bloody (in terms of the number of dead and wounded) of all military campaigns in Western Europe.

Literature:

History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-1945, vol. 3-5, M., 1963-64.

Kulish V. M., Second Front, M., 1960.

"Army brochure" - Army brochure - Sicily 1943.

CHAPTER II

Ancient farmers and pastoralists

§ 1. General characteristics of the era

The next period in the history of Dagestan covers the end of the Stone Age, which received the name Neolithic in science, or the new stone Age, and the Copper-Stone Age, or Eneolithic. It was marked by many important discoveries and achievements, which gave a significant impetus to the further development of the productive forces. primitive society. The most important among them, no doubt, was the transition of a part of the Neolithic tribes from an appropriating economy to a new economy, the basis of which was a productive agricultural and pastoral economy.

The separation of agricultural and pastoral tribes from the rest of the mass of hunters, fishermen and gatherers is rightly regarded by Soviet scientists as the first major social division of labor in the history of mankind, which had a decisive influence on further development society.

The "Neolithic Revolution", as it is customary to call the transition of the Neolithic tribes of the south to a new productive type of economy, contributed to the spread of a relatively strong settled way of life among them. And this, in turn, led to the emergence of previously unknown industries, such as the construction of permanent dwellings, the manufacture of pottery, weaving, etc.

As the agricultural and pastoral economy develops, the size of the territories exploited by individual tribes and tribal communities is sharply reduced. A huge territory, previously owned by one hunting tribe, under the new conditions turns out to be able to provide a much larger number of the population with the necessary food. Therefore, the collectives that spun off in the process of segmentation now do not leave the original territory, but settle in the vicinity of the mother community, maintaining economic, cultural and ethnic ties with it. The population density of areas with agricultural and pastoral populations is increasing. There are quite strong associations of kindred tribes.

New features of the social structure led to further strengthening tribal communities, strengthening the tribes, the formation of tribal associations. The harmonious social organization that took shape in this era regulates the internal life of tribal communities and their relations, as well as relations between tribes. Thanks to this, the tribal system, which experienced a period of prosperity, rises in its development to an even higher level.

In the Eneolithic, humanity enters a new era - the era of metal. The most important achievement along this path was the development of copper metallurgy. True, the first metal tools were both few and not perfect enough. However, the rapid development of ancient metallurgy had a progressive effect on the growth of productive forces.

Judging by the available data, in the Eneolithic there is a further development of agricultural and pastoral economy, which appears in the materials of the studied monuments in a fairly mature form.

As the economy becomes more complex, exchange develops, permanent ties are established not only between neighboring tribes, but also between the population of relatively remote territories.

The growth of labor productivity, especially the development of cattle breeding, metallurgy and exchange, inevitably led to the emergence of property inequality. Within tribal communities, it manifested itself in the different property status of individual families. The process of property differentiation covered all the links of the tribal organization: the clan, the tribe, and the associations of tribes. Inter-tribal clashes arise, leading to even greater enrichment of the tribal elite, increasing property inequality.

The noted factors were also reflected in the social relations of the Eneolithic society. In this era, the process of replacing matriarchal-clan relations with new ones based on paternal law begins. The tribal nobility stands out. All this leads to the emergence of unequal relations within the clan and tribe.

In general, the combination of the above reasons created the prerequisites for the subsequent decomposition of the primitive communal system.

§ 2. Neolithic

The Neolithic era covers the 5th and, probably, part of the 6th millennium BC in the Caucasus. e.

The Neolithic culture of Dagestan, as, indeed, of the entire Caucasus as a whole, has not yet been studied enough. Our ideas about the Dagestan Neolithic are based on materials from more than twenty monuments of this era. For the most part, these are the remains of settlements with destroyed or severely disturbed cultural layers and workshops where natural deposits of flint were developed. Well-preserved settlements and burial grounds of the Neolithic period in Dagestan have not yet been identified. Therefore, the available materials characterize mainly the development stone tools V different periods neolithic era. Information about the specific living conditions of the Neolithic inhabitants of Dagestan, their dwellings, methods of housekeeping and many other interesting and important details of life, we currently do not have.

However, the study of labor tools makes it possible to trace the process of development of the productive forces of the Dagestan Neolithic tribes and, on this basis, with the involvement of comparative materials, to recreate in the most in general terms picture of their life. The available materials make it possible to single out two stages in the Neolithic culture of Dagestan: early and late.

Early Neolithic

Monuments of the early Neolithic have now been discovered in the coastal and foothill regions of Dagestan. These are the remains of villages in the vicinity of Makhachkala (in the Tarnair tract) and not far from Buynaksk. The Tarnair settlement is located on the ancient sea terraces, and the Buynak settlement is located on the ancient river terraces. In similar conditions, on ancient river and sea terraces, Neolithic settlements were located in other regions of the Caucasus.

Numerous materials have been collected in both Dagestan settlements: stone tools, blanks for them, production waste. Microplates are among them. correct form and miniature tools made from them. Small prismatic and pyramidal cores were also found, designed to separate microplates. There are frequent finds of points, scrapers, among which rounded ones predominate, and other tools. All these artifacts, in their shape, size and processing technique, are strikingly reminiscent of the corresponding samples of flint implements from the Late Melithic complexes of Dagestan and, like them, were used for the same purposes, mainly for equipping hunting weapons and processing hunting prey.

In addition to the items described, which testify to the continuity with the Late Melithic culture, there are also new types of flint tools that first appeared in the early Neolithic. Among them, we note long knife-like plates and tools from them, leaf-shaped and triangular arrowheads. The latter are carefully processed on both sides by squeezing retouching. Flint retouchers were also found - tools for applying such retouching - in the form of rods triangular in cross section with tapering ends.

In the inventory of both settlements there are also large stone tools, the so-called macroliths. Of greatest interest among them are flattened-wedge-shaped tools with a polished blade. Such tools, which also first appeared in the Neolithic, had a universal purpose. They were used as axes, adzes and even hoe tips. Wedge-shaped adze axes, apparently, were widely used in the North Caucasus, and in particular among the Dagestan early Neolithic tribes.

On the whole, the early Neolithic culture of Dagestan combines the surviving techniques of the previous Mesolithic era (the widespread use of microlithic inserts) with the characteristic features of the new Neolithic technology (the use of axes, large knife-like plates, arrowheads of a developed shape, etc.). All this makes it possible to characterize this era as an important link in the continuous, successive development of local cultures at the end of the Stone Age.

Late Neolithic

The next stage in the development of the Dagestan Neolithic culture is presented in the materials of the monuments discovered in the Akushinsky and Gunibsky districts. These are mainly the remains of settlements and workshops where stone was mined.

In the late Neolithic, settlements were still located in river valleys, on ancient river terraces and on the gentle slopes of mountain ranges. During their inspection and study, significant material was collected that acquaints us with the tools of labor of the Late Neolithic population of Dagestan.

Tools were still made of stone, but their appearance has changed significantly. Almost completely disappear from the inventory of microlithic liners in the form of miniature plates of the correct form. In the materials of the Neolithic settlements of the Akushinsky region, located in the tracts of Kakala-Kadala-Khar, Saga-Tsuka, and others, finds of such microblades are extremely rare. Their place is occupied by large knife-like plates, which are found here in in large numbers. Large pyramidal cores were also found, which preserved traces of separation of such plates. There are also scrapers, various points, triangular arrowheads with a recess at the base, geo-

Vessels Microplates (1-4), microliths (5-7), drill (5), aggregation tips (9-12), scrapers (13-15), relusher (16), knife-like plates (17-21) v cores (22-24), ax-adze (25), ax-hoe (26), fragment of earthenware (27). 1, 2, 4-6, 22, 23, 25 - Buynakskaya site, 3, 9, 10, 13. 16-18 - Tarnairskaya site, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 24, 26 - Akushinsky sites, 15 , 19-21, 27 - Rugudzha sites (Neolithic)

metric inserts in the form of a segment, etc. Among the microlithic inventory, an oval-shaped flint ax-hoe - "pike" type tools - stands out.

No pottery was found in the inventory of the described group of settlements. However, in simultaneous monuments on the territory of Georgia and the Black Sea regions of the Caucasus, this is already found. Based on this, it can be assumed that the tribes that inhabited the territory of Dagestan in the Late Neolithic were already familiar with the manufacture of pottery.

Neolithic monuments, and in the inventory of which ceramics were found, were found in the picturesque surroundings of the villages. Rugudzha, Gunibsky district. They belong to the very end of the Neolithic era.

Ceramics are fragments of vessels made of clay with an admixture of coarsely crushed stone (grass). The color of the vessels is predominantly brown. They are lightly burnt, which is why the shards of the vessels are loose and break easily. At one of the Rugudzha settlements, located in the Malin-Karat tract, a part of a pot was found, decorated along the upper edge with a number of round through holes, made from the inside of the vessel before it was fired. This peculiar method of decorating vessels, which first appeared in the late Neolithic, will be used for a long time by local Dagestan potters in subsequent periods, testifying to the long experience of the ancients. local traditions.

