General History of Art
Volume One
From the editorial board
B.V.Weimarn, B.R.Vipper, A.A.Guber, M.V.Dobroklonsky, Yu.D.Kolpinsky, V.F.Levenson-Lessing, K.A.Sitnik, A.N.Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev
"The General History of Arts" was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage Museum, the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, etc.
"The General History of Art" is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all ages and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days, inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: the art of Byzantium, the medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art (up to the 17th century inclusive), the art of Armenia, Georgia, the Arab countries, Turkey, the Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, the Romanesque and Gothic art of France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland , Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain. Book 2: the art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. In the same book - the art of the peoples of ancient America and ancient Africa.
Volume three. Renaissance art: the art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th century, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th - 16th centuries.
Volume four. Art of the 17th - 18th centuries in Europe and America: the art of Italy of the 17th - 18th centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland of the 17th century, France of the 17th - 18th centuries, Russia of the 18th century, England of the 17th - 18th centuries, USA of the 18th century, Latin America of the 17th - 18th centuries and other countries.
Volume five. Art of the 19th century: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America , India, China and other countries.
Volume six. Art of the late 19th - 20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, contemporary art of Western Europe and America, countries of people's democracy , China, India and other countries of the East.
The sixth volume will contain a detailed summary bibliography on the entire world history of art.
In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text, maps will be given for each chapter indicating the places of archaeological finds, art centers, and locations of architectural structures.
The General History of Art seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all the peoples of the earth who have contributed to world art history. Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention in the work on the "General History of Art" was occupied by those eras in the history of art, which account for a particularly high flowering of realistic art - the art of ancient Greece, Chinese art of the 10th - 13th centuries, the art of the Renaissance, the realistic masters of Europe of the 17th - 19th centuries, etc. .
The General History of Art aims to give a summary of the current state of the world science of art. It also includes a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in various fields of art history.
The origin of art - N. A. Dmitrieva.
The main stages in the development of primitive art - VV Shleev.
Art of Western Asia - I. M. Loseva.
The Art of Ancient Egypt - M.E-Mathieu.
Aegean art - N. N. Britova.
The Art of Ancient Greece - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
The art of the Hellenistic era - E. I. Rotenberg.
The Art of Ancient Rome - N. N. Britova.
The art of the Northern Black Sea region - N. N. Britova.
The art of Transcaucasia in antiquity - VV Shleev.
Art of Ancient Iran - I. M. Loseva (Achaemenid Iran) and M. M. Dyakonov (Sasanian Iran).
Art of Ancient Central Asia - M. M. Dyakonov.
The Art of Ancient India - N. A. Vinogradova and O. S. Prokofiev.
Art of Ancient China - N. A. Vinogradova.
Some chapters of the first volume were edited by B. V. Weimarn (the art of Asia Minor, Iran, Central Asia, China) and E. I. Rotenberg (Roman art).
The selection of illustrations and the layout of the volume were made by A. D. Chegodaev and R. B. Klimov with the participation of T. P. Kaptereva, A. G. Podolsky and E. I. Rotenberg.
The maps were made by the artist G. G. Fedorov, the drawings in the text were made by the artists Yu. A. Vasiliev and M. N. Mashkovtsev.
The index was compiled by N. I. Bespalova and A. G. Podolsky, explanations for the illustrations - by E. I. Rotenberg.
Consultations and reviews were carried out by the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Department of the Ancient East of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, the Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Sector of the History of Arts of the Academy Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Theory and History of Architecture of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR, Department of Art History, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Art Institute. V. I. Surikov and the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. I. E. Repin, State Hermitage Museum, State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, Museum of Oriental Cultures, State Museum of Arts of Georgia.
The Editorial Board is grateful to the scientists who provided great assistance with their advice and criticism in the preparation of the first volume: M. V. Alpatov, Sh. Ya. Amiranashvili, B. N. Arakelyan, M. I. Artamonov, A. V. Bank, V. D Blavatsky, A. Ya. Bryusov, Wang Xun, A. I. Voshchinina, O. N. Glukhareva, Guo Bao-jun, I. M. Dyakonov, A. A. Yessen, R. V. Kinzhalov, T. N. Knipovich, M. M. Kobylina, M. N. Krechetova, V. N. Lazarev, M. I. Maksimova, V. K. Nikolsky, A. P. Okladnikov, V. V. Pavlov, A. A. Peredolskaya, B. B. Piotrovsky, V. V. Struve, Xia Nai, Tang Lan, S. P. Tolstov, K. V. Trever, S. I. Tyulyaev, N. D. Flittner, Han Shou-hsuan, Chen Meng-chia.
primitive art
Origin of art
N.Dmitriev
Art as a special area of human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: "... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an intensified division of labor, which had as its basis a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and a few privileged ones who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneously formed form of this division of labor was precisely slavery "( F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).
But since artistic activity is a peculiar form of cognition and creative labor, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this labor cognized the world around them long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have unearthed numerous works of fine art by primitive man, which are tens of thousands of years old. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. These are works that appeared long before a conscious idea of artistic creativity could arise. Very many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.
Current page: 1 (total book has 39 pages)
General History of Art
From the editorial board
primitive art
Origin of art
The main stages in the development of primitive art
Art of Asia Minor (I. Loseva)
Introduction
The oldest culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th - early 3rd millennium BC)
Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)
Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)
Art of Sumer (23rd - 21st centuries BC)
Art of Babylon (19th - 12th centuries BC)
Art of the Hittites and Mitanni (18th - 8th centuries BC)
Art of Assyria (9th - 7th centuries BC)
Art of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom (7th - 6th centuries BC)
The Art of Ancient Egypt (M. Mathieu)
Introduction
The addition of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)
Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 - 2400 BC)
Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)
Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th - 15th centuries BC)
The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)
Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th - 2nd centuries BC)
Late Art (11th century - 332 BC)
Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)
General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece
Art of Homeric Greece
Greek archaic art
The Art of the Greek Classics (Beginning of the 5th - middle of the 4th century BC)
The art of the early classics (The so-called "strict calm" 490 - 450 BC)
High Classical Art (450 - 410 BC)
Late Classic Art (From the End of the Peloponnesian Wars to the Rise of the Macedonian Empire)
Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)
Hellenistic Art
The Art of Ancient Rome (N. Britova)
Art of ancient Rome
Etruscan art
Art of the Roman Republic
Art of the Roman Empire, 1st c. n. e.
Art of the Roman Empire 2nd c. AD
Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. AD
Art of the Roman Empire 3rd - 4th centuries
Art of the Northern Black Sea
Art of Ancient Transcaucasia
Art of Ancient Iran (I.Loseva, M.Dyakonov)
Art of Central Asia
Art of Ancient India
Art of Ancient China
General History of Art
Volume One
From the editorial board
B.V.Weimarn, B.R.Vipper, A.A.Guber, M.V.Dobroklonsky, Yu.D.Kolpinsky, V.F.Levenson-Lessing, K.A.Sitnik, A.N.Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev
"The General History of Arts" was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage Museum, the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, etc.
"The General History of Art" is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all ages and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days, inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: the art of Byzantium, the medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art (up to the 17th century inclusive), the art of Armenia, Georgia, the Arab countries, Turkey, the Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, the Romanesque and Gothic art of France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland , Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain. Book 2: the art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. In the same book - the art of the peoples of ancient America and ancient Africa.
Volume three. Renaissance art: the art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th century, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th - 16th centuries.
Volume four. Art of the 17th - 18th centuries in Europe and America: the art of Italy of the 17th - 18th centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland of the 17th century, France of the 17th - 18th centuries, Russia of the 18th century, England of the 17th - 18th centuries, USA of the 18th century, Latin America of the 17th - 18th centuries and other countries.
Volume five. Art of the 19th century: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America , India, China and other countries.
