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Expansion of the territory of Russia. Expansion of territories

Expansion of the territory of Russia. Expansion of territories

21.09.2019

The territorial expansion of Russia began in the Middle Ages and continued for many centuries, as a result of which the modern Russian Federation is the largest state in the world. The expansion of territories occurred almost without a stop.

In the most difficult conditions of the struggle, the Russians managed to establish their influence in a significant part of the continent by the beginning of the twentieth century.

Development of Siberia

Almost immediately after the formation and strengthening of the Russian state, expansion to other lands began. In modern history, it originates in the sixteenth century. In 1580, the first detachments went to the practically unexplored lands of Siberia. The campaign was led by the Cossack Yermak. The people who went with him were free Cossacks who were looking for a better life. Already in the first two years of the expedition, it was possible to achieve significant success, capturing several fortresses. The political situation was also explored and the features of the enemy were clarified.

After it became known in Moscow about the successes of the Cossacks, the tsar personally authorized the development of new lands. Thus began the centuries-old territorial expansion of Russia to the east. The conquest of new territories took place in several stages. First, the Cossacks landed on the shore and found the settlements of the local tribe. Then they entered into peace negotiations with them, offering to kneel before the Russian Tsar on a voluntary basis. If the tribe agreed, then the local population was subject to a mandatory tax, and so-called winter quarters were built in the settlement.

Conquest

If the natives refused to accept the conditions, then guns, sabers and guns were used. After the conquest, a prison was set up in the village, in which the garrison remained. The military detachments were followed by settlers: Russian peasants who were looking for a new life, the future administration, the clergy and merchants. Thanks to this, the natives quickly assimilated. Many understood the advantages of being a subject to the king: scientists, engineers, doctors and other creatures of civilization were liked by the local tribes.

Until the eighteenth century, the land and sea borders of Russia expanded quite rapidly. This eventually led to conflict with China and other Asian countries. After that, it slowed down and ended only by the beginning of the twentieth century.

Campaigns of Peter the Great

At the same time, the territorial expansion of Russia to the south took place. Peter the Great saw the liberation of the Crimea and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov as a top priority. At that time, Russia did not have access to the southern seas, which complicated trade and left borders in danger. Therefore, in 1695, a campaign against Azov began. It was more of a reconnaissance mission. And in the winter of the same year, the preparation of the army began. The flotilla was built. And in the spring of the same year, the fortress was besieged. The besieged Turks were frightened by the armada they saw and surrendered the fortress.

This victory allowed the construction of port cities to begin. But Peter's gaze was still directed to the Crimea and the Black Sea. It was not possible to break through to him through the Kerch Strait. This was followed by another war with Turkey and its vassal

northward advance

The territorial expansion of Russia to the north began with the conclusion of an alliance with Denmark and Poland. After the campaign began against Sweden. But near Narva, the Russian army under the command of the Saxon field marshal was defeated.

Nevertheless, a year later, a new campaign began, led by the great king himself. It was taken in a few days. After the capture of the entire north, the city of St. Petersburg was founded. Land and moved north. Access to the Baltic allowed to expand its influence on the sea. Karelia was annexed.

In response to the defeats, Charlemagne launched an overland campaign against Russia. He advanced inland, exhausting his troops. As a result, on July 8, 1709, the twenty-thousandth army of the Swedes was defeated near Poltava. After that, in a short time, Russian troops launched an offensive against Pomerania.

Sweden lost all its continental lands, and Russia established itself as one of the leading military and political forces in Europe.

Westward expansion

After that, the territorial and political expansion of Russia went to the west. After the defeat of the Turkish vassals, the way was opened for the Carpathian Mountains and the Balkans. Using influence on the lands enslaved by the Turks, the Russian troops were preparing uprisings.

Thus began the liberation war of the Slavs against the Muslim yoke. The result was the formation of several Slavic Christian powers, and Russia expanded its own territory. The expansion of the Russian Empire to the west continued for several more centuries, as a result of which the kings of Poland, the Baltic states and Finland swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar.

The lands acquired or conquered by Russia in the period from the beginning of the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century significantly changed its geographical position not only in Europe, but also in Asia. The annexation of territories in the 18th century was carried out in three directions: western, southern and eastern.

Expansion of the Russian state to the West

It happened under the influence of the following political events:

1. Northern War 1700-1721. The struggle for hegemony in the north between the two states ended in favor of Russia. Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and part of Finland were annexed to the Russian Empire. The victory in the northern war made Russia not only a maritime power, but also opened a direct trade route with Europe.