The ceramics of the Rugudzha villages introduces us to the most ancient samples of the currently known pottery of Dagestan. It should be noted that in terms of manufacturing techniques and the quality of firing, it closely resembles ceramics from the Neolithic sites of the Western Caucasus.

In the flint inventory of the Rugudzha settlements, microlithic inserts are completely absent. Large knife-like blades and tools made from them: scrapers and points predominate. Of interest are the graters found here, made from small flat river boulders. Judging by the traces of work preserved on them, they were used to grind small amounts of grain and other plant foods.

Changes in the technique of making tools in the Neolithic led to a sharp increase in the need for high-quality flint, which was used for the mass production of large macrolithic tools and a large number of various cutting tools (knives, reaping tools, piercing tools, drills, saws, scrapers, etc.). ). Intensive development of natural flint deposits begins, many flint workshops appear.

In Dagestan, such flint workshops were found in the vicinity of the villages of Akush, Usisha, Tsudahar, and others, rich in high-quality chalk flint. Here, at the sites of ancient flint mining, there are a huge number of flakes, plates, fragments and fragments of flint, which are production waste. Among them come across and blanks of various tools, and sometimes even the tools themselves. Most of them belong to the Neolithic era.

The tribes that developed these deposits supplied flint to the population of neighboring regions. This contributed to the expansion of intertribal exchange, the strengthening of ties between individual tribes.

The emergence of agricultural and livestock farming

The study of the available materials makes it possible to reveal the essence of those deep, fundamental changes that took place in the economy of the Neolithic tribes that inhabited the territory of Dagestan.

Judging by the wide distribution of microlithic inserts in the inventory of early Neolithic sites, intended for equipping hunting weapons, hunting still remained one of the leading branches of the economy. However, the appearance of stone axes, intended for the construction of dwellings and clearing land for crops, as well as long knife-shaped plates used for reaping, testifies to the emergence of agriculture and the transition to agriculture caused by it. settled way life.

In the inventory of Late Neolithic sites, the number of microlithic inserts is sharply reduced. Here, the decline in the economic importance of hunting, which begins to play an auxiliary role in the economic life of the ancient Dagestan tribes, affects minor role. A significant increase in the number of large knife-like blades - reaping knives in the inventory of Late Neolithic settlements - reflects the growing importance of agriculture. At the same time, more complex tools such as sickles became known, in which the cranked wooden or bone frame was equipped with one or more knife-like plates or their sections.

The evolution of the flint inventory of the Dagestan Neolithic sites finds numerous parallels in the south: in the simultaneous sites of Transcaucasia, the Front and Central Asia, where in the Mesolithic and early Neolithic the formation of a productive, agricultural and pastoral economy took place. Dagestan materials are especially close to flint tools from the sites of the Southern Caspian and Turkmenistan, the successive stages of development of which in the 6th-5th millennia BC. e. are characterized by the replacement of microlithic tools with new ones, among which big role play large knife-like plates and axes with polished blades. In the well-studied Neolithic sites of Southern Turkmenistan, in addition to stone tools, the remains of long-term adobe buildings, as well as grains of cereals and bones of domestic animals were found, which indisputably testifies to the sedentary nature of the population engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.

For comparison, we point out that in the vast expanses of the more northern regions of Eurasia, whose population was still engaged in hunting, fishing and gathering, microlithic flint inventory dominated throughout the Neolithic era.

The above facts leave no doubt that the noted features of the evolution of flint tools indicate the composition of the Dagestan Neolithic tribes ancient forms productive economy based on agriculture and animal husbandry. This circumstance makes it possible to expand the area of ​​distribution of the early agricultural culture in the Caucasus, which until now was limited to the boundaries of Transcaucasia, by including the territory of Dagestan, and perhaps the entire North-Eastern Caucasus.

The antiquity of Dagestan agriculture is also confirmed by ethnographic materials. Almost all the peoples of Dagestan used boiled or roasted grains of cereals (barley or wheat) as ritual food, which in themselves are one of ancient species vegetable food. In many Dagestan languages, the concept of "food" usually means bread or flour dishes, while all other types of food (including dairy and meat) are, as it were, only an addition to it.

The early emergence of agriculture in Dagestan was largely facilitated by its natural and geographical conditions. The foothill and mountain zones were especially favorable for the development of estuary agriculture here - one of the ancient types agricultural production. At the foot of the mountain ranges and on the ancient river terraces, in sufficient quantities for that time, there were small plots of land suitable for this purpose with naturally restored soil fertility. Their processing was carried out with minimal labor costs. They did not require artificial irrigation.

In addition, in the mountainous Dagestan there were endemic varieties of cereals suitable for cultivation. Experts name among them some varieties of wheat, membranous and especially naked barley, as well as legumes: lentils and horse beans. According to Academician P. I. Vavilov, the well-known “Persian” wheat originates from the mountainous Dagestan. All this, in the presence of a certain experience in the use of cereal plants, accumulated by generations of gatherers back in the Stone Age, had a positive effect on the transition of the Dagestan Neolithic tribes to agriculture.

Noting the importance of local factors in this process, one cannot underestimate the importance of the cultural ties of the population of the Caucasus with the most ancient centers of agricultural culture in the countries of Western Asia. The existence of such connections in the Neolithic and in subsequent eras is considered proven.

Thanks to these connections, the Caucasian (including Dagestan) tribes had the opportunity to get acquainted with the achievements of advanced ancient Eastern civilizations, which had a positive impact not only on the development of ancient Caucasian cultures, but also on the local economy. There is no doubt that during the transition to a new type of economy, the Caucasian tribes were familiar with the achievements of agricultural production in the countries of Western Asia.

The poor knowledge of the Dagestan Neolithic monuments makes it impossible for us to characterize the level of development in this era of cattle breeding, which was another main branch of the new producing economy of the Neolithic tribes. In the neighboring regions of the south of our country and in the countries of Western Asia, the breeding of sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and some other domestic animals was already practiced at that time. Based on this, and bearing in mind that all these types of animals were well known to the population of Dagestan in the subsequent Eneolithic era, we can assume that the local Neolithic tribes, along with agriculture, were also engaged in cattle breeding. This is confirmed by the discovery of the bones of a domestic bull at the Late Neolithic settlement of Malin-Karat.

Thus, the available data testify to the gradual transition of the Dagestan tribes to a productive agricultural and cattle breeding economy as early as the Neolithic, at the end of the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. It marked a gigantic leap in the development of the productive forces, which determined the higher rates of their subsequent historical development.

§ 3. Eneolithic

Monuments of the Eneolithic era have been discovered in Transcaucasia and Dagestan quite recently. Their study has not yet been completed. Therefore, the Caucasian Eneolithic, covering the period from the end of the 5th to the end of the 4th millennium BC. e., cannot be characterized at the present time with the necessary completeness.

So far, the only monument of the Eneolithic era has been discovered on the territory of Dagestan - the lower (main) cultural layer of the Ginchinsky settlement, located in the high-mountainous Soviet region, in the very depths of mountainous Dagestan.

Settlements and dwellings

The Ginchinsky settlement is located in one of the small side valleys formed by the Gidatlinskaya river - the right tributary of the Avar Koisu, one of the main river arteries of the mountainous Dagestan. It occupies a section of an ancient river terrace, partially bounded by its natural cliffs. Where there were no natural barriers, the ancient inhabitants of the settlement built a stone defensive wall up to 1 m thick at the base.

Judging by the peculiarities of the location of the Ginchinsky settlement, it can be assumed that in the 4th millennium BC. e. there was an active process of development by farmers of the river valleys of mountainous Dagestan, the most favorable for the development of ancient agriculture. A direct consequence of this process was an increased population density in these areas, which caused a shortage of land suitable for farming. There is a reason for intensifying inter-tribal clashes, which is directly indicated by the fortified nature of the Ginchinsky settlement.

During the excavations of the Ginchinsky settlement, the remains of quadrangular dwellings were found. Their walls are built of small stone slabs and river boulders, laid dry, without a bonding mortar. The building material was probably mined directly from the river bed.

On the adobe floors of the dwellings, simple open-type hearths were arranged. Small utility pits were made in the floors, which served as storage facilities. Several human burials were found under the floors of dwellings. The custom of burying the dead inside dwellings was widely practiced by many early agricultural tribes.

The discovery of stone house-building in the Ginchinsky settlement is of great interest, since it characterizes one of the distinctive ethnographic features of the culture of mountainous Dagestan. It is noteworthy that in the simultaneous monuments on the territory of Azerbaijan, round-plan and rectangular types of dwellings were found, the walls of which were built either from mud bricks or (less often) from small stones in clay mortar.

economy

In the studied areas of the cultural layer of the Ginchinsky settlement, various archaeological materials were found that characterize various aspects of the life and life of its inhabitants.