Volume six. Art of the late 19th - 20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, contemporary art of Western Europe and America, countries of people's democracy , China, India and other countries of the East.
The sixth volume will contain a detailed summary bibliography on the entire world history of art.
In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text, maps will be given for each chapter indicating the places of archaeological finds, art centers, and locations of architectural structures.
The General History of Art seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all the peoples of the earth who have contributed to world art history. Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention in the work on the "General History of Art" was occupied by those eras of art history, which account for a particularly high flowering of realistic art - the art of ancient Greece, Chinese art of the 10th - 13th centuries, the art of the Renaissance, the realistic masters of Europe of the 17th - 19th centuries, etc. .
The General History of Art aims to give a summary of the current state of the world science of art. It also includes a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in various fields of art history.
The origin of art - N. A. Dmitrieva.
The main stages in the development of primitive art - V. V. Shleev.
Art of Western Asia - I. M. Loseva.
The Art of Ancient Egypt - M.E-Mathieu.
Aegean art - N. N. Britova.
The Art of Ancient Greece - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
The art of the Hellenistic era - E. I. Rotenberg.
The Art of Ancient Rome - N. N. Britova.
The art of the Northern Black Sea region - N. N. Britova.
The art of Transcaucasia in antiquity - V. V. Shleev.
Art of Ancient Iran - I. M. Loseva (Achaemenid Iran) and M. M. Dyakonov (Sasanian Iran).
Art of Ancient Central Asia - M. M. Dyakonov.
The Art of Ancient India - N. A. Vinogradova and O. S. Prokofiev.
The Art of Ancient China - N. A. Vinogradova.
Some chapters of the first volume were edited by B. V. Weimarn (the art of Asia Minor, Iran, Central Asia, China) and E. I. Rotenberg (Roman art).
The selection of illustrations and the layout of the volume were made by A. D. Chegodaev and R. B. Klimov with the participation of T. P. Kaptereva, A. G. Podolsky and E. I. Rotenberg.
The maps were made by the artist G. G. Fedorov, the drawings in the text were made by the artists Yu. A. Vasiliev and M. N. Mashkovtsev.
The index was compiled by N. I. Bespalova and A. G. Podolsky, explanations for the illustrations by E. I. Rotenberg.
Consultations and reviews were carried out by the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Department of the Ancient East of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, the Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Sector of the History of Arts of the Academy Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Theory and History of Architecture of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR, Department of Art History, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Art Institute. V. I. Surikov and the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. I. E. Repin, State Hermitage Museum, State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, Museum of Oriental Cultures, State Museum of Arts of Georgia.
The Editorial Board is grateful to the scientists who provided great assistance with their advice and criticism in the preparation of the first volume: M. V. Alpatov, Sh. Ya. Amiranashvili, B. N. Arakelyan, M. I. Artamonov, A. V. Bank, V. D Blavatsky, A. Ya. Bryusov, Wang Xun, A. I. Voshchinina, O. N. Glukhareva, Guo Bao-jun, I. M. Dyakonov, A. A. Yessen, R. V. Kinzhalov, T. N. Knipovich, M. M. Kobylina, M. N. Krechetova, V. N. Lazarev, M. I. Maksimova, V. K. Nikolsky, A. P. Okladnikov, V. V. Pavlov, A. A. Peredolskaya, B. B. Piotrovsky, V. V. Struve, Xia Nai, Tang Lan, S. P. Tolstov, K. V. Trever, S. I. Tyulyaev, N. D. Flittner, Han Shou-hsuan, Chen Meng-chia.
primitive art
Origin of art
N.Dmitriev
Art as a special area of human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: "... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an intensified division of labor, which had as its basis a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and a few privileged ones who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneously formed form of this division of labor was precisely slavery "( F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).
But since artistic activity is a peculiar form of cognition and creative labor, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this labor cognized the world around them long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have unearthed numerous works of fine art by primitive man, which are tens of thousands of years old. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. These are works that appeared long before a conscious idea of artistic creativity could arise. Very many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.
The material, objective nature of works of fine art determines especially favorable conditions for the researcher of the origin of fine art in comparison with historians studying the origin of other types of art. If one has to judge the initial stages of the epic, music, dance mainly by indirect data and by analogy with the work of modern tribes that are at the early stages of social development (the analogy is very relative, which can be relied on only with great care), then the childhood of painting, sculpture and graphics rise before our eyes.
It does not coincide with the childhood of human society, that is, the most ancient epochs of its formation. According to modern science, the process of humanization of human ape-like ancestors began even before the first glaciation of the Quaternary era and, therefore, the "age" of mankind is approximately one million years. The very first traces of primitive art date back to the Upper (Late) Paleolithic, which began about a few tens of millennia BC. so-called Aurignacian time The Shellic, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian stages of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) are named after the places of the first finds.) This was the time of the comparative maturity of the primitive communal system: the man of this era in his physical constitution was no different from the modern man, he already spoke and knew how to make rather complex tools from stone, bone and horn. He led a collective hunt for a large animal with a spear and darts. The clans united into tribes, a matriarchy arose.
More than 900 thousand years had to pass, separating the most ancient people from the modern type of man, before the hand and brain were ripe for artistic creativity.
Meanwhile, the manufacture of primitive stone tools dates back to much more ancient times of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Already Sinanthropes (whose remains were found near Beijing) reached a fairly high level in the manufacture of stone tools and knew how to use fire. People of a later, Neanderthal type processed tools more carefully, adapting them to special purposes. Only thanks to such a “school”, which lasted for many millennia, did the necessary flexibility of the hand, fidelity of the eye and the ability to generalize the visible, highlighting the most essential and characteristic features in it, that is, all those qualities that manifested themselves in the wonderful drawings of the Altamira cave, developed. If a person did not exercise and refine his hand, processing such difficult-to-process material as stone for food, he would not be able to learn to draw: without mastering the creation of utilitarian forms, he could not create an artistic form. If many and many generations had not concentrated the ability of thinking on the capture of the beast - the main source of life for primitive man - it would not have occurred to them to depict this beast.
So, firstly, “labor is older than art” (this idea was brilliantly argued by G. Plekhanov in his “Letters without an Address”) and, secondly, art owes its emergence to labor. But what caused the transition from the production of exceptionally useful, practically necessary tools to the production of “useless” images along with them? It was this question that was most debated and most confused by bourgeois scholars, who strove at all costs to apply I. Kant's thesis about the "purposelessness", "disinterest", "intrinsic value" of the aesthetic attitude to the world to primitive art. K. Bücher, K. Gross, E. Gross, Luke, Vreul, W. Gauzenstein and others who wrote about primitive art argued that primitive people were engaged in “art for art’s sake”, that the first and defining stimulus for artistic creativity was the innate human desire to play .
Theories of “play” in their various varieties were based on the aesthetics of Kant and Schiller, according to which the main sign of aesthetic, artistic experience is precisely the desire for “free play of appearances” - free from any practical goal, from logical and moral evaluation.
“Aesthetic creative impulse,” wrote Friedrich Schiller, “imperceptibly builds in the midst of the terrible realm of forces and in the midst of the sacred realm of laws a third, cheerful realm of play and appearance, in which it removes the shackles of all relationships from a person and frees him from everything that is called coercion, as in physically as well as morally" F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, p. 291.).
Schiller applied this basic position of his aesthetics to the question of the origin of art (long before the discovery of genuine monuments of Paleolithic creativity), believing that the “fun kingdom of play” was already being erected at the dawn of human society: “... now the ancient German is looking for more brilliant animal skins , more magnificent horns, more elegant vessels, and the Caledonian seeks out the most beautiful shells for his festivities. Not content with introducing an excess of the aesthetic into the necessary, the free impulse to play finally breaks completely with the fetters of need, and beauty itself becomes the object of human aspirations. He decorates himself. Free pleasure is credited to his need, and the useless soon becomes the best part of his joy. F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, pp. 289, 290.). However, this view is refuted by the facts.