The Northern War (1700-1721) was divided into two stages: the first - from 1700 to 1709 (before the Battle of Poltava), the second - from 1709 to 1721 (from the Poltava victory to the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt). The war began unsuccessfully for Russia and its allies. Denmark was immediately withdrawn from the war. In November 1700, 8,000 Swedes defeated a 60,000-strong Russian army near Narva. This was a serious lesson, and Peter was forced to embark on hasty transformations, to create a new European-style regular army. Already in 1702-1703. Russian troops won the first victory. The fortresses Noteburg (renamed Shlisselburg - Klyuch-city), Nienschanz were taken; the mouth of the Neva was in the hands of the Russians. Nevertheless, at the first stage of the war, the strategic initiative remained in the hands of Sweden, whose troops occupied Poland, Saxony and invaded Russia. The battle of Poltava5 (June 27, 1709), victorious for the Russian army, became the turning point in the war. The strategic initiative passed into the hands of Russia. But the nature of the war on the part of Russia has changed. Peter renounced his previous promises to the allies to limit himself to the return of the old Russian territories. In 1710, Karelia, Livonia, Estonia were liberated from the Swedes, the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken. If not for the war with Turkey in 1710-1713, the Northern War would have ended faster. The Allies ousted Sweden from all its overseas territories. The Swedish empire collapsed.

The final fate of the Northern War was decided at sea in the battles of Gangut (1714), the Ezel Islands (1719) and Grengam (1720). Moreover, Russian troops repeatedly landed on the Swedish coast. Charles XII could not accept defeat and continued to fight until his death in Norway in 1718. Frederick I, the new king of Sweden, had to sit down at the negotiating table. On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Estland, Livonia, Ingermanland, the cities of Vyborg and Kexholm passed to Russia. Sweden retained Finland, received compensation for Livonia (2 million efimki) and negotiated the right to buy bread duty-free in Riga and Reval.

Peter considered his victory the greatest joy of his life. In October 1721, the month-long festivities in the capital ended with the solemn ceremony of the tsar's acceptance of the title of emperor of all Russia. During Peter's lifetime, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Holland, and Venice recognized his new status as emperor.

Russia has solved the main foreign policy task that the Russian tsars have been trying to accomplish for two centuries - access to the sea. Russia has firmly entered the circle of European powers. Permanent diplomatic relations were established with major European countries.

2. Reunification of Western Rus' with Eastern
1772 - annexation of the northern and eastern parts of Belarus after the 1st partition of Poland.
1793 - annexation of the rest of Belarus and South-Western Rus' after the 2nd partition of Poland.
1795 - the annexation of Lithuania and Courland after the 3rd partition of Poland.
3. Accession of Finland (1809)
4. Accession of part of former Poland (Warsaw Duchy) under the name of the Kingdom of Poland (1815).

The peculiarity of the accession of these lands is the granting of benefits to them.

Little Russia enjoyed independent government, court and former Lithuanian laws. She had the right to communicate with other states (except Poland and Turkey). The right to receive ambassadors from other states, while reporting directly to Moscow, was taken away in 1674.

Livonia, Estonia, Courland were allowed to form local institutions with their own characteristics. Thrones were created for Finland and Poland - grand ducal and royal - by special state institutions (their own legislative power, higher administration and military force). State. the rights of Poland were lost by her after the uprising of 1831, local features - after the uprising of 1863. State differences were preserved only in Finland, and local ones - in the Ostsee region.

The main problem of the western direction was relations with Poland. As Ordin-Nashchokin predicted 300 years ago, Poland will inevitably face a number of problems that will weaken its statehood. First of all, these were national problems, when from many nations a privileged position was occupied by those who did not even constitute a numerical superiority. The essence of religious problems was the superiority of Catholicism, above all, over Orthodoxy. The political problems of Poland were reduced to a weak royal power, its complete dependence on the Polish gentry; in the Polish Sejm, the principle of "liberum veto" was in effect, when the main issues of the state structure must be adopted unanimously (1 vote against slowed down the decision), in such a situation, government was difficult.