The basis of their economy was agriculture and cattle breeding. Findings of numerous stone grain graters and graters testify to farming, and grain graters often have large sizes working surface. This circumstance indicates that the inhabitants of the settlement were already filming a relatively large

Flint knife blades (/-4), stone grain grinders (5, 6), Samples of painted ceramics (7-12), fragments of thin-walled pots (13-14), bowl (15), pots (16, 17, 21), colander (18), samples of ornamented dishes (19, 20) from the Ginchinsky Eneolithic settlement (4th millennium BC)

grain harvest. Straw imprints are often found on fragments of ceramics. Harvest knives were also found here in abundance - large flint knife-like plates, similar to Neolithic ones.

In the lower cultural layer of the settlement there are bones of cattle, sheep and goats, which testify to the established composition of the herd. Cattle breeding in this era was home-grown.

Along with cattle breeding, the inhabitants of the settlement hunted deer, bison, aurochs and other animals.

Tools of labor in this era were made mainly of stone and bone. In addition to the above-mentioned stone grain graters and flint reaping knives, the production inventory of the Ginchinsky settlement includes stone pestles, chippers, cutting tools and stone points. Often there are bone awls, piercings, polishing.

In the Eneolithic era, copper metallurgy arose and began to develop in the Caucasus. True, metal products were not found at the Ginchinsky settlement. However, in some simultaneous monuments on the territory of Azerbaijan, they are already found. These are the simplest types of piercings and jewelry, made of copper with a small admixture of arsenic. Special studies have established that for this purpose not native copper, but copper smelted from ore, was used. These facts testify to the origin in the Caucasus in the 4th millennium BC. e. local metallurgy.

Fragments of pottery found at the settlement are of great interest. A study of them shows that ceramic production has made a significant step forward compared to the previous era. At the Ginchinsky settlement, clay bowls, pots, jugs and other types of vessels are already quite diverse in form and purpose, satisfying various needs of everyday life.

Ceramic products from the Eneolithic layer of the Ginchinsky settlement are divided into two groups. The more numerous of them continues the development of local traditions of ceramic production, which originated in the late Neolithic. These are rough thick-walled pots and bowls made of clay mass with abundant inclusions of gruss. All of them are made by hand. Large pots were formed by sequentially building wide clay bands on top of each other. The junctions of the ribbons were then carefully coated, and the finished vessels, after appropriate processing of the outer surfaces, were fired.

When processing the outer surfaces of vessels, it was most often practiced to smear them with a thick layer of liquid clay and engobing, i.e., covering them with a thin layer of well-washed clay, which after firing gave a slightly different shade of color. Engobed vessels were often burnished. On the surfaces of individual vessels there are imprints of matting or matting. Some vessels are decorated with ornaments in the form of molded-on pintucked bolsters, horizontal rows of through holes under the rim, or a carved fir-tree pattern.

Almost all of these methods of processing and decorating the outer surfaces of vessels, having arisen in the late Neolithic and Eneolithic, existed in Dagestan for an extremely long time. They are one of the most characteristic ethnographic features of the ancient culture of the local Dagestan tribes.

Another group of ceramics from the Ginchinsky settlement is represented by fragments of thin-walled vessels distinguished by more careful manufacturing and good firing. Some fragments are decorated with red or brown paint on a lighter background. Similar ceramics are found<в энеолитических памятниках на территории Азербайджана. Она обнаруживает определенное сходство с керамикой, бытовавшей в IV тысячелетии до н. э. в Север­ной Месопотамии и Восточной Анатолии.

Finds of this pottery in Transcaucasia and Dagestan testify to the existence of connections between the population of these regions and the countries of the Near East in the 4th millennium BC. e. Fragments of vessels with imprints of matting or matting found at the Ginchinsky settlement testify to the use of plant fibers for the manufacture of coarse wickerwork. Thus, prerequisites are created for the emergence of weaving, the existence of which in the III millennium BC. e. confirmed by archaeological evidence.

The materials of the Ginchinsky settlement acquaint us with the great achievements that the Eneolithic era marked for the population of Dagestan. Judging by the relatively high level of development of the agricultural and pastoral economy achieved at that time, the emergence of metallurgy, weaving, and construction, it can be assumed that in the Eneolithic, the transition from matriarchal-clan relations to patriarchal-clan relations begins.

The formation of the ethno-cultural community of the Dagestan tribes

With the transition to a settled agricultural and pastoral economy, the vast, but rather unstable ethnocultural communities of the Mesolithic era are replaced by smaller, but more stable ethnocultural communities of the Neolithic and especially the Eneolithic. Determining the ethnicity of the early agricultural tribes is very important, because it is in their midst that many of the currently existing language groups, including the Caucasian-Iberian family of languages, have their origins.

As already noted, the Neolithic cultures of the Caucasus are still extremely insufficiently studied, as a result of which we are currently deprived of the opportunity to trace the entire course of the ethnocultural development of its population in this era on concrete archaeological material. But even according to the available data, it can be judged that this process proceeded under the influence of the Near East.

The process of ethno-cultural development of the population of the Caucasus in the subsequent, Eneolithic era is drawn more definitely. At that time, in the Eastern Caucasus, on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan and Dagestan, a group of early agricultural tribes settled widely, leaving monuments of a similar culture. The specific features of this culture are manifested in the spread of ceramics with impurities of chopped straw in the clay mass, as well as ceramics decorated with a painted pattern.

According to some Soviet scientists (A. A. Jessen and others), the Eneolithic culture of the Eastern Caucasus is the northern periphery of the larger Eneolithic culture of the East Near East (Iranian) circle. At the same time, another group of tribes developed in Central Transcaucasia and Eastern Anatolia, among which the “Kuro-Araxes” culture was formed, which spread widely in the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Therefore, it can be assumed that the population of the Caucasus in the Eneolithic was not ethnically homogeneous. The process of ethnocultural development of the tribes of the Central Transcaucasia and Eastern Anatolia, on the one hand, and the Eastern Caucasus and Northwestern Iran, on the other, proceeded in different ways.

However, the Eneolithic culture of the East Asiatic area of ​​interest to us was not homogeneous throughout the entire territory of its distribution. The features of local originality can be traced quite clearly in the version presented in the materials of the Ginchinsky settlement.

Based on the materials of the Ginchinsky settlement, we can clearly trace the features of the local originality of the vast Eneolithic culture of the East Asiatic circle. Here we find ceramics with imprints of matting or matting. The ornament in the form of through punctures under the rim, molded-on rollers with depressions is also peculiar. All these specific features of ceramic production, continuing its older traditions, are extremely rare to the south.

Another characteristic feature of the Dagestan variant of the Eneolithic culture is stone house-building, which distinguishes it from other areas where mud brick served as the main building material.

The noted features that characterize the ethnocultural originality of the Dagestan Eneolithic are steadily repeated and developed in subsequent periods of the Copper-Bronze Age and even the Early Iron Age, testifying to the genetic continuity of the long-term autochthonous development of the local population.

Unfortunately, at the present time we are deprived of the opportunity to delineate the territory of settlement of this group of tribes with sufficient certainty. If we take into account the range of smeared ceramics in the monuments of the next, III millennium BC. e., it seems possible to include in it, in addition to Dagestan, part of the regions of Northern Azerbaijan adjacent to the Greater Caucasus, as well as the territory of present-day Checheno-Ingushetia.

The area outlined in this way strikingly coincides with the territory of the settlement of the linguistically related population of the Eastern Caucasus, belonging to the Dagestan and Vainakh groups of languages ​​of the Caucasian-Iberian language family.

Read also other articles in the section:
- Brief description about primitive society
- Primitive human herd
- Formation of the genus
- Primal Hunters

Agriculture of the ancient people

Approximately 13 thousand years ago, a climate similar to the modern one was established on the earth. The glacier retreated to the north. The tundra in Europe and Asia was replaced by dense forests and steppe. Many lakes have turned into peat bogs. Huge ice age animals have become extinct.

With the retreat of the glacier and the appearance of a richer and more diverse vegetation, the importance of plant foods in people's lives increases. In search of food, primitive people wandered through the forests and steppes, gathering the fruits of wild trees, berries, grains of wild cereals, pulling out tubers and bulbs of plants from the ground, and hunted. The search, collection and storage of plant food stocks were predominantly women's work.
Gradually, women learned not only to find useful wild plants, but also to cultivate some of them near the settlements. They loosened the soil, threw grains into it, and removed weeds. For tillage, a pointed digging stick and a hoe were usually used. The hoe was made of wood, stone, bone, deer antler. Early farming is called hoe farming. Hoe farming was predominantly the work of women. It provided the woman with honor and respect in the family. Women brought up children, along with men, they took care of the household. Sons always remained in the mother's clan, and kinship was transmitted from mother to son.
The clan in which the woman played the leading role in the economy is called the maternal clan, and the relations that developed between people during the existence of maternal clans are called matriarchy.
In addition to the hoe, other agricultural tools appeared. A sickle was used to cut the ears. It was made of wood with sharp flint teeth. The grain was knocked out with wooden mallets, rubbed with two flat stones - a grain grater.
To store grain and cook food from it, people needed utensils. Having stumbled upon clay soil soaked from rain, primitive people noticed that wet clay sticks and sticks, and then, drying in the sun, it becomes hard and does not let moisture through. Man learned to mold crude vessels from clay, burn them in the sun, and later on fire.