First of all, it is absolutely incredible that cavemen, who spent their days in the most cruel struggle for existence, helpless in the face of natural forces that opposed them as something alien and incomprehensible, constantly suffering from insecurity of food sources, could devote so much attention and energy to "free pleasures" . Moreover, these “pleasures” were very laborious: it cost a lot of work to carve large relief images on stone, similar to a sculptural frieze in a shelter under the rock of Le Roque de Ser (near Angouleme, France). Finally, numerous data, including ethnographic data, directly indicate that images (as well as dances and various kinds of dramatic actions) were given some exceptionally important and purely practical significance. Ritual rites were associated with them, aimed at ensuring the success of the hunt; it is possible that they made sacrifices associated with the cult of the totem, that is, the beast - the patron of the tribe. Drawings have been preserved that reproduce a staged hunt, images of people in animal masks, animals pierced by arrows and bleeding.
Even the tattoo and the custom of wearing all kinds of jewelry were by no means caused by the desire for “free play of appearances” - they were either dictated by the need to frighten enemies, or protect the skin from insect bites, or again played the role of sacred amulets or testified to the exploits of a hunter, - for example, a necklace of bear teeth could indicate that the wearer took part in the hunt for a bear. In addition, in the images on pieces of deer antler, on small tiles, one should see the beginnings of pictography ( Pictography is the primary form of writing in the form of images of individual objects.), that is, a means of communication. Plekhanov in Letters Without an Address cites the story of one traveler that “one day he found on the coastal sand of one of the Brazilian rivers an image of a fish drawn by the natives, belonging to one of the local breeds. He ordered the Indians accompanying him to throw down the net, and they pulled out several pieces of fish of the same breed that is depicted on the sand. It is clear that by making this image, the native wanted to bring to the attention of his comrades that such and such a fish is found in this place ”( G. V. PLEKHANOV Art and Literature, 1948, p. 148.). It is obvious that Paleolithic people also used letters and drawings in the same way.
There are many eyewitness accounts of the hunting dances of Australian, African and other tribes and the rituals of "killing" the painted images of the beast, and these dances and rites combine elements of a magical ritual with an exercise in appropriate actions, that is, with a kind of rehearsal, practical preparation for hunting. . A number of facts indicate that the Paleolithic images also served similar purposes. Numerous clay sculptures of animals - lions, bears, horses - were found in the cave of Montespan in France, in the region of the northern Pyrenees, covered with traces of spear blows, apparently inflicted during some kind of magical ceremony ( See the description, according to Beguin, in the book by A. S. Gushchin “The Origin of Art”, L.-M., 1937, p. 88.).
The incontrovertibility and abundance of such facts forced the later bourgeois researchers to reconsider the "game theory" and put forward a "magic theory" as an addition to it. At the same time, the theory of the game was not discarded: most bourgeois scientists continued to assert that, although works of art were used as objects of magical action, the impetus for their creation lay in an innate tendency to play, to imitate, to decorate.
It is necessary to point out another version of this theory, which asserts the biological innateness of the sense of beauty, which is allegedly characteristic not only of man, but also of animals. If Schiller's idealism interpreted "free play" as a divine property of the human spirit - namely, the human one - then scientists inclined to vulgar positivism saw the same property in the animal world and, accordingly, connected the origins of art with the biological instincts of self-decoration. The basis for this statement was some of Darwin's observations and statements about the phenomena of sexual selection in animals. Darwin, noting that in some breeds of birds, males attract females with the brightness of plumage, that, for example, hummingbirds decorate their nests with colorful and shiny objects, etc., suggested that aesthetic emotions are not alien to animals.
The facts established by Darwin and other natural scientists are not in themselves subject to doubt. But there is no doubt that to deduce from this the origin of the art of human society is just as unjustified as to explain, for example, the causes of travel and geographical discoveries made by people, by the instinct that induces birds to their seasonal flights. The conscious activity of man is opposed to the instinctive, unaccountable activity of animals. Certain color, sound, and other stimuli do indeed exert a certain influence on the biological sphere of animals and, becoming fixed in the process of evolution, acquire the significance of unconditioned reflexes (and only in some, comparatively rare cases, the nature of these stimuli coincides with human concepts of beauty and harmony).
It cannot be denied that colors, lines, as well as sounds and smells, also affect the human body - some in an irritating, repulsive way, others, on the contrary, strengthen and contribute to its correct and active functioning. One way or another, this is taken into account by a person in his artistic activity, but in no way lies at its basis. The impulses that forced Paleolithic man to draw and carve figures of animals on the walls of caves, of course, have nothing to do with instinctive impulses: this is a conscious and purposeful creative act of a creature that has long since broken the chains of blind instinct and embarked on the path of mastering the forces of nature - and therefore, and understanding of these forces.
Marx wrote: “The spider performs operations reminiscent of the operations of a weaver, and the bee, by building its wax cells, puts some human architects to shame. But even the worst architect differs from the best bee from the very beginning in that, before building a cell out of wax, he has already built it in his head. At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that already at the beginning of this process was in the mind of the worker, that is, ideally. The worker differs from the bee not only in that he changes the form of what is given by nature: in what is given by nature, he realizes at the same time his conscious goal, which, like a law, determines the method and nature of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will" ( ).
To be able to realize a conscious goal, a person must know the natural object with which he is dealing, must comprehend its natural properties. The ability to know also does not appear immediately: it belongs to those “dormant forces” that develop in man in the process of his influence on nature. As a manifestation of this ability, art also arises - it arises just when labor itself has already departed from the “first animal-like instinctive forms of labor”, “freed itself from its primitive, instinctive form” ( K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, 1951, p. 185.). Art and, in particular, the visual arts at its origins was one of the aspects of labor that developed to a certain level of consciousness.
Man draws the beast: in this way he synthesizes his observations on him; he more and more confidently reproduces his figure, habits, movements, his various states. He formulates his knowledge in this drawing and reinforces it. At the same time, he learns to generalize: in one image of a deer, features observed in a number of deer are transmitted. This in itself gives a huge impetus to the development of thinking. It is difficult to overestimate the progressive role of artistic creativity in changing the consciousness of man and his relationship to nature. The latter is now not so dark for him, not so encrypted - little by little, still groping, he studies it.
Thus, primitive fine arts are at the same time the germs of science, more precisely, primitive knowledge. It is clear that at that infantile, primitive stage of social development these forms of cognition could not yet be dissected, as they were dismembered in later times; they first acted together. It was not yet art in the full scope of this concept and was not knowledge in the proper sense of the word, but something in which the primary elements of both were inseparably combined.
In this regard, it becomes understandable why Paleolithic art pays so much attention to the beast and relatively little to man. It is aimed primarily at the knowledge of external nature. At the very time when animals have already learned to depict wonderfully real and vivid, human figures are almost always depicted very primitively, simply clumsily, with the exception of some rare exceptions, such as, for example, the reliefs from Lossel.
1 6. Woman with a horn. Hunter. Reliefs from Lossel (France, Dordogne department). Limestone. Height approx. 0.5 m. Upper Paleolithic, Aurignacian time.
Paleolithic art does not yet have that predominant interest in the world of human relationships, which distinguishes art, which delimited its sphere from the sphere of science. From the monuments of primitive art (at least fine art) it is difficult to learn anything about the life of the tribal community other than its hunting and related magical rites; the main place is occupied by the object of hunting - the beast. It was his study that was of the main practical interest, since it was the main source of subsistence - and the utilitarian-cognitive approach to painting and sculpture was reflected in the fact that they depicted mainly animals, and such breeds, the extraction of which was especially important and at the same time difficult and dangerous, and therefore, required especially careful study. Birds and plants were rarely depicted.