The weakening of Poland took advantage of its neighbors: Austria-Hungary, Russia and Prussia. In 1769 after the death of the Polish king August III, the struggle for the throne began. In 1772 The first partition of the Commonwealth took place. Austria-Hungary received Galicia, Prussia - Pomorye, and Russia - Eastern Belarus to Minsk, Latvian lands, formerly part of Livonia. In the period between the first and second partitions, the Constitution was adopted in Poland, under the influence of the French Revolution, the election of the king was abolished, the principle of "liberum veto" was abolished, the rights of the gentry were sharply reduced, the third estate was allowed to vote in the Sejm, and freedom of religion was also introduced.

However, nothing could save Poland from the second partition, which took place in 1793. Russia received central Belarus (together with Minsk), Right-Bank Ukraine, Prussia - lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers. In 1795 In Poland, an uprising broke out under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko. This uprising was suppressed by Russian troops under the command of Suvorov. As a result, Poland lost its statehood, and its third partition took place. Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia, went to Russia, Central Poland went to Prussia, Southern Poland (with the capital - Krakow) - to Austria-Hungary.

Sections of the Commonwealth had both positive and negative significance. On the one hand, they contributed to the unification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, on the other hand, they created the prerequisites for the foreign policy problems of the Russian Empire. Those territories that went to Russia because of the serfdom and autocracy prevailing there turned out to be in less favorable conditions for development than the lands that went to Prussia or Austria-Hungary. The partitions of Poland, taking into account the previous history of relations between Russians and Poles, marked the beginning of an ethnic conflict that has not ended to this day. In addition, the Poles have always needed the lands of Ukraine, which ethnically belonged to Russia (or, at least, should have belonged). For 400 years the Russians fought against the Poles. One way or another, Russia is to blame for the disappearance of Poland's statehood. The uprising of T. Kosciuszko was suppressed by Russian peasants, which aroused the hatred of the Poles.

Russia is the largest state in the world. It is almost twice as large as China or Canada. It is interesting to trace how Russia became so huge.

Colonization or development?

Recently, a serious controversy has flared up around the expansion of Russia's borders throughout its centuries-old history. Was this expansion colonial or was it in the nature of land development? If the first is true, then the very location of Russia, stretching across almost the entire Eurasian continent, created difficulties in determining where the metropolis ends and the colony begins.

Conventionally, Russian possessions in Alaska and California could be called colonies, but there was no typical feature of colonial policy - the enslavement of indigenous peoples.

Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yuri Petrov notes that “the expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the annexation of other peoples” cannot be considered colonization, since this process was accompanied by “a merger of elites, which is unusual for classical colonial regimes.”

Western historiography takes an opposite position on this issue. In particular, in the resolution of the US Congress “On Enslaved Nations”, among other territories and states “enslaved” and “deprived of national independence” by Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Volga region, Cossackia and even North Korea appear.

Historian Konstantin Minyar-Beloruchev, by no means idealizing Russia's "imperial policy" (Caucasian wars, conquest of Central Asia, Stalinist deportations), draws attention to much more comfortable conditions for national survival and development in the annexed lands, in contrast to the indigenous population of the United States.

Three levels of ownership

Due to the geopolitical features in which the Old Russian state found itself, special conditions were created for the development of the Eurasian space. The populated west, south and harsh north left wide prospects for Rus' only in the east. However, as history has shown, Russia's expansion was successful in all areas.

Minyar-Beloruchev suggested using a hierarchical approach to distinguishing the levels of possessions of the Russian Empire. According to the historian, there are three such levels: the first, the core of the state - the European part of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus; the second - sparsely populated ("no one's") Siberia and the Far East; the third is the traditional societies of the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia, as well as the Baltic States, Poland and Finland belonging to the “European home”.

Border Security

The American political scientist George Friedman links the process of Russia's expansion with its insecurity, in which it could only rely on its inhospitable climate and harsh natural conditions. The multidirectional nature of the external threat created a precedent for building the aggressive policy of the state. “Russian history is a chronicle of the agony of survival from one aggression to another,” the political scientist notes.

Friedman distinguishes three phases of Russia's forced expansion.

The first phase, which began under Ivan III, was the creation of "buffer" zones in the west and east, which would prevent external threats.

The second phase came into force under Ivan the Terrible and was more aggressive and risky. Having gained a foothold on the northern spurs of the Caucasus, Russia defended itself from the countries of Asia Minor.

The third phase began with the reign of Peter I and referred to the western route, which was now being invaded by the enemy. By strengthening its flanks in the Baltic and Black Seas, Russia, according to Friedman, could feel more secure.

The formation of the state

Historians are unanimous that the impetus to expand the borders of Russia, first of all, should be associated with the emergence of statehood during the reign of Ivan III, who overcame the time of complex Russian-Horde relations and rivalry between the specific principalities.