Agriculture ancient man arose in the valleys of the large southern rivers about seven thousand years ago. Here was loose soil, annually fertilized with silt, which settled on it during floods. The first agricultural tribes appeared here. In wooded areas, before tillage, it was necessary to clear the place from trees and shrubs. The soil of the wooded regions, which did not receive natural fertilizer, was rapidly depleted. The ancient farmers of the woodlands often had to change areas for crops, which required hard and hard work.
Along with cereals, the most ancient farmers cultivated vegetables. Cabbage, carrots, peas were bred by the ancient population of Europe, potatoes - by the indigenous population of America.
When farming became permanent from an occasional occupation, the agricultural tribes led a sedentary life. Each clan settled in a separate village closer to the water.

Sometimes huts were built over water: logs - piles - were driven into the bottom of a lake or river, other logs were laid on them - flooring, and huts were erected on the floor. The remains of such pile settlements have been found in various European countries. The oldest inhabitants of piled buildings used a polished axe, made pottery, and were engaged in agriculture.

Cattle breeding of ancient people

Settled life made it easier for a person to switch to cattle breeding. Hunters have long domesticated some animals. The dog was first domesticated. She accompanied a man on a hunt, guarded the parking lot. Managed to tame other animals - sw her, goats, bulls. Leaving the parking lot, the hunters killed the animals. From the time the tribes moved to settled life, people stopped killing the captured cubs of animals. They learned to use not only the meat of animals, but also their milk.

The domestication of animals gave man better food and clothing. People got wool and down. With helpspindlesthey spun threads from wool and fluff, then weaved woolen fabrics from them. Deer, bulls, and later horses began to be used to transport heavy loads.

Nomadic pastoral tribes appeared in the boundless steppes of Central Asia, Southeast Europe and North Africa. They raised cattle and bartered meat, wool and skins for bread from farmers who led a settled life. There is an exchange - trade. Special places appear, where at a certain time people gathered specifically for exchange.

Relations between pastoral nomads and settled farmers were often hostile. The nomads attacked the settled population and robbed it. Farmers stole cattle from nomads. Cattle breeding develops from hunting and therefore, like hunting, is the main occupation of a man. The cattle belongs to the man, as well as everything that can be obtained in exchange for cattle. The importance of women's labor among the tribes that have switched to pastoralism recedes into the background in comparison with the labor of men. Dominance in the clan and tribe passes to the man. The maternal lineage is replaced by the paternal lineage. Sons, who previously remained in the mother's clan, now enter the father's clan, become his relatives and can inherit his property.

The main features of the primitive communal system.

The history of human society, as established by the founders of Marxism-Leninism, goes through five stages, characterized by special relationships between people that arise in the course of production. These five steps are as follows: primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist.

The primitive communal system covered the longest period in the history of mankind. It has existed for hundreds of thousands of years. Primitive society did not know private property. In this era there was no inequality. In order to endure the harsh struggle for existence, people had to live and work together, to fairly share the jointly captured booty.

Labor was of decisive importance in the development of primitive society and man himself.Thanks to labor, the ancestors of man stood out from the animal world, and man acquired the appearance that is characteristic of him now. For hundreds of thousands of years, primitive people have made many valuable inventions and discoveries. People learned how to make fire, make tools and weapons from stone, bone, wood, sculpt and burn clay dishes.

Man has learned to cultivate the land and has grown the useful grains and vegetables that we use now; he tamed, and subsequently domesticated animals, which provided him with food and clothing, and facilitated movement.

The primitive communal system was possible when people possessed primitive tools that did not allow them to have surpluses and forced them to share everything equally.

The primitive communal system is collective labor, joint ownership of land, hunting and fishing grounds, the fruits of labor, this is the equality of members of society, the absence of oppression of man by man.

Pastoral and agricultural societies

About twenty thousand years ago, some groups of hunters and gatherers in search of a livelihood began to raise domestic animals and cultivate permanent plots of land. Pastoral societies are usually engaged in raising livestock, and the main occupation agricultural societies- cultivation of crops. Many societies lead a mixed economy - cattle-breeding and agriculture.

Pastoral societies

Depending on the habitat, pastoralists breed various animals: cows, sheep, goats, camels or horses. Many pastoralist communities continue to exist in the modern world, mainly in Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. Usually such societies are located where there are rich pastures, as well as in deserts or mountains. These areas are not suitable for productive agriculture, but they can raise different types of livestock.

Pastoral societies usually migrate between different areas in accordance with seasonal changes. Using animals as transport, they cover much greater distances than hunter-gatherer tribes. Since pastoralists are constantly nomadic, they do not accumulate significant material property, although their way of life in this sense is more complex than that of hunters and gatherers. Domestic animals provide a regular supply of food, so pastoral societies are usually much larger than hunter-gatherer communities. Some of them have more than a quarter of a million people.

As they move across vast areas, pastoralists regularly come into contact with other groups. Often they are engaged in trade - as well as war. Many pastoralist societies were peaceful, raising livestock and performing rituals and ceremonies for their community. Others were extremely warlike and made their living by raiding and plundering as much as by pastoralism. Pastoralists show more inequality in the distribution of power and property than hunter-gatherer communities. In particular, leaders, tribal leaders, military leaders often have considerable personal power.

The classic description of a pastoral society was given by Evans-Pritchard, who studied the Newe, a tribe from South Sudan, Africa 2 0) . This people lived mainly due to cattle breeding, but, in addition, the Newe grew some agricultural crops. They settled in villages located at a distance of 8-30 km from each other. In the 1930s, when Evans-Pritchard did his research, the tribe numbered up to 200,000 people. They all spoke the same language and had similar customs. However, they did not have a centralized authority or any (p. 58) government. The Nioe people are divided into tribal groups, which sometimes act together, but mostly live independently.

Each clan has its own territory, the boundaries are often determined by rivers and streams. The land of Newe is not much valued, except perhaps as a place for grazing. During the dry season, clans camp near wells and springs. Much of the Newe's life is dedicated to caring for animals, which are in many ways central to their culture. Neighbors with virtually no livestock are deeply despised by Newe. Every significant phase of life - birth, coming of age, marriage and death - is accompanied by ritual actions involving animals. Men are often addressed by their favorite bulls, and women by their favorite cow they milk.

The Newe are often at war with each other, and also form alliances to protect themselves from outsiders. Wars, like the whole life of the tribe, are connected with cattle. For example, the Newe regularly raid the Dinka, a neighboring pastoral tribe, in order to steal their herds. The Newe proverb says: “More people have died for cows than for any other reason.”

Agricultural societies

Apparently, agricultural societies appeared simultaneously with pastoral ones. At some point, hunter-gatherer groups started planting their own crops instead of collecting wild ones. The first manifestation of this way of life was "gardening", in which small gardens were cultivated with simple hoes and shovels. Until now, many people in the world live mainly due to gardening.

Like pastoralism, horticulture provides a more regular supply of food than hunting and gathering, and therefore larger communities can be based on horticulture. Since gardeners are not nomadic, their cultures may have a greater concentration of property than hunters and even pastoralists. When groups form permanent settlements, regular economic and political links develop between them. Gardeners are militant, although their level of violence is lower than that of pastoral tribes. Plant care people are usually not well versed in the martial arts, while nomadic pastoral tribes often rally into entire predatory armies.

The Gururumba, a New Guinean tribe of about a thousand people, lives in six villages 2 1) . Each village has several plots of land fenced off from each other. Each plot is divided into several plots belonging to different families. Everyone is engaged in agriculture - both adults and children, although men and women are responsible for different types of fruits and vegetables. Each family has several plots, and at different times of the year grows different types of plants there, thus ensuring a regular supply of food. Gururumba culture has a complex ceremonial system of gifts from one family to another, through which the family's status in the community is established. Therefore, Gururumba has vegetable gardens for everyday food and those on which "prestigious" crops are grown. “Prestigious” plants are looked after much more than ordinary ones.

(59str) Gururumba also keep pigs, which, however, are not eaten, but are used as gifts if they wish to acquire a position in the community. Every few years, a grand feast is held, for which hundreds of pigs are slaughtered. Their prepare and give as a gift. At Gururumba. like pastoralists, inequality is much more pronounced than among hunters and gatherers. An important role is played by the leaders of the tribe and leaders. There are also significant differences with regard to the material wealth that people own.

Non-industrial civilizations, or traditional states

The first evidence of the existence of societies, much larger and completely different from primitive ones, dates back to the sixth millennium BC 2 2) . The appearance of cities is associated with these societies, they are characterized by pronounced inequality, the rule of kings and emperors is associated with them. These societies are often called civilizations since writing existed in them, the sciences and arts flourished. However, since orderly forms of government first appeared there, the term is often used to refer to such societies. traditional states.