Of course, people of the Paleolithic era could not yet correctly understand both the laws of the natural world around them and the laws of their own actions. There was still no distinct consciousness of the difference between the real and the apparent: what was seen in a dream probably seemed to be the same reality as what was seen in reality. Out of all this chaos of fairy-tale ideas, primitive magic arose, which was a direct consequence of the extreme underdevelopment, extreme naivety and inconsistency of the consciousness of primitive man, who mixed the material with the spiritual, who, out of ignorance, attributed material existence to the immaterial facts of consciousness.
Drawing the figure of an animal, in a certain sense, a person really "mastered" the animal, since he cognized it, and knowledge is the source of domination over nature. The vital necessity of figurative knowledge was the reason for the emergence of art. But our ancestor understood this "mastery" in the literal sense and performed magical rites around the drawing he made to ensure the success of the hunt. He fantastically rethought the true, rational motives of his actions. True, it is very likely that by far not always fine art had a ritual purpose; here, obviously, other motives also participated, which were already mentioned above: the need for the exchange of information, etc. But, in any case, it can hardly be denied that most of the paintings and sculptures also served magical purposes.
People began to engage in art much earlier than they had a concept of art, and much earlier than they could understand for themselves its real meaning, its real usefulness.
Mastering the ability to depict the visible world, people also did not realize the true social significance of this skill. Something similar to the later formation of the sciences, also gradually freed from the captivity of naive fantastic ideas, took place: medieval alchemists sought to find the "philosopher's stone" and spent years of hard work on this. They never found the Philosopher's Stone, but they gained valuable experience in studying the properties of metals, acids, salts, etc., which paved the way for the subsequent development of chemistry.
Speaking about the fact that primitive art was one of the original forms of knowledge, the study of the surrounding world, we should not assume that, consequently, there was nothing in it in the proper sense of the word aesthetic. The aesthetic is not something fundamentally opposed to the useful.
Already the labor processes associated with the manufacture of tools and, as we know, which began many millennia earlier than drawing and sculpting, to a certain extent prepared a person's ability of aesthetic judgment, taught him the principle of expediency and correspondence of form to content. The oldest tools are almost shapeless: these are pieces of stone, hewn on one side, and later on both sides: they served for different purposes: for digging, for cutting, etc. , scrapers, incisors, needles), they acquire a more definite and consistent, and thus more elegant form: in this process, the significance of symmetry, proportions is realized, that sense of the necessary measure is developed, which is so important in art. And when people who sought to increase the efficiency of their work and learned to appreciate and feel the vital significance of an expedient form, approached the transfer of complex forms of the living world, they managed to create works that are aesthetically very significant and effective.
With economical, bold strokes and large spots of red, yellow and black paint, the monolithic, powerful carcass of a bison was conveyed. The image was full of life: it felt the trembling of tensing muscles, the elasticity of short strong legs, one felt the readiness of the beast to rush forward, bowing its massive head, sticking out its horns and looking down with bloodshot eyes. The painter probably vividly recreated in his imagination his heavy run through the thicket, his furious roar and warlike cries of the crowd of hunters pursuing him.
In numerous images of deer and fallow deer, primitive artists very well conveyed the slenderness of the figures of these animals, the nervous grace of their silhouette and that sensitive alertness that is reflected in the turn of the head, in the pricked ears, in the curves of the body when they listen for danger. Depicting both the formidable, powerful buffalo and the graceful fallow deer with amazing accuracy, people could not help assimilating these concepts themselves - strength and grace, rudeness and grace - although, perhaps, they still did not know how to formulate them. And a somewhat later image of an elephant, covering her baby elephant from a tiger attack with her trunk, does it not indicate that the artist began to be interested in something more than the appearance of the beast, that he looked closely at the very life of animals and its various manifestations seemed interesting to him and instructive. He noticed touching and expressive moments in the animal world, a manifestation of maternal instinct. In a word, the emotional experiences of a person, undoubtedly, were refined and enriched with the help of his artistic activity even at these stages of its development.
Head of a Delphic driver. Beginning 5th c. BC e. Delphi, Museum.
M.V. Alpatov
General history of arts. Art of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages
volume 1
FOREWORD
When compiling a general history of art, the author had to cover an extensive historical and artistic material, starting from ancient times and ending with the present. He made every effort not to omit anything essential. For all that, he did not want to turn his book into a list of facts, monuments, names, and for the sake of completeness of this list, reduce the characteristics of the art of individual periods. He was faced with the task of creating a history of art that could also serve as an introduction to the study of art.
The author's pedagogical experience convinced him that the study of art history is fruitful only when acquaintance with monuments and masters, memorization of names and dates is accompanied by success in understanding art, the development of artistic taste. This confidence of the author determined the construction of his book. It appeals not only to the reader's mental abilities and to his memory, but also to his aesthetic sense, to his critical instinct. It should be read not only in order to assimilate the general provisions expressed in it and to memorize the information it conveys, but first of all in order to understand the main ways of the historical development of the artistic culture of mankind and learn to understand and appreciate the old and modern art. This forced the author to deviate somewhat from the generally accepted type of art history with its abundance of all kinds of information, which often only overloads the memory, but does not develop the eyes and critical abilities.
This book can be used by beginners to study art. It is possible that in some cases it will be the first book on art in the hands of the reader. In the interests of such a reader, the author strove for the greatest clarity of presentation. He avoided little-known terms and did not use many art criticism concepts, the content of which has not yet been fully understood by specialists. However, the book mentions the names of artists and writers, historical events, geographical names and scientific terms that may be unfamiliar to the reader. The author did not explain them, hoping that the reader himself would find them in any encyclopedic dictionary, and that the habit of using the reference book would be the first step on his way of independent work on a scientific book.
This four-volume work is conceived as a review of the main sections of the general history of art (moreover, the last two volumes will be devoted to Russian art). In his work, the author did not consider it possible to confine himself to a retelling of generally accepted opinions and well-known facts. In many sections of the book, he offers the reader new historical and artistic views and assessments. Sometimes he had to state in a few words the conclusions of the investigations already made, sometimes he considered it possible to acquaint the reader with assumptions requiring further scientific substantiation. In some cases, this turned his presentation either into a summary of the work already done, or into a plan for an upcoming study.
Naturally, the historical narrative of the development of art occupies the main place in the book. However, this book does not give any complete summary of all the material. Specialists will be struck by the fact that many well-known facts are omitted in it, many monuments and names of artists are not mentioned. The author tried to include only the most important phenomena in the narrow framework of the book in order to be able to characterize them with sufficient completeness. For the sake of this, he did not overload his presentation with dates and lists of names (the dates of the reproduced monuments are placed only in the list of illustrations). He limited himself to the dates of birth and death of only the most important masters and mentioned the names of only those artists whose personality was prominently revealed in their creations. He proceeded from the position that the first task of the student of art history is to learn how to connect individual facts with each other and with the general course of history and thus imagine a general picture of the development of art.
The author of the book paid great attention to illustrations. He was guided by the desire to reproduce the most significant historical development and the most artistically valuable monuments. He strove to avoid many undeservedly celebrated monuments, such as Apollo Belvedere or Cologne Cathedral, and, on the contrary, cited some masterpieces known only to a narrow circle of specialists. The author's task was to connect his presentation with illustrations, and therefore he reproduced mainly such monuments that it was possible to talk about in the text. In those cases when he could not enter into their detailed consideration, he arranged the illustrations in such a way that it prompted the reader to compare them with each other. Epigraphs to individual chapters serve as illustrations for the text. They are presented without much explanation, in the hope that the thoughtful reader will be able to catch their inner connection with the corresponding chapters of the book.