The consolidation of central power by Moscow and the "gathering of lands" created the conditions for the state to enter important trade routes, and with it the opportunity to develop its foreign policy.

With the accession to the throne of Ivan the Terrible, the process of annexing the lands entered its active phase and was associated with the strengthening of the state and the desire to secure, first of all, its eastern borders. One after another, the heirs of the Golden Horde - the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates - entered the Russian kingdom. This creates reliable outposts and the ability to move further east.

Access to the sea

Isolation from sea routes and, as a result, the lack of broad opportunities to develop the military and merchant fleet has become one of the most important reasons for Russia's desire to reach the ice-free ports of the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the Pacific coast of the Far East.

Such a policy was outlined even under Ivan the Terrible, but it was destined to be fully realized only in the reign of Catherine II.

The success of access to seaports, according to the American historian Richard Pipes, was largely facilitated by a dense and convenient network of river routes, along which, even using primitive ships, it was possible to get from the Baltic to the Caspian Sea without any problems.

Echo of the Time of Troubles

Researcher Vitaly Averyanov draws an interesting parallel: the intensification of expansion by Russia arose after the end of the "Times of Troubles". So, according to the researcher, it was after the Troubles of 1598-1613, and so it happened after the most difficult period of the collapse of the empire at the beginning of the 20th century.

On the other hand, Averyanov also sees in increased expansion a kind of revenge for Russia's loss of part of its territories. The researcher notes that the rapid development of Siberia in the 17th century followed the loss of a number of western lands, in particular Smolensk, and access to the Gulf of Finland. The expeditions of Rebrov, Poyarkov, Dezhnev and Khabarov more than compensated for these losses, opening up new geographical and economic horizons for Russia.

The next “unparalleled geopolitical revenge”, which Averyanov draws attention to, occurred after the end of World War II, when the borders of the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova were restored, and additional territorial acquisitions were made in Eastern Europe at the expense of Finland, Prussia, Poland, Czechoslovakia , and in Asia - at the expense of South Sakhalin, the Kuriles and Tuva.

It is interesting to note that the last territorial acquisitions of the Soviet Union, which established the extreme points of the state in the western and eastern directions, occurred almost simultaneously: we are talking about Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad) and South Sakhalin with the Kuril Islands.

"Imperial Appetites"

A significant part of the peoples and countries that were part of the two superpowers - the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union have difficult relations with today's Russia.

Recently, researchers from the Eurasian Monitor Center analyzed 187 school textbooks from 11 post-Soviet states, including Latvia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. The conclusion of the researchers turned out to be predictable: in most school textbooks of the former Soviet republics, Russia is portrayed as a colonial empire that ruthlessly exploited the national periphery and oppressed the inhabitants.

The idea of colonial expansion is most clearly expressed in the historiography of the Central Asian countries. The authors of the textbooks emphasize that Russia used this region as a raw material base, from where silk, cotton, astrakhan fur and numerous mineral resources were exported.

However, the accusers of Russia's "imperial appetites" do not take into account the fact that ¾ of the economy of the Union republics was subsidized. As the Russian orientalist Alexei Vasiliev noted, "not a single metropolis - England, France, Portugal, Holland - has left in its colonies such a developed economy as Russia in Central Asia."

During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty, Russian Cossacks began to explore Eastern Siberia, went to the Pacific Ocean. By the middle of the 17th century, Russian settlements appeared in the Amur region, on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, in Chukotka. In 1654, Ukraine, as an autonomy, became part of the Russian state.

2.1 Expansion of the Russian state to the West

It happened under the influence of the following political events:

The victory in the northern war made Russia not only a maritime power, but also opened a direct trade route with Europe.

2. Reunification of Western Rus' with Eastern

1772 - annexation of the northern and eastern parts of Belarus after the 1st partition of Poland.

1793 - annexation of the rest of Belarus and South-Western Rus' after the 2nd partition of Poland.

1795 - the annexation of Lithuania and Courland after the 3rd partition of Poland.

3. Accession of Finland (1809)

4. Accession of part of former Poland (Warsaw Duchy) under the name of the Kingdom of Poland (1815).

The peculiarity of the accession of these lands is the granting of benefits to them.

2.2 Moving south

Accompanied by the following Russian acquisitions:

1. The era of Catherine

2. Turkish wars 1771-1773 and 1787-1791.

According to the Kuchuk-Karnaydzhi world - Turkey gave Russia the shores of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.