Most of the traditional states were simultaneously empires. Their territories increased as a result of conquests or the annexation of other peoples 2 3). So it was, for example, in China and in Rome. At the time of its highest prosperity, in the 1st century AD. The Roman Empire stretched from Britain to the Middle East. The Chinese empire, which existed for more than two thousand years, until the beginning of this century, covered most of East Asia - the territory occupied by modern China. There are no traditional states left in the modern world. Some of them, like China and Japan, survived more or less intact well into the early twentieth century, but nonetheless all of them were either destroyed or converted to more modern systems.

The very first traditional states appeared in the Middle East, usually located in fertile river valleys 2 4) . The Chinese empire was formed around the second millennium BC. At the same time, powerful powers existed in India and Pakistan. A number of large traditional states, such as those of the Aztecs and Incas, existed in Mexico and in the rest of Latin America. The Inca state was founded about a century before the appearance of the Spanish adventurer Pizarro, who landed in South America in 1535 with a very small detachment of soldiers. However, thanks to an alliance with local tribes hostile to the Incas, he managed to conquer this state and establish Spanish rule in the occupied territory. The conquest of Pizarro was the first episode in a series of confrontations between the West and traditional cultures, as a result of which these cultures completely disappeared.

Mayan civilization

As an example of a traditional state, we will consider another American civilization - the Maya, who inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula in the Gulf of Mexico (60pp). The Mayan civilization flourished in the 4th-8th centuries AD. The Maya built complex places of worship around which residential buildings were located. All buildings were made of stone. The structures were in the form of pyramids, with a temple at the top. Tikal, the largest of the pyramids, was surrounded by a city of 40,000 inhabitants. It was the main administrative center (actually the capital) of the Mayan state.

Mayan society was ruled by an aristocratic warrior-priest class. They were the highest religious dignitaries of the Maya, as well as warlords, and were in constant war with neighboring communities. The majority of the population were peasants, who had to give part of their crops to the aristocratic rulers, who lived in conditions of a kind of luxury.

Why the Mayan civilization disappeared is not exactly known, but it is most likely that it was conquered by neighboring tribes. By the time the Spaniards arrived, the Mayan state was long gone.

The main features of the traditional state

Until the beginning of the modern industrial age, the traditional state was the only type of society in history in which a significant part of the population was not directly involved in food production. In tribes of hunters and gatherers, as well as in agricultural and pastoral societies separation labor was very primitive. Classes were mainly divided into men's and women's. In traditional states, a more complex system of professional occupations already existed. The division by gender was still strictly observed, and the share of women was mainly the work of the house and in the field. However, men developed such specialized occupations as the craft of a merchant, courtier, government official, and soldier.

There was also a simplified division into classes between groups of the aristocracy and the rest of the population. The ruler stood at the head of the "ruling class", which retained the exclusive right to the highest social position. Members of this class tended to live in relative material comfort and luxury. On the other hand, the living conditions of the bulk of the population were often extremely difficult. Slavery was typical for these societies.

Only a few traditional states were founded as a result of the development of trade and were ruled by merchants. Most of them either arose as a result of conquests or built up powerful armed forces 2 5). Traditional states took care of the development of professional armies - the forerunners of modern types of military organization. The Roman army, for example, was an organization with excellent discipline and intensive training of warriors and was the basis on which imperial expansion was built. In the culture of traditional states, the beginnings of the mechanization of war are already visible. The swords, spears, helmets and siege equipment of the Roman army were made by professional craftsmen. The number of casualties in wars between traditional states and in their clashes with "barbarian" tribes has increased many times over in comparison with previous periods.

(61str)

Societies in the modern world

To date, traditional states have completely disappeared from the face of the earth. Although hunter-gatherer tribes, as well as pastoral and agricultural communities, continue to exist to this day, they can only be found in isolated areas - and, in most cases, even these few groups disintegrate. What was the reason for the destruction of societies that determined the entire human history two centuries ago? The answer, if formulated in one word, would be industrialization - the emergence of machine production based on the use of inanimate energy sources (such as steam and electricity). Industrial societies in many ways fundamentally different from any of the previous types of social organization, and their development led to consequences that affected far beyond the borders of their European homeland.

Industrial societies

Modern industrialization originated in England as a result of the "industrial revolution" that began in the 18th century. The term refers to a range of complex technological changes in the way people earn their livelihoods. These changes are associated with the invention of new machines (for example, a loom), the use of new energy sources in production (especially water and steam), as well as the use of scientific methods to improve production. The pace of technological innovation in industrial societies is unusually high compared to traditional ones, as inventions and discoveries in one area lead to even more discoveries in other areas.

The main distinguishing feature of industrial societies is that the vast majority of the working population is employed in factories and offices, and not in agriculture. In traditional societies, even the most advanced, only a small part of the population did not work on the land. The relatively low level of technological development simply did not allow more than an insignificant group to be exempted from agricultural production. In industrialized countries, on the contrary, only about 2-5% of the population is employed in agriculture, and their efforts are enough to provide food for the rest.

Compared to previous social systems, industrial societies are much more urbanized. In some industrialized countries, over 90% of citizens live in cities, where most of the jobs are concentrated and new ones are constantly being created. The size of these cities far exceed those that existed in traditional civilizations. In the cities of the new type, social life has become impersonal and anonymous, and we come into contact with strangers much more often than with those we know personally. Organizations of enormous scale are emerging, such as industrial corporations and government agencies, whose activities affect the lives of almost all of us.

Another feature of industrial societies is related to their political systems - much more developed and efficient than traditional forms of government. In the era of traditional civilizations, political power in the person of the monarch or emperor had practically no direct influence on the mores and customs of the majority of subjects who lived in completely independent settlements. With the process of industrialization, transport and communication became much faster, which contributed to the greater integration of "national" communities. Industrial (63str) societies were the first nation states. Nation-states are political communities divided by clear boundaries separating them from each other and replacing the vague boundaries of traditional states. Nation-state governments have exclusive power over many aspects of the lives of their citizens and establish laws that are binding on all living within their borders.

Types of human societies
Main characteristics	Time of existence
Hunter and Gatherer Communities
They consist of a small number of people who support their existence by hunting, fishing and collecting edible plants. Inequality in these societies is weakly expressed; differences in social status are determined by age and gender.	From 50,000 BC e. until now, although they are now on the verge of extinction.
Agricultural societies
These societies are based on small rural communities; there are no cities. The main livelihood is agriculture, sometimes supplemented by hunting and gathering. These societies are more unequal than hunter-gatherer communities; These societies are headed by leaders.	From 12,000 BC e. until now. Today, most of them are part of larger political entities and are gradually losing their specific character.
Societies of pastoralists
These societies are based on the breeding of domestic animals to satisfy material needs. The sizes of such societies vary from a few hundred to thousands of people. These societies are usually characterized by pronounced inequality. They are ruled by leaders or commanders.	The same period of time as that of agricultural societies. Today pastoral societies are also part of larger states; and their traditional way of life is being destroyed.
Traditional States, or Civilizations
In these societies, the basis of the economic system is still agriculture, but there are cities in which trade and production are concentrated. Among the traditional states there are very large ones, with a population of many millions, although usually their sizes are small in comparison with large industrial countries. Traditional states have a special government apparatus headed by a king or emperor. There is a significant disparity between the various classes.	Around 6000 B.C. e. until the nineteenth century. By now, all traditional states have disappeared.
First world societies
These societies are based on industrial production, with a significant role given to free enterprise. Only a small part of the population is employed in agriculture, the vast majority of people live in cities. There is significant class inequality, although less pronounced than in traditional states. These societies constitute special political entities, or nation-states.	From the eighteenth century to the present.
Second world societies
Societies that have an industrial base, but their economic system is dominated by central planning. Only a relatively small part of the population is employed in agriculture, the majority lives in cities. There is a significant class disparity, although the goal of the Marxist governments in these countries is to create a classless system. Like the countries of the first world, do they form special political communities, or nation-states?	From the beginning of the twentieth century (after the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia) to the present.
Third world societies
Societies in which the majority of the population is employed in agriculture, lives in rural areas and uses mainly traditional methods of production. However, some agricultural products are sold on the world market. In some third world countries there is a system of free enterprise, in others - central planning. Third world societies are also nation states.	From the eighteenth century (as colonized countries) to the present.

(64pp) The application of industrial technology was by no means limited to the peaceful process of economic development. Already from the first steps of industrialization, industrial production was called upon to serve military purposes, and this radically changed the way war was waged, since weapons and types of military organization were created much more advanced than in non-industrial cultures. Economic dominance, political integrity, and military power have formed the basis of the unstoppable expansion of the Western way of life that the world has experienced over the past two hundred years.