While doing this work, the author encountered many difficulties. Naturally, he did not feel equally confident in all areas of the general history of art. If many errors and inaccuracies of his work were eliminated even in the manuscript, then he owes this to the comradely help of V. F. Asmus, V. D. Blavatsky, B. V. Weymarn, S. V. Kiselev, V. F. Levinson-Lessing , V. V. Pavlova, A. A. Sidorova. B. I. Tyulyaev and especially I. I. Romanov, who took the trouble to read the entire manuscript.
Moscow, 1941–1942
INTRODUCTION
The arts were presented in antiquity in the form of beautiful sisters, who make up a single family. When this poetic image ceased to satisfy the theoreticians, there was a need for a more rigorous classification of individual arts, such as the one that Linnaeus made the basis of the study of nature. At the same time, the main attention was paid not so much to the internal relationship of various types of arts, but to their differences. Their distinction was seen as the basis of a correct classification. However, significant disagreements have not been eliminated in resolving this issue. This was primarily due to the fact that the classifications were based on different foundations.
The most common classification proceeded from the means of expression: the arts were divided into spatial and temporal. The first of them turn to visual perception, use volume, space, line, color, the second turn to hearing and use sound and words. This division of the arts was held together by a long tradition of their development. Architecture, sculpture, and painting often collaborated directly, as painters and sculptors had to decorate buildings with murals and sculpture. In addition, all three named arts were organized in modern times in the so-called academies of fine arts. On the contrary, music retained its primordial connection with poetry and the word. The verse has a clearly expressed musicality, in the romance the singer expresses himself both in sounds and in words. This generally accepted classification could not be shaken even by the existence of arts in which the visual principle is combined with the temporal, such as drama and dance, or arts in which painting, architecture, poetry and music merge into one, such as opera.
This book maintains this conventional division. It is dedicated to architecture, sculpture and painting. However, it is still necessary to note the mobility of the boundaries between the arts and, in connection with this, the conventionality of this division.
Along with division by means of expression, division by the nature of the material being transformed into an artistic image is also permissible. In this case, the ratio of art forms will be different. Then it will be necessary to divide the arts into pictorial and non-pictorial. Fine arts include painting, sculpture, and literature; non-pictorial arts include architecture and music. Speaking about the image of a person or landscape in art, one has to compare painting and sculpture with contemporary poetry and prose. On the other hand, the understanding of beauty and peace is manifested in the rhythms of both music and architecture of the same period or adjacent periods, when one type is ahead of another art form in its development. In this regard, one should recall the well-known definition of architecture as frozen music.
Depending on which aspects of art to take into account, theorists have classified the arts in different ways.
Speaking against the so-called descriptive poetry, which threatened to deprive all poetry of its special nature, Lessing rebelled against the convergence of painting and literature; it was he who put forward time and space as a criterion for the division of the arts. Many centuries before Lessing, the ancient Chinese artist Wang Wei dealt with this issue, and he held opposite views. "Painting," says Wang Wei, "is a poem in colors, poetry is a picture in words."
Echoes of these differences are found in modern times. However, they do not seem so insurmountable, if we take into account the reasons for the change in views on this subject. At the beginning of the 19th century, the search for a large, holistic art gave rise to a desire to go beyond the artistic means of individual types of art. Music has become the center of attraction for all the arts. Many authors spoke about the musicality of poetry, starting with the romantics. The musical principle in painting was proclaimed by Delacroix and Fromentin. In response to this, at the end of the 19th century, a movement arose to respect the boundaries of art, the desire was expressed that every artist should first of all seek to express himself through the means inherent in his art. But this desire was soon imbued with pedantry, which interfered with real artistic creativity.
The supports of the defenders of the delimitation of the arts and the defenders of their fusion lead to one conclusion.
"Purity of artistic means" is far from being the main criterion for the artistic usefulness of a work. It is not in itself the observance or non-observance of the boundaries between the arts that is important: what matters is what tasks push the artist beyond the limits of his art, how far they meet the advanced needs of artistic development. When the violation of the boundaries of art is justified by these needs, it enriches the artists, and they create works of higher value than those artists who strictly observe these laws, but do not know the true creative impulse. Sculptor Pavel Trubetskoy with his "loose form" is still the subject of attacks by supporters of "pure plasticity". However, in his pictorial sculpture, as well as in Rodin, there is much more vitality, poetry and, ...
"The General History of Art" is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all ages and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days, inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
Art as a special area of human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: "... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an intensified division of labor, which had as its basis a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and a few privileged ones who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneous form of this division of labor was precisely slavery "(F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).
But since artistic activity is a peculiar form of cognition and creative labor, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this labor cognized the world around them long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have unearthed numerous works of fine art by primitive man, which are tens of thousands of years old. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. These are works that appeared long before a conscious idea of artistic creativity could arise. Very many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.
Table of contents
About the book
From the editorial board
primitive art
Origin of art
The main stages in the development of primitive art
Art of Asia Minor (I. Loseva)
Introduction
The oldest culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th - early 3rd millennium BC)
Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)
Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)
Art of Sumer (23 - 21 centuries BC)
Art of Babylon (19th - 12th centuries BC)
Hittite and Mitanni art (18th - 8th centuries BC)
Art of Assyria (9th - 7th centuries BC)
The art of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom (7th - 6th centuries BC)
The Art of Ancient Egypt (M. Mathieu)
Introduction
The addition of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)
Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 - 2400 BC)
Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)
Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th - 15th centuries BC)
The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)
Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th - 2nd centuries BC)
Late Time Art (11th century - 332 BC)
Aegean art
Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)
General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece
Art of Homeric Greece
Greek archaic art
The Art of the Greek Classics (Beginning of the 5th - middle of the 4th century BC)
The art of the early classics (The so-called "strict calm" 490 - 450 BC)
High Classical Art (450 - 410 BC)
Late Classic Art (From the End of the Peloponnesian Wars to the Rise of the Macedonian Empire)
Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)
Hellenistic Art
The Art of Ancient Rome (N. Britova)
Art of ancient Rome
Etruscan art
Art of the Roman Republic
Art of the Roman Empire, 1st c. n. e.
Art of the Roman Empire 2nd c. AD
Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. AD
Art of the Roman Empire 3rd - 4th centuries
Art of the Northern Black Sea
Art of Ancient Transcaucasia
Art of Ancient Iran (I.Loseva, M.Dyakonov)
Art of Central Asia
Art of Ancient India
Art of Ancient China.
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About the book
"The General History of Art" in six volumes
Editorial team
USSR Academy of Arts Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts
"The General History of Art" Volume One
Art of the Ancient World under the general editorship of A.D. Chegodaev
State publishing house "Art" Moscow 1956
VII volume 1
"The General History of Art" Volume I
Editor R. B. Klimov
Design by the artist I. F. Rerberg
Art editor V. D. Karandashov
Technical editor A. A. Sidorova
Proofreaders N. Ya. Korneeva and A. A. Pozina
Handed over to the set 15/XI 1955 Signed. to the stove 25/IX 1956 Form, paper 84х108 1/16
Pech. l. 58 (conditional 95.12). Uch.-ed. l. 77,848. Circulation 75000. III 11453.
"Art", Moscow, I-51,
Tsvetnoy Boulevard, 25. Ed. No. 13524. Order. type. No. 4.
Ministry of Culture of the USSR. General Directorate of the Printing Industry.
21st Printing House im. Ivan Fedorov, Leningrad, Zvenigorodskaya st., 11
Price 70 rub.
The “General History of Arts” was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage Museum, the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, etc. The “General History of Arts” is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all ages and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days inclusive. Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
From the editorial board
B.V.Weimarn, B.R.Vipper, A.A.Guber, M.V.Dobroklonsky, Yu.D.Kolpinsky, V.F.Levenson-Lessing, K.A.Sitnik, A.N.Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev
"The General History of Arts" was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage Museum, the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, etc.