Crimea was annexed in 1783.

According to the Treaty of Jassy in 1791, Russia received the northern coast of the Black Sea to the mouth of the Dnieper.

In the 60s. France was Russia's main enemy. Louis will say: "Anything that is able to plunge this empire into chaos and make it return to darkness is beneficial to my interests." France tried to create an anti-Russian barrier from the Ottoman Empire, the Commonwealth and Sweden. But apart from the Ottoman Empire, none of these countries could really resist Russia.

Türkiye under the instigation of France in 1768. declared war on Russia. The first Russian-Turkish war lasted 1768-1774. The state of the Russian army after the reign of Elizabeth was depressing. According to Catherine II, 10 out of 100 cannons could fire. Therefore, Russia had to provoke an uprising of the Slavic peoples against the Turks in Montenegro and Albania. However, already in 1769. Russian troops took Azov and Taganrog. In 1770 The Russian army under the leadership of Rumyantsev won a victory on the Prut River and reached the Danube River. Bypassing the whole of Europe, the Baltic fleet under the command of Spiridov arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and inflicted a severe defeat on the superior forces of the Turks in the Chesme Bay. Of the 15 ships, only 8 reached the Mediterranean Sea. There they joined the squadron of Elphingston. Klyuchevsky wrote about the significance of the Battle of Chesma: "There was a fleet worse than the Russian one." In 1771 The Russians took over the Crimea. In fact, this meant the end of the war.

But in Russia at that time there was a Peasant War led by Pugachev, she demanded an early conclusion of peace with Turkey. Opponents were in no hurry to conclude peace, and only in 1774. when Russian troops numbering about 24 thousand. people under the command of Suvorov defeated 40 thousand. Turkish corps at Kozludzha, Türkiye was forced to resume negotiations. In the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi in 1774. peace was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea and, consequently, the right to have a fleet (Azov and Kerch).

The Crimean Khanate ceased to be vassal dependent on Turkey. Russia received the right to act as guardian of the rights of the Orthodox population in the Ottoman Empire. Türkiye also paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. the first Russian-Turkish war did not solve the main issue for Russia - the annexation of Crimea.

Victory over Turkey in 1774 inspired the Russian ruling circles with self-confidence and brought to life the so-called. "Greek Project" Already in the late 70s. Catherine and Potemkin developed a plan for the liquidation of Turkey and the creation of the Greek Empire on the site of its European possessions, headed by a monarch from the Romanov dynasty. Catherine concluded an alliance with Austria, and terminated the alliance with Prussia. The next Russian-Turkish war was not beneficial for Turkey, but was imposed by England and France to weaken Russia. This fact indicates that already at the end of the XVIII century. the once mighty Ottoman Empire could not pursue an independent foreign policy. In 1787 Russians occupied the Crimea, Sevastopol was founded. In the same year, Suvorov defeated the Turks near Ochakov. In 1789 Suvorov defeated the Turks on the Rymnik River and in 1790. Russian troops from land (Suvorov) and from the sea (Ushakov) took the impregnable fortress of Izmail. In 1791 after the complete defeat of its fleet, Turkey was forced to sign the Treaty of Jassy, according to which the Crimea retreats to Russia. The treaty recognizes Russian patronage of Georgia. The Dniester became the border of Russia. However, Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia had to be returned to Turkey so as not to aggravate relations with European powers that were not happy with the strengthening of Russian positions on the Danube.

2.3 Movement to the East

It was a continuation of the policy of the Moscow state:

1. Petrovsky period.

Expedition to Persia. Accession of the Caspian lands, which, however, were soon given away.

2. The era of Catherine 2.

Georgia became a vassal of Russia.

In 1793 Georgian king Heraclius, fearing Persia, turned to Russia for patronage. The Treaty of Georgievsky was signed, which established a Russian protectorate over Georgia. Catherine sent a regiment to the capital of Georgia, which left Georgia after her death. The Persians immediately invaded there. The successor of Heraclius, George, dying, bequeathed his country to the Russian Tsar. Paul I had no choice but to accept this territory.

Bottom line: By the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire had become the largest state in the world (not counting the British Empire with its colonies). Unlike the colonial holdings, the territories joined on equal terms and were considered part of the state, not colonies. In the future, this allowed Russia to become the largest Eurasian, multinational power with huge reserves of natural resources and other important resources.

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