The once numerous traditional cultures and states disappeared not because their way of life was “inferior”. They were unable to withstand the impact of that combination of industrial and military relics, developed in Western countries. Idea authorities, and the closely related concept ideology, occupy a very important place in sociology. Power refers to the ability of individuals or groups to serve their own interests even when others oppose it. Sometimes power is associated with the direct use of force, but almost always it is accompanied by the emergence of ideas (ideologies) that justify actions of those in power. In the case of the expansion of the West, the invaders justified their" actions by the fact that they allegedly brought "civilization" to the "pagan" peoples with whom they came into contact.

SOCIOLOGY 1 SOCIOLOGY E. Giddens _ Preface Book E. Giddens- it's... interacting. General course sociologyAnthonyGiddens, published eight years...

SOCIOLOGY Edition 2 Recommended by the Ministries of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions MOSCOW 2003

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circle of readers. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1. SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE § 1.1. Sociology like science Sociology and other sciences... about each other and respect each other. Modern sociologistAnthonyGiddens gave a broader definition: the family ...

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Cultural Initiative", 1992. Modern theoretical sociology: AnthonyGiddens: Ref. Sat/RAN. INION. ... Table of contents Preface …………………………………………….……. 2 Chapter 1 Matrix of sociological knowledge………………….. 5 Chapter 2 Subject and object sociology……………………….. ...

EARLY DOMESTIC AGRICULTURAL AND CATSTORAL CIVILIZATIONS

Introduction

1 Formation of domestic civilizations of the Ancient World. neolithic revolution

2 The main features of the development of early domestic civilization centers of the Ancient World

3 Features of the protection of historical monuments of early domestic agricultural and pastoral civilizations

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The first, oldest socio-economic formation was the primitive communal system. It lasted from the time of the formation of man to the transition to a class society and, therefore, was the longest epoch in the history of mankind, due to the slow pace of development of society in its early stages. All stages of the primitive communal system are united by the collective nature of production and consumption, due to the fact that the productive forces were still very undeveloped. That is why the further development of the productive forces, the transition from a typically primitive consuming economy to a producing economy, the division of labor (primarily the separation of pastoral and agricultural peoples) complicated the entire system of social relations and ultimately led to a transition to other types of social development.

It is generally accepted that primitive society is divided into periods according to the main materials used to make tools: the Stone Age, the Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age) - transitional from stone tools to metal ones, the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age. This periodization, of course, does not mean that tools from wood and bone were not made in the Stone Age, and from stone in the Bronze Age. We are talking about the predominance of one or another material.

Table 1

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AGES		CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
I. Stone Age
1. Paleolithic		1500–100 thousand years ago
2. Mesolithic		12–8 thousand years BC
3. Neolithic*
II. Copper Age*
III. Bronze Age*
IV. Iron Age*		from 1 thousand BC to the present day
* In Europe and Asia

1 Formation of domestic civilizations of the Ancient World. neolithic revolution

The settlement of primitive man on the territory of the Russian Federation took place in the era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), characterized by the predominant use of stone for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Wood, bone and other materials were also used. The main occupations of small human groups were hunting and gathering. Traces of the habitation of an ancient man who came from the Transcaucasus were found in the North Caucasus and in the Kuban region. Sites of the Mousterian Paleolithic culture (100-35 thousand years ago) were discovered by archaeologists in the middle Volga region and other regions. Burial discoveries, according to scientists, testify to the development of religious beliefs. In the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-35 - 10 thousand years ago), people of the modern type (Cro-Magnons) lived in certain areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (the Urals, Pechora, the West Siberian Lowland, Transbaikalia, the valley of the middle Lena). They own numerous archaeological sites (Avdeevskaya camp, Sungir, Kostenki, Malta, Buret, etc.). Collectives of blood relatives on the maternal or paternal lines (clan) lived in the conditions of the last (Valdai) glaciation. Adapting to the harsh natural conditions, they improved the technique of processing stone, bone, etc., mastered the construction of dwellings; introduced specialization in hunting and other crafts. During this period, hunting for large mammals prevailed: mammoths, cave bears, etc. The comprehension of the surrounding world was reflected in sculptures and cave paintings (Kapova Cave).

During the period of the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), people adapted to the changing natural conditions associated with the retreat of the glacier and the formation of the modern relief, climate, flora and fauna. Small groups of hunters and fishermen moved into the areas freed from glaciation. With the invention of the bow and arrows in hunting, the prey of medium and small mammals, waterfowl acquired a large place; large areas of inland water bodies contributed to the development of fisheries. Researchers attribute the emergence of group burial grounds to this period (Oleneostrovsky burial ground, etc.).

At the last stage of the Stone Age (Neolithic), the formation of branches of the productive economy began: agriculture and cattle breeding. In the manufacture of stone tools, grinding and polishing, as well as sawing and drilling, were used. Pottery, spinning and weaving arose. For transportation, boats, skis, sledges were used. By the end of the Neolithic, individual copper items appeared. In the course of the complication of tribal society, associations of individual clans appeared - tribes. At the same time, groups of tribes led the same type of economy, which is confirmed by excavations and studies of pit-comb and other archaeological cultures of the Neolithic (Lyalovskaya, Balakhna, etc.).

In the era of the Copper Age (Eneolithic), agriculture, cattle breeding and copper metallurgy developed initially in the southern regions of Eurasia. In the 4th-2nd millennium BC. e. settlements of settled farmers and pastoralists existed in the North Caucasus; Ukraine, Moldova (Trypillian culture); steppes of the South of Russia (pit culture), etc.

According to the latest archeological data, the oldest traces of human habitation on the territory of Russia date back to pre-Shellian times (3 - 2 million years ago) and were found in Siberia, the North Caucasus and the Kuban region. In particular, the Bogatyri and Rodniki sites on Taman are 1.5 million years old. Sites of the next stage, the Shellic (730-350 thousand years ago) were found in the Voronezh, Kaluga, Tula, Volgograd regions. Approximately 150 thousand years ago, the Acheulean cultures were replaced by the Mousterian ones. Sites of this type are widespread in the European part of Russia. During these cultures, the physical type of a person also developed - local species of Australopithecus, later - archanthropes, paleoanthropes (including their own types of "Neanderthals"), who were replaced by a modern neoanthrope.

In Russia, there is the oldest neoanthropic site in the world - Kostenki in the Voronezh region (50 thousand years ago). Settling, neoanthropes formed the first archaeological culture of neoanthropes - the Kostenkovo-Streltsy culture (50 - 30 thousand years ago, sites: Markina Gora, 44 - 34 thousand years BC, Voronezh region; Eliseevichi, 35 - 25 thousand years before AD, Bryansk region; Sungir, 28 - 20 thousand BC, Vladimir region, etc.). Its genetic heir is the Kostenkovo-Avdeevka culture, which existed until the Mesolithic era. This culture includes sites: Gagarino, 22 - 21 thousand BC. e., Lipetsk region; Zaraysk, 22 - 21 thousand BC e., Moscow region; Avdeevo, 22 - 21 thousand BC e., Kursk region; Yudinovo, 14 - 13 thousand BC e., Bryansk region, etc. Anthropological type of a person - Caucasians.

NEOLITIC REVOLUTION(neolitic revolution) - a revolutionary revolution in production that occurred in late primitive society, usually associated with the transition from an appropriating to a producing economy and created the prerequisites for the formation of an early class society.

The term "Neolithic Revolution" was introduced in 1949 by the English archaeologist Gordon Child, who was close in his conceptual preferences to Marxism and proposed the term by analogy with the Marxist concept of "industrial revolution". This revolution, according to Child, "transformed the human economy, gave man control over his own food supply", thus creating the conditions for the emergence of civilization. Since the concept of "industrial revolution" by the middle of the 20th century. already became generally accepted, the term "Neolithic revolution" quickly gained popularity. Other variants of the names of this historical event (for example, "revolution in food production", "agricultural revolution") did not receive the support of specialists.

Currently, the Neolithic Revolution is considered one of the three major revolutionary changes in the economy - along with the industrial and scientific and technological revolutions.

The study of archaeological materials (especially in America) and the way of life of the surviving backward peoples has shown, however, that a rigid connection between social stratification and the transition to a productive economy is by no means found everywhere. There are peoples who continued to engage in appropriating economy, but have already gone far from primitive equality. For example, the Indians of Alaska 18-19 centuries. They were mainly engaged in fishing and hunting, but by the time the Europeans arrived, they already had such institutions as chiefdoms, wars between tribes, and patriarchal slavery.

To explain this contradiction, one should pay attention to the most general signs of a producing economy, identified by the Soviet historian V.M. Bakhta:

settled way of life;

stock creation and storage;

interval in the sequence of works;

cyclical work;

expansion of the range of activities.

Of these five signs, only three are sufficient for the development of social stratification - the 1st, 2nd and 5th. The most important feature is (2): it is the accumulation of rare material goods (first of all, food) that gives rise to the division into rich and poor. Therefore, the Soviet historian V.A. Back in the 1980s, Bashilov proposed to understand by the Neolithic revolution transition from the production of a subsistence minimum to the stable production of a surplus product regardless of the particular forms of economy under which this transition occurs.