"The General History of Art" is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all ages and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days, inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: the art of Byzantium, the medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art (up to the 17th century inclusive), the art of Armenia, Georgia, the Arab countries, Turkey, the Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, the Romanesque and Gothic art of France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland , Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain. Book 2: the art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. In the same book - the art of the peoples of ancient America and ancient Africa.
Volume three. Renaissance art: the art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th century, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th - 16th centuries.
Volume four. Art of the 17th - 18th centuries in Europe and America: the art of Italy of the 17th - 18th centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland of the 17th century, France of the 17th - 18th centuries, Russia of the 18th century, England of the 17th - 18th centuries, USA of the 18th century, Latin America of the 17th - 18th centuries and other countries.
Volume five. Art of the 19th century: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America , India, China and other countries.
Volume six. Art of the late 19th - 20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, contemporary art of Western Europe and America, countries of people's democracy , China, India and other countries of the East.
The sixth volume will contain a detailed summary bibliography on the entire world history of art.
In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text, maps will be given for each chapter indicating the places of archaeological finds, art centers, and locations of architectural structures.
The General History of Art seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all the peoples of the earth who have contributed to world art history. Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention in the work on the "General History of Art" was occupied by those eras in the history of art, which account for a particularly high flowering of realistic art - the art of ancient Greece, Chinese art of the 10th - 13th centuries, the art of the Renaissance, the realistic masters of Europe of the 17th - 19th centuries, etc. .
The General History of Art aims to give a summary of the current state of the world science of art. It also includes a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in various fields of art history.
The origin of art - N. A. Dmitrieva.
The main stages in the development of primitive art - VV Shleev.
Art of Western Asia - I. M. Loseva.
The Art of Ancient Egypt - M.E-Mathieu.
Aegean art - N. N. Britova.
The Art of Ancient Greece - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
The art of the Hellenistic era - E. I. Rotenberg.
The Art of Ancient Rome - N. N. Britova.
The art of the Northern Black Sea region - N. N. Britova.
The art of Transcaucasia in antiquity - VV Shleev.
Art of Ancient Iran - I. M. Loseva (Achaemenid Iran) and M. M. Dyakonov (Sasanian Iran).
Art of Ancient Central Asia - M. M. Dyakonov.
The Art of Ancient India - N. A. Vinogradova and O. S. Prokofiev.
Art of Ancient China - N. A. Vinogradova.
Some chapters of the first volume were edited by B. V. Weimarn (the art of Asia Minor, Iran, Central Asia, China) and E. I. Rotenberg (Roman art).
The selection of illustrations and the layout of the volume were made by A. D. Chegodaev and R. B. Klimov with the participation of T. P. Kaptereva, A. G. Podolsky and E. I. Rotenberg.
The maps were made by the artist G. G. Fedorov, the drawings in the text were made by the artists Yu. A. Vasiliev and M. N. Mashkovtsev.
The index was compiled by N. I. Bespalova and A. G. Podolsky, explanations for the illustrations - by E. I. Rotenberg.
Consultations and reviews were carried out by the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Department of the Ancient East of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, the Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Sector of the History of Arts of the Academy Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Theory and History of Architecture of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR, Department of Art History, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Art Institute. V. I. Surikov and the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. I. E. Repin, State Hermitage Museum, State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, Museum of Oriental Cultures, State Museum of Arts of Georgia.
The Editorial Board is grateful to the scientists who provided great assistance with their advice and criticism in the preparation of the first volume: M. V. Alpatov, Sh. Ya. Amiranashvili, B. N. Arakelyan, M. I. Artamonov, A. V. Bank, V. D Blavatsky, A. Ya. Bryusov, Wang Xun, A. I. Voshchinina, O. N. Glukhareva, Guo Bao-jun, I. M. Dyakonov, A. A. Yessen, R. V. Kinzhalov, T. N. Knipovich, M. M. Kobylina, M. N. Krechetova, V. N. Lazarev, M. I. Maksimova, V. K. Nikolsky, A. P. Okladnikov, V. V. Pavlov, A. A. Peredolskaya, B. B. Piotrovsky, V. V. Struve, Xia Nai, Tang Lan, S. P. Tolstov, K. V. Trever, S. I. Tyulyaev, N. D. Flittner, Han Shou-hsuan, Chen Meng-chia.
General history of arts. Volume 1
Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
* From the editorial board
* Primitive art
o Origins of art
o The main stages in the development of primitive art
* Art of Asia Minor (I. Loseva)
o Introduction
o The most ancient culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th - early 3rd millennium BC)
o Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)
o Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)
o Art of Sumer (23rd - 21st centuries BC)
o Art of Babylon (19th - 12th centuries BC)
o Hittite and Mitanni art (18th - 8th centuries BC)
o Art of Assyria (9th - 7th centuries BC)
o Art of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom (7th - 6th centuries BC)
* The Art of Ancient Egypt (M. Mathieu)
o Introduction
o The formation of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)
o Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 - 2400 BC)
o Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)
o Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th - 15th centuries BC)
o The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)
o Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th - 2nd centuries BC)
o Late Art (11th century - 332 BC)
* Aegean Art
* Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)
o General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece
o Art of Homeric Greece
o Greek archaic art
o Classical Greek Art (Early 5th - mid 4th century BC)
o The art of the early classics (The so-called "strict calm" 490 - 450 BC)
o High Classical Art (450 - 410 BC)
o Late Classic Art (From the End of the Peloponnesian Wars to the Rise of the Macedonian Empire)
* Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)
o Hellenistic Art
* Art of ancient Rome (N. Britova)
o Art of ancient Rome
o Etruscan art
o Art of the Roman Republic
o Art of the Roman Empire in the 1st c. n. e.
o Art of the Roman Empire 2nd c. AD
o Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. AD
o Art of the Roman Empire 3rd - 4th centuries
* Art of the Northern Black Sea region
* Art of Ancient Transcaucasia
* Art of Ancient Iran (I.Loseva, M.Dyakonov)
* Art of Central Asia
* Art of Ancient India
* Art of Ancient China
primitive art
Origin of art
N.Dmitriev
Art as a special area of human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: "... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an intensified division of labor, which had as its basis a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and a few privileged ones who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneously formed form of this division of labor was precisely slavery "( F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).
But since artistic activity is a peculiar form of cognition and creative labor, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this labor cognized the world around them long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have unearthed numerous works of fine art by primitive man, which are tens of thousands of years old. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. These are works that appeared long before a conscious idea of artistic creativity could arise. Very many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.
The material, objective nature of works of fine art determines especially favorable conditions for the researcher of the origin of fine art in comparison with historians studying the origin of other types of art. If one has to judge the initial stages of the epic, music, dance mainly by indirect data and by analogy with the work of modern tribes that are at the early stages of social development (the analogy is very relative, which can be relied on only with great care), then the childhood of painting, sculpture and graphics rise before our eyes.
It does not coincide with the childhood of human society, that is, the most ancient epochs of its formation. According to modern science, the process of humanization of human ape-like ancestors began even before the first glaciation of the Quaternary era and, therefore, the "age" of mankind is approximately one million years. The very first traces of primitive art date back to the Upper (Late) Paleolithic, which began about a few tens of millennia BC. so-called Aurignacian time The Shellic, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian stages of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) are named after the places of the first finds.) This was the time of the comparative maturity of the primitive communal system: the man of this era in his physical constitution was no different from the modern man, he already spoke and knew how to make rather complex tools from stone, bone and horn. He led a collective hunt for a large animal with a spear and darts. The clans united into tribes, a matriarchy arose.
More than 900 thousand years had to pass, separating the most ancient people from the modern type of man, before the hand and brain were ripe for artistic creativity.