The logic of the concept of V.A. Bashilova is like that. Before the Neolithic Revolution, the production of excess food was random and unsustainable, because there were no technologies for the long-term preservation of scarce food. When methods are discovered for long-term storage of food reserves (smoking, salting, etc.), then a powerful incentive immediately arises not to immediately eat all the prey, as happened in early primitive society, but to accumulate it for a “rainy day”. Owners of a larger supply can guarantee a stable standard of living not only for themselves, but also for their loved ones. Therefore, they acquire a higher social status. The accumulation of wealth stimulates predatory raids on neighboring tribes in order to take away their accumulation. Thus, for the formation of social stratification, sufficient conditions may arise even if the appropriating economy is preserved.

The thesis about the stable production of a surplus product can be perceived as an indication of an increase in the level and quality of life during the Neolithic revolution: before it, people lived on the verge of starvation, and after that, as a result of the transition to more advanced technologies, life became more abundant. This understanding was widely held until the 1970s, when the American anthropologist Marshall Sahlins proved it wrong.

In his monograph Economics of the Stone Age(1973) M. Sahlins, summarizing ethnographic and historical information, formulated a paradoxical conclusion: the early farmers worked more, but had a lower standard of living than late primitive hunters and gatherers. The early agricultural peoples known in history worked, as a rule, for a much larger number of days than those who survived to the 20th century spent on getting food. primitive hunters and gatherers. The idea of ​​the hungry life of backward peoples also turned out to be very much exaggerated - among farmers, hunger strikes were more severe and regular. The fact is that under the appropriating economy, people took far from nature everything that it could give them. The reason for this is not the imaginary laziness of backward peoples, but the specificity of their way of life, which does not attach importance to the accumulation of material wealth (which, moreover, is often impossible to accumulate due to the lack of technologies for long-term food storage).

A paradoxical conclusion arises, which is called the “Sahlins paradox”: during the Neolithic revolution, the improvement of agricultural production leads to a deterioration in living standards. Is it then possible to consider the Neolithic revolution a progressive phenomenon if it lowers the standard of living? It turns out that it is possible if we consider the criteria for progress more broadly, without reducing them only to average per capita consumption.

What exactly was the progressivity of the Neolithic revolution can be explained by the model proposed by the American economists and historians Douglas North and Robert Thomas ( cm. rice.).

In the early primitive society, common property dominated: due to the small population, access to hunting grounds and fishing grounds was open to everyone without exception. This meant that there was a general right to use the resource before it was captured (whoever was the first to capture it) and an individual right to use the resource after the capture. As a result, each tribe, collecting prey from the next site where it migrated, was interested in the predatory consumption of shared resources "here and now", without concern for reproduction. When the resources of the territory were depleted, they left it and went to a new place.

Such a situation, when each user is concerned with maximizing personal immediate benefits without worrying about tomorrow, economists call the tragedy of common property. As long as natural resources were abundant, there were no problems. However, their depletion due to population growth led about 10 thousand years ago to the first ever revolution in production and in the social organization of society.

According to the Sahlins paradox, hunting and other types of appropriating economy provided much higher labor productivity than agriculture. Therefore, while the demographic burden on nature did not exceed a certain threshold value (in the figure, the qd value), primitive tribes did not engage in a productive economy, even if there were suitable conditions for this (say, plants suitable for cultivation). When, due to the depletion of natural resources, the productivity of hunters began to fall, then population growth required a transition from hunting to agriculture (in the graph - from an initially higher level of VMPh to a trajectory of a lower VMPa), or the extinction of hunters from starvation. In principle, a third way out is also possible - to stop the demographic pressure at the critical limit. However, primitive people rarely resorted to it due to a lack of understanding of environmental patterns.

In order to move from hunting to farming, fundamental changes in property relations are necessary. Farming is a fundamentally settled type of activity: for many years or constantly, farmers exploit the same piece of land, the harvest from which depends not only on the weather, but also on the actions of people. Fertile land is becoming a rare resource that needs protection. There is a need to protect cultivated lands from attempts to capture them by strangers and to resolve land conflicts between fellow tribesmen. As a result, it begins to take shape state as an institution whose main economic function is the protection of property rights.

D. North and R. Thomas proposed to consider the main content of the First Economic Revolution (as they called the Neolithic Revolution) the emergence of property rights that secure exclusive rights individual, family, clan or tribe to the ground. Overcoming the tragedy of common property made it possible to stop the fall of the marginal product of labor and stabilize it.

Table 2. INCREASE IN POPULATION DENSITY AND MASS DURING THE NEOLITIC REVOLUTION

The progress of the development of society in the course of the Neolithic revolution, therefore, is manifested not directly in the growth of the average per capita standard of living, but in an increase in the density and population (Table 3). The shift from hunting and gathering to farming has been estimated to increase population density hundreds of times over. Since this transition did not take place in all regions of the planet, the growth of the total population of the planet occurred more slowly - not hundreds, but only tens of times.

It should be taken into account that in different regions of the planet the Neolithic revolution took place asynchronously and with different regional specifics. There are three ancient primary foci:

Western Asia (the territory of modern Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Jordan), where by 7-6 thousand BC. an agricultural and cattle-breeding economy was formed (growing wheat, barley and peas, breeding goats) and the first cities of the planet appeared (Chatal-Guyuk, Jarmo, Jericho);

Mesoamerica (the territory of Mexico), where by the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. an agricultural economy based on the cultivation of maize developed; the territory of Peru, where by the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. the economy of settled agriculture (cultivation of maize) is being formed, while maintaining the great importance of fishing.

The Neolithic revolution in each of the primary centers proceeded for a long time, for 2–4 millennia. When the new manufacturing economy began to spread from these centers to the surrounding regions, the adoption of already accumulated production and social experience sharply reduced the transition time. In the modern world, backward peoples who did not survive the Neolithic revolution survived only in remote corners of the planet with special natural and climatic conditions.

2. The main features of the development of early domestic civilization centers of the Ancient World

In the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread over a large territory of Russia (except for the northern and northeastern regions), in connection with which the decomposition of primitive communal relations accelerated. At the same time, in the North - in the taiga and tundra, in harsh natural conditions, the archaic primitive way of life was preserved. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th-6th centuries. BC e. under the influence of iron and blacksmithing in Transcaucasia. The transition to the production of iron is traced on the material of the Koban, Srubnaya, Abashev and other cultures. The formation of the Iron Age in the Black Sea steppes coincided with the presence of the Cimmerians there, and then the Scythians. 2 economic structures were formed: cattle-breeding-nomadic in the steppes and sedentary-agricultural in the forest-steppes. The emergence of handicraft centers, which developed into urban ones, with a significant military potential, contributed to the emergence of a state among the Scythians. Scythian and Scythian-like cultures of the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. on the territory of Southeastern Europe constituted the western part of a large cultural and historical community, which was formed mainly among the nomadic pastoral tribes of Eurasia (the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical community).

In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. ancient cities arose on the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, which united in the 5th century. BC e. in the Bosporan state, which also included Sinds, Meots, and other tribes. Greek slave cities were centers of high ancient culture, they established close economic, political and cultural ties with the Scythians and other peoples. In the 4th c. BC e. began the movement from the Urals to the Volga region of the Sarmatian tribes. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians and in the 3rd c. BC e. settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus. In the steppe zone, by the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. became the dominant Sarmatian culture. The Scythian state, which existed from the 2nd century BC. BC e. mainly on the territory of the Crimea and along the banks of the lower Dnieper, was influenced by ancient cities and Sarmatian culture.

Iron-making production developed in the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Dnieper basin. The population of the Zarubintsy culture (2nd century BC-2nd century AD) in the upper and middle parts of the Northern Dnieper and Desenye regions is correlated by some scientists with the tribes of the Balts, by others with the Proto-Slavs. In the forest area of ​​Eastern Europe from the 8th c. BC e. by 6th-7th centuries n. e. there were cultures associated with different ethnic groups. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve, monuments of the Dyakovo culture were found, to the South and East from the middle reaches of the Oka and to the Volga (basins of the Tsna, Moksha, Sura rivers) the Gorodets culture spread. The carriers of these cultures were the Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of Meri, Vesi, Meshchers, Muroms and Mordovians. Representatives of the Ananyino culture (8th-3rd centuries BC) occupied the left bank of the Middle Volga and the Kama region. They are considered the ancestors of the Udmurts and Komi. From 8-5 centuries. BC e. iron was being developed in the Far East. Here the centers of ferrous metallurgy were formed.

In the process of the great migration of peoples to the Northern Black Sea region in the 3rd century. n. e. the Goths came, in 375 the Huns. Ancient cities ceased to exist. In the 2nd half of the 3rd c. in the steppe and forest-steppe from the left tributaries of the Dnieper to the Danube, the poly-ethnic Chernyakhov culture spread. Its carriers were Dacians, Getae, Sarmatian-Alans, late Scythians, Goths, Slavs. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. there was a decomposition of primitive communal relations among many agricultural and pastoral peoples living in Eastern Europe and Siberia. In 550-562, the union of nomadic tribes of the Avars moved from the Urals and the Volga region to the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 6th c. in Central Asia, a tribal union of the Turks created a state - the Turkic Khaganate, which played an important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking population of Eurasia. In the 60s. 6th c. The Turks defeated the state of the Hephthalites in Central Asia. At the turn of the 6th-7th centuries. East Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates arose. In 638-926, in the southern Primorye, there was a state of the Mohe tribe and another - Bohai, which successfully fought against the emperors of Tang China. In the 2nd half of the 6th c. Turkic-speaking Bulgarian Balanjar tribes moved from the Trans-Urals to the North Caucasus. In the 1st third of the 7th c. in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, the state formation Great Bulgaria arose. In the middle of the 7th c. nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Don steppes were included in the Khazar Khaganate. The Finno-Ugric tribes of the Middle Volga region and immigrants from Great Bulgaria created in the 10th century. state - Volga-Kama Bulgaria. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. there was a process of formation of the state among the Alans in the North Caucasus.

3 Features of the protection of historical monuments of early domestic agricultural and pastoral civilizations

Archaeological monuments of the Bronze Age have been discovered almost throughout Eurasia. By the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. include monuments of the Bronze Age in the Caucasus, in the Northern Black Sea region, etc. At the end of the 3rd -1st quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The technology of bronze smelting was mastered by the tribes of the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and the Altai-Sayan region. The primitive communal form of social organization was preserved for the most part. Scientists have established the existence in the Bronze Age of independent territorially isolated population groups with peculiar features of spiritual and material culture (cultural groups, archaeological cultures, cultural and historical communities). In the southern zone (Caucasus, Central Asia, partly South Siberia) agricultural and cattle-breeding complexes with developed handicraft production arose. In the steppe, forest-steppe, and partly in the forest zones, the cattle-breeding type of economy prevailed, with the auxiliary role of agriculture. In the forest (taiga) zone, cattle breeding was combined with hunting and fishing. There were long-term settlements where handicraft production developed. In the early Bronze Age in the Transcaucasus and the North-Eastern Caucasus there was a Kuro-Araks agricultural and cattle-breeding culture. Relations were maintained with the civilizations of the Middle East. In the late Bronze Age, the Koban culture spread in the central regions of the Caucasus. On the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe lived cattle-breeding tribes of the pit cultural and historical community, which arose back in the Copper Age. At the end of the 3rd - the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Upper and Middle Volga regions and the interfluve of the Oka and Volga lived carriers of the Fatyanovo and Balanovo cultures. In the forest-steppe zone of the Don region, the Middle Volga region and the Southern Urals in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the tribes of the Abashev cultural and historical community lived, which are characterized by a high level of development of metallurgy, based on the Ural and Volga copper deposits. In the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. on the territory from the Urals to the Left Bank of the Dnieper, pastoral and agricultural tribes of the Srubnaya cultural and historical community were located. The Seima-Turbinsky cultural complex, which originated in the Sayano-Altai region, spread thousands of kilometers to the West. In Siberia, the Afanasiev culture in the upper reaches of the Yenisei and the Altai steppes belonged to the Eneolithic - the early stage of the Bronze Age, the Glazkov culture in the Baikal region and the Ymyyakhtakh culture in the basin of the middle Lena belonged to the early Bronze Age. The spread of metallurgy in Eastern Siberia is associated with the influence of the Okunev culture, presumably formed in the Minusinsk Basin and forced out to the East by the tribes of the Andronovo cultural and historical community. The Andronov tribes occupied in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the territory from the Urals to the Yenisei and from the taiga zone to the northern regions of Central Asia (Alekseevsky settlement, etc.). The Karasuk culture (13-8 centuries BC) was found in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Ob, in the Sayano-Altai region. In the south of the Far East in the 2nd half of the 2nd - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. there were Sinegai, Lido, Evoron and other cultures. In the Bronze Age, the process of social division of labor intensified, the exchange between tribes increased. The craft has become an independent sphere of production. The heads of large patriarchal families possessed considerable wealth; property differentiation intensified, clashes between tribes became more frequent. In the Bronze Age, alliances of tribes arose, later described by ancient historians and geographers.

In the vicinity of the mountainous Krasnodarya, the northwestern part of the Black Sea region, the Republic of Adygea, dolmens became widespread - megalithic ritual and burial structures. They are mainly located in the mountain-forest zone. Dolmens appeared in the Western Caucasus about 5,000 years ago in the Early Bronze Age. In recent years, there has been enough literature on these mysterious representatives of the dolmen culture, archeological monuments of world significance. The most famous mass dolmen settlements within the weekend routes are Novosvobodnenskoye (more than 400 pieces), Detuaksko-Dakhovskoye (about 120 pieces); in the area of ​​​​the town of Sober-Bash, some researchers counted about 40 dolmens. In dollars R. Abin found up to three dozen tombs, and not far from the village. Pshada lead excursions to 9 dolmens.

In this area, the Scythian culture (7th - 4th centuries BC) is represented by monuments that have received world recognition - the Voronezh, Elizabethan barrows, which provided reference samples of the ancient art of the animal style. These finds are stored in the Golden Storeroom of the State Hermitage, the State Museum of the East.

In the era of the early Iron Age (VIII - IV centuries BC) in the basin of the river. The Kuban and the Sea of ​​Azov formed a vibrant culture of the Meots - tribes of farmers and cattle breeders, fishermen and artisans. They left behind numerous fortified settlements - Elizavetinsky, Vasyurinsko-Voronezhsky, Starokorsunsky on the right bank of the Kuban, Tenginsky on the river. Labe, Steppe I - III in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, etc.

The richest stone tombs of the Sindo-Meotian nobility were found in the Elizavetinskiye, Semibratnye, and Karagodeuashi burial mounds.

The western part of the Krasnodar Territory is the only place in the Russian Federation where ancient monuments are located: the settlements of Phanagoria (the capital of the Asian Bosporus) and Germonassa (Taman), the city of Gorgippia (Anapa), Taman Tholos and the residence of Chrysaliska (village "For the Motherland" of Temryuksky district), the oldest ship anchorages near the capes of Tuzla and Panagia.

Conclusion

So, on the basis of the theoretical analysis carried out in the control work, the following conclusions were drawn.

The periodization of the history of the Ancient World is a complex and not yet fully resolved scientific problem. There are many approaches to the periodization of history. In this paper, the following scheme is considered:

I. The oldest stage, which lasted approximately 1.5 - 2 million years, covers the initial phases of anthropogenesis. The lowest stage of savagery, the time of the prehistory of the economy and material culture;

II. The stage covered a significant part of the Stone Age (Early Paleolithic) and lasted more than 1 million years. The primitive-appropriating stage corresponded to the middle stage of savagery;

III. The emergence of modern man and the early stages of his history (late Paleolithic, Mesolithic, in some areas of the earth the entire Neolithic). The time of a developed appropriating economy, a stage of the highest savagery;

IV. Accumulation of experience in the reproduction of life's blessings, the beginning of the domestication of plants and animals, while maintaining the appropriating type of economy as a whole (late Mesolithic - early Neolithic). The lowest stage of barbarism;

V. VIII-V millennium BC e. - the beginning of the era of the productive economy, corresponding to the middle and highest levels of barbarism;

VI. In the IV-III millennium BC. e. on the basis of the development of productive forces and production relations in irrigation agriculture, the first civilizations arise, which mark the final decomposition of the primitive and the formation of a class society.

VII. At the boundaries of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, the development of nomadism began, which was another major stage in the division of labor.

In the control work, the main agricultural and cattle-breeding centers of the Ancient World are considered.

In the Russian Federation, as in other countries, there is legislation regulating the protection of historical monuments, including the history of the Ancient World.

The western part of the Krasnodar Territory is the only place in the Russian Federation where ancient monuments are located

List of used literature

1. Masson V.M. The problem of the Neolithic revolution in the light of new archeological data. - Questions of history. 1970. No. 6

2. Bashilov V.A. The pace of the historical process in the most important centers of the "Neolithic revolution". - In the book: The Historical Fates of the American Indians. Problems of Indian studies. M., 1985

3. Sahlins M. Economics of the Stone Age. M., 1999

4. Korotaev A.V. Social evolution: factors, patterns, trends. M., 2003

5. Trouble A.M. Cultural-historical rhythms (tables). M., 1995.

6. History of Russia / Under the general. ed. V.V. Rybnikov. Saratov, 1997

7. Mikhailova N.V., Beda A.M., Zhurov A.N. Monuments of the past: Protection of historical heritage. M., 1997.

8. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the World Community of Civilizations: Textbook for Universities. M., 1994.

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