Meanwhile, the manufacture of primitive stone tools dates back to much more ancient times of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Already Sinanthropes (whose remains were found near Beijing) reached a fairly high level in the manufacture of stone tools and knew how to use fire. People of a later, Neanderthal type processed tools more carefully, adapting them to special purposes. Only thanks to such a “school”, which lasted for many millennia, did the necessary flexibility of the hand, fidelity of the eye and the ability to generalize the visible, highlighting the most essential and characteristic features in it, that is, all those qualities that manifested themselves in the wonderful drawings of the Altamira cave, developed. If a person did not exercise and refine his hand, processing such difficult-to-process material as stone for food, he would not be able to learn to draw: without mastering the creation of utilitarian forms, he could not create an artistic form. If many and many generations had not concentrated the ability of thinking on the capture of the beast - the main source of life for primitive man - it would not have occurred to them to depict this beast.
So, firstly, “labor is older than art” (this idea was brilliantly argued by G. Plekhanov in his “Letters without an Address”) and, secondly, art owes its emergence to labor. But what caused the transition from the production of exceptionally useful, practically necessary tools to the production of “useless” images along with them? It was this question that was most debated and most confused by bourgeois scholars, who strove at all costs to apply I. Kant's thesis about the "purposelessness", "disinterest", "intrinsic value" of the aesthetic attitude to the world to primitive art. K. Bücher, K. Gross, E. Gross, Luke, Vreul, W. Gauzenstein and others who wrote about primitive art argued that primitive people were engaged in “art for art’s sake”, that the first and defining stimulus for artistic creativity was the innate human desire to play .
Theories of “play” in their various varieties were based on the aesthetics of Kant and Schiller, according to which the main sign of aesthetic, artistic experience is precisely the desire for “free play of appearances” - free from any practical goal, from logical and moral evaluation.
“Aesthetic creative impulse,” wrote Friedrich Schiller, “imperceptibly builds in the midst of the terrible realm of forces and in the midst of the sacred realm of laws a third, cheerful realm of play and appearance, in which it removes the shackles of all relationships from a person and frees him from everything that is called coercion, as in physically as well as morally" F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, p. 291.).
Schiller applied this basic position of his aesthetics to the question of the origin of art (long before the discovery of genuine monuments of Paleolithic creativity), believing that the “fun kingdom of play” was already being erected at the dawn of human society: “... now the ancient German is looking for more brilliant animal skins , more magnificent horns, more elegant vessels, and the Caledonian seeks out the most beautiful shells for his festivities. Not content with introducing an excess of the aesthetic into the necessary, the free impulse to play finally breaks completely with the fetters of need, and beauty itself becomes the object of human aspirations. He decorates himself. Free pleasure is credited to his need, and the useless soon becomes the best part of his joy. F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, pp. 289, 290.). However, this view is refuted by the facts.
First of all, it is absolutely incredible that cavemen, who spent their days in the most cruel struggle for existence, helpless in the face of natural forces that opposed them as something alien and incomprehensible, constantly suffering from insecurity of food sources, could devote so much attention and energy to "free pleasures" . Moreover, these “pleasures” were very laborious: it cost a lot of work to carve large relief images on stone, similar to a sculptural frieze in a shelter under the rock of Le Roque de Ser (near Angouleme, France). Finally, numerous data, including ethnographic data, directly indicate that images (as well as dances and various kinds of dramatic actions) were given some exceptionally important and purely practical significance. Ritual rites were associated with them, aimed at ensuring the success of the hunt; it is possible that they made sacrifices associated with the cult of the totem, that is, the beast - the patron of the tribe. Drawings have been preserved that reproduce a staged hunt, images of people in animal masks, animals pierced by arrows and bleeding.
Even the tattoo and the custom of wearing all kinds of jewelry were by no means caused by the desire for “free play of appearances” - they were either dictated by the need to frighten enemies, or protect the skin from insect bites, or again played the role of sacred amulets or testified to the exploits of a hunter - for example, a necklace of bear teeth could indicate that the wearer took part in the hunt for a bear. In addition, in the images on pieces of deer antler, on small tiles, one should see the beginnings of pictography ( Pictography is the primary form of writing in the form of images of individual objects.), that is, a means of communication. Plekhanov in Letters Without an Address cites the story of one traveler that “one day he found on the coastal sand of one of the Brazilian rivers an image of a fish drawn by the natives, belonging to one of the local breeds. He ordered the Indians accompanying him to throw down the net, and they pulled out several pieces of fish of the same breed that is depicted on the sand. It is clear that by making this image, the native wanted to bring to the attention of his comrades that such and such a fish is found in this place ”( G. V. PLEKHANOV Art and Literature, 1948, p. 148.). It is obvious that Paleolithic people also used letters and drawings in the same way.
There are many eyewitness accounts of the hunting dances of Australian, African and other tribes and the rituals of "killing" the painted images of the beast, and these dances and rites combine elements of a magical ritual with an exercise in appropriate actions, that is, with a kind of rehearsal, practical preparation for hunting. . A number of facts indicate that the Paleolithic images also served similar purposes. Numerous clay sculptures of animals - lions, bears, horses - were found in the Montespan cave in France, in the region of the northern Pyrenees, covered with traces of spear blows, apparently inflicted during some kind of magical ceremony ( See the description, according to Beguin, in the book by A. S. Gushchin “The Origin of Art”, L.-M., 1937, p. 88.).
The incontrovertibility and abundance of such facts forced the later bourgeois researchers to reconsider the "game theory" and put forward a "magic theory" as an addition to it. At the same time, the theory of the game was not discarded: most bourgeois scientists continued to assert that, although works of art were used as objects of magical action, the impetus for their creation lay in an innate tendency to play, to imitate, to decorate.
It is necessary to point out another version of this theory, which asserts the biological innateness of the sense of beauty, which is allegedly characteristic not only of man, but also of animals. If Schiller's idealism interpreted "free play" as a divine property of the human spirit - specifically the human one - then scientists prone to vulgar positivism saw the same property in the animal world and, accordingly, linked the origins of art with the biological instincts of self-decoration. The basis for this statement was some of Darwin's observations and statements about the phenomena of sexual selection in animals. Darwin, noting that in some breeds of birds, males attract females with the brightness of plumage, that, for example, hummingbirds decorate their nests with colorful and shiny objects, etc., suggested that aesthetic emotions are not alien to animals.
The facts established by Darwin and other natural scientists are not in themselves subject to doubt. But there is no doubt that to deduce from this the origin of the art of human society is just as unjustified as to explain, for example, the causes of travel and geographical discoveries made by people, by the instinct that induces birds to their seasonal flights. The conscious activity of man is opposed to the instinctive, unaccountable activity of animals. Certain color, sound, and other stimuli do indeed exert a certain influence on the biological sphere of animals and, becoming fixed in the process of evolution, acquire the significance of unconditioned reflexes (and only in some, comparatively rare cases, the nature of these stimuli coincides with human concepts of beauty and harmony).
It cannot be denied that colors, lines, as well as sounds and smells, also affect the human body - some in an irritating, repulsive way, others, on the contrary, strengthen and contribute to its correct and active functioning. One way or another, this is taken into account by a person in his artistic activity, but in no way lies at its basis. The impulses that forced Paleolithic man to draw and carve figures of animals on the walls of caves, of course, have nothing to do with instinctive impulses: this is a conscious and purposeful creative act of a being who has long since broken the chains of blind instinct and embarked on the path of mastering the forces of nature, and therefore, and understanding of these forces.
Marx wrote: “The spider performs operations reminiscent of the operations of a weaver, and the bee, by building its wax cells, puts some human architects to shame. But even the worst architect differs from the best bee from the very beginning in that, before building a cell out of wax, he has already built it in his head. At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that already at the beginning of this process was in the mind of the worker, that is, ideally. The worker differs from the bee not only in that he changes the form of what is given by nature: in what is given by nature, he realizes at the same time his conscious goal, which, like a law, determines the method and nature of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will" ( ).
To be able to realize a conscious goal, a person must know the natural object with which he is dealing, must comprehend its natural properties. The ability to know also does not appear immediately: it belongs to those “dormant forces” that develop in man in the process of his influence on nature. As a manifestation of this ability, art also arises - it arises just when labor itself has already moved away from the “first animal-like instinctive forms of labor”, “freed itself from its primitive, instinctive form” ( K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, 1951, p. 185.). Art and, in particular, the visual arts at its origins was one of the aspects of labor that developed to a certain level of consciousness.
Man draws the beast: in this way he synthesizes his observations on him; he more and more confidently reproduces his figure, habits, movements, his various states. He formulates his knowledge in this drawing and reinforces it. At the same time, he learns to generalize: in one image of a deer, features observed in a number of deer are transmitted. This in itself gives a huge impetus to the development of thinking. It is difficult to overestimate the progressive role of artistic creativity in changing the consciousness of man and his relationship to nature. The latter is now not so dark for him, not so encrypted - little by little, still groping, he studies it.
Thus, primitive fine arts are at the same time the germs of science, more precisely, primitive knowledge. It is clear that at that infantile, primitive stage of social development these forms of cognition could not yet be dissected, as they were dismembered in later times; they first acted together. It was not yet art in the full scope of this concept and was not knowledge in the proper sense of the word, but something in which the primary elements of both were inseparably combined.
In this regard, it becomes understandable why Paleolithic art pays so much attention to the beast and relatively little to man. It is aimed primarily at the knowledge of external nature. At the very time when animals have already learned to depict remarkably realistically and vividly, human figures are almost always depicted very primitively, simply clumsily, with the exception of some rare exceptions, such as, for example, the reliefs from Lossel.
1 6. Woman with a horn. Hunter. Reliefs from Lossel (France, Dordogne department). Limestone. Height approx. 0.5 m. Upper Paleolithic, Aurignacian time.
Paleolithic art does not yet have that predominant interest in the world of human relationships, which distinguishes art, which delimited its sphere from the sphere of science. From the monuments of primitive art (at least - fine art) it is difficult to learn anything about the life of the tribal community other than its hunting and related magical rites; the main place is occupied by the very object of hunting - the beast. It was his study that was of the main practical interest, since it was the main source of existence - and the utilitarian-cognitive approach to painting and sculpture was reflected in the fact that they depicted mainly animals, and such breeds, the extraction of which was especially important and at the same time difficult and dangerous, and therefore, required especially careful study. Birds and plants were rarely depicted.
Of course, people of the Paleolithic era could not yet correctly understand both the laws of the natural world around them and the laws of their own actions. There was still no distinct consciousness of the difference between the real and the apparent: what was seen in a dream probably seemed to be the same reality as what was seen in reality. Out of all this chaos of fairy-tale ideas, primitive magic arose, which was a direct consequence of the extreme underdevelopment, extreme naivety and inconsistency of the consciousness of primitive man, who mixed the material with the spiritual, who, out of ignorance, attributed material existence to the immaterial facts of consciousness.
Drawing the figure of an animal, in a certain sense, a person really "mastered" the animal, since he cognized it, and knowledge is the source of domination over nature. The vital necessity of figurative knowledge was the reason for the emergence of art. But our ancestor understood this "mastery" in the literal sense and performed magical rites around the drawing he made to ensure the success of the hunt. He fantastically rethought the true, rational motives of his actions. True, it is very likely that by far not always fine art had a ritual purpose; here, obviously, other motives also participated, which were already mentioned above: the need for the exchange of information, etc. But, in any case, it can hardly be denied that most of the paintings and sculptures also served magical purposes.
People began to engage in art much earlier than they had a concept of art, and much earlier than they could understand for themselves its real meaning, its real usefulness.
Mastering the ability to depict the visible world, people also did not realize the true social significance of this skill. Something similar to the later formation of the sciences, also gradually freed from the captivity of naive fantastic ideas, took place: medieval alchemists sought to find the "philosopher's stone" and spent years of hard work on this. They never found the Philosopher's Stone, but they gained valuable experience in studying the properties of metals, acids, salts, etc., which paved the way for the subsequent development of chemistry.
Speaking about the fact that primitive art was one of the original forms of knowledge, the study of the surrounding world, we should not assume that, consequently, there was nothing in it in the proper sense of the word aesthetic. The aesthetic is not something fundamentally opposed to the useful.
Already the labor processes associated with the manufacture of tools and, as we know, which began many millennia earlier than drawing and sculpting, to a certain extent prepared a person's ability of aesthetic judgment, taught him the principle of expediency and correspondence of form to content. The oldest tools are almost shapeless: these are pieces of stone, hewn on one side, and later on both sides: they served for different purposes: for digging, for cutting, etc. , scrapers, incisors, needles), they acquire a more definite and consistent, and thus more elegant form: in this process, the significance of symmetry, proportions is realized, that sense of the necessary measure is developed, which is so important in art. And when people who sought to increase the efficiency of their work and learned to appreciate and feel the vital significance of an expedient form, approached the transfer of complex forms of the living world, they managed to create works that are aesthetically very significant and effective.
With economical, bold strokes and large spots of red, yellow and black paint, the monolithic, powerful carcass of a bison was conveyed. The image was full of life: it felt the trembling of tensing muscles, the elasticity of short strong legs, one felt the readiness of the beast to rush forward, bowing its massive head, sticking out its horns and looking down with bloodshot eyes. The painter probably vividly recreated in his imagination his heavy run through the thicket, his furious roar and warlike cries of the crowd of hunters pursuing him.
In numerous images of deer and fallow deer, primitive artists very well conveyed the slenderness of the figures of these animals, the nervous grace of their silhouette and that sensitive alertness that is reflected in the turn of the head, in the pricked ears, in the curves of the body when they listen for danger. Depicting both the formidable, powerful buffalo and the graceful doe with amazing accuracy, people could not help assimilating these concepts themselves - strength and grace, rudeness and grace - although, perhaps, they still did not know how to formulate them. And a somewhat later image of an elephant, covering her baby elephant with her trunk from a tiger attack, doesn’t it indicate that the artist began to be interested in something more than the appearance of the beast, that he looked at the very life of animals and its various manifestations seemed interesting to him and instructive. He noticed touching and expressive moments in the animal world, a manifestation of maternal instinct. In a word, the emotional experiences of a person, undoubtedly, were refined and enriched with the help of his artistic activity even at these stages of its development.
4. Picturesque images on the ceiling of the Altamira cave (Spain, Santander province). General form. Upper Paleolithic, Madeleine time.
We cannot deny Paleolithic visual arts the nascent ability to arrange. True, the images on the walls of the caves are for the most part arranged randomly, without proper correlation with each other and without an attempt to convey the background, the environment (for example, the painting on the ceiling of the Altamira cave. But where the drawings were placed in some kind of natural frame (for example, on deer antlers, on bone tools, on the so-called "wands of leaders", etc.), they fit into this frame quite skillfully. On wands, which are oblong in shape, but wide enough, most often they are carved going in a row, one after another, horses or deer.On narrower ones - fish or even snakes.Often sculptural images of animals are placed on the handle of a knife or some kind of tool, and in these cases they are given such poses that are characteristic of this animal and at the same time adapted in shape to the purpose of the handle Here, therefore, elements of the future “applied art” are born with its inevitable subordination of the pictorial principles to the practical purpose of the subject (ill. 2 a).
2 6. Herd of deer. Eagle bone carving from the grotto of the City Hall in Teija (France, Dordogne department). Upper Paleolithic.
