(sometimes you can find Latin designations dux- "leader" and comes- "satellite"). In this case, the satellites must either exactly match the melody-leader (simple canon), or be obtained from it according to some rules given below. Most notable examples canons (for example, "Frère Jacques" - "Brother Jacob") - simple.
Story
The word "canon", which has many other meanings, began to be used to designate a musical form only in the 16th century. The earliest known English canons date from the thirteenth century. A textbook example of the early canon is the play with the incipit "Sumer is icumen in" (the so-called "Summer Canon"). Canons were actively written during the Ars nova era in Italy and France, especially in the genres of caccia and shas. A famous early example of a canon canon is Guillaume de Machaux's "My end is my beginning" chanson. IN polyphonic music of the Franco-Flemish school (1430-1550), the canon was further developed, and the rules for composing canons finally known now were formed by the composers of the Roman school. At this time, the form of the canon reached its highest development. Much attention was paid to the canon by Josquin Despres, Johann Okeghem (who is credited with the 36-voice canon Deo gratias), Pierre de la Rue, Palestrina and others. Later, they began to turn to the canon less and less (with some significant exceptions, such as in the works of J. S. Bach "Goldberg Variations", where every 3rd variation is the canon, "Musical Offering", which shows the most diverse types of canons). Canons were also written by other baroque musicians (Pachelbel, Telemann, Zelenka). A number of humorous canons were left by W. A. Mozart. In the 20th century there was a revival of interest in the canon: Anton Webern wrote 5 canons in Latin texts (op.16) using the technique of dodecaphony. Examples of canons were also left by Arnold Schoenberg, Luigi Dallapikkola (in almost every work of his), Paul Hindemith, György Ligeti, Luigi Nono and many others.
If the risposta does not begin on the same note as the proposta, then the canon is called interval. At the same time, the melody of the risposta no longer has to exactly coincide with the proposta: the intervals between two notes of the main melody can be replaced by the same name (for example, a major second into a minor one). If the melodies in all voices coincide, then the canon is called accurate, if not, then diatonic.
Contrapuntal derivatives
Risposta may not coincide with proposta, but be its contrapuntal derivative.
Canon in circulation
In the “reversed” canon, all proposta intervals in the rispost are taken in the opposite direction, for example, a fifth up corresponds to a fifth down, and vice versa. If at the same time the distances between the notes are exactly preserved, then such a canon is called mirror.
canon canon
In risposts, a return movement, or rakhod, can be used, when the main melody is recorded from the end to the beginning. Canons that are simultaneously inverted and in a return motion are sometimes called canons: it can be played if a table is placed between two musicians and notes of the main melody of the canon are put (each will read the melody in his own direction).
Mensural
In the mensural, or proportional, canon, a risposta is a proposta extended or compressed in time (that is, played at a different tempo). For example, the melody of a risposta can be played twice as slow as a proposta (canon per augmentationem) or twice as fast (canon per diminutionem). Technically, mensural canons are the most difficult to write. Such canons were written in large numbers during the Renaissance, especially at the end and beginning of the 16th century; Okeghem wrote a whole mass ( missa prolationum, "Mass of Prolations"), each part of which is a mensural canon.
Endless
Endless ( canon perpetuus) is called a canon, in which at a certain moment its beginning reappears in the propost, after which it is repeated, as a result, it can be played for an arbitrarily long time. At the same time, the melody at the end can turn out to be in the same key in which it began, or modulate into a different key (spiral canon, per tone) - in this case, a new round of the canon begins already in a new key.
double and triple
If the canon contains two (or three) independent themes at the same time, each of which has satellites, such a canon is called double (respectively, triple).
Methods of writing the canon
Composers did not always explicitly write out all the voices in the canon. Sometimes one voice was recorded with notes that made it possible to uniquely restore the entire canon - such a recording is called closed. If only the main melody of the canon is written out without indicating the places and intervals of the entry of the rispost, then the canon is called mysterious.
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Notes
Literature
- Feininger L.K.J. Die Frühgeschichte des Kanons bis Josquin des Prez (d. 1500). Diss. Emsdetten, 1937.
- Kholopov Yu. N. Canon. Genesis and early stages of development // Theoretical observations on the history of music. Moscow: Music, 1978, p. 127-157.
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audio snippet
| Canon in D major by Pachelbel | |
| A modern interpretation of the canon, somewhat different from the original | |
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An excerpt characterizing the Canon (music)
- Look, Anisyushka, that the strings are intact, or something, on the guitar? I haven’t taken it in my hands for a long time - it’s a pure march! abandoned.Anisya Fyodorovna willingly went with her light step to carry out her master's order and brought the guitar.
Uncle, without looking at anyone, blew off the dust, tapped the lid of the guitar with his bony fingers, tuned it, and straightened himself in his chair. He took (with a somewhat theatrical gesture, leaving the elbow of his left hand) the guitar above the neck and winking at Anisya Fyodorovna, he began not the Lady, but took one sonorous, clear chord, and measured, calmly, but firmly began to finish the well-known song at a very quiet pace: and ice pavement. At the same time, in time with that sedate joy (the same that Anisya Fyodorovna's whole being breathed), the motive of the song sang in the soul of Nikolai and Natasha. Anisya Fyodorovna blushed and, covering herself with a handkerchief, laughingly left the room. Uncle continued to cleanly, diligently and energetically firmly finish the song, looking with a changed inspired look at the place from which Anisya Fyodorovna had left. A little bit something laughed in his face on one side under a gray mustache, especially laughed when the song dispersed further, the beat accelerated and something came off in places of busts.
- Charm, charm, uncle; more, more, ”Natasha shouted as soon as he finished. She jumped up from her seat, hugged her uncle and kissed him. - Nikolenka, Nikolenka! she said, looking round at her brother and as if asking him: what is this?
Nikolai also really liked the uncle's game. Uncle played the song a second time. The smiling face of Anisya Fyodorovna appeared again at the door, and from behind her there were still other faces ... "Behind the cold key, she shouts: wait a girl!" my uncle played, again made a deft enumeration, tore it off and moved his shoulders.
“Well, well, my dear, uncle,” Natasha groaned in such an imploring voice, as if her life depended on it. Uncle stood up and as if there were two people in him - one of them smiled seriously at the merry fellow, and the merry fellow made a naive and neat trick before the dance.
- Well, niece! - shouted the uncle, waving his hand to Natasha, tearing off the chord.
Natasha threw off the handkerchief that was thrown over her, ran ahead of her uncle and, propping her hands on her hips, made a movement with her shoulders and stood.
Where, how, when she sucked into herself from that Russian air that she breathed - this countess, brought up by a French emigrant, this spirit, where did she get these techniques that pas de chale should long ago have been forced out? But these spirits and methods were the same, inimitable, not studied, Russian, which her uncle expected from her. As soon as she stood up, she smiled solemnly, proudly and cunningly cheerfully, the first fear that gripped Nikolai and all those present, the fear that she would do something wrong, passed and they were already admiring her.
She did the same thing and did it so exactly, so quite exactly, that Anisya Fyodorovna, who immediately handed her the handkerchief necessary for her work, burst into tears through laughter, looking at this thin, graceful, so alien to her, educated countess in silk and velvet. who knew how to understand everything that was in Anisya, and in Anisya's father, and in her aunt, and in her mother, and in every Russian person.
“Well, the countess is a pure march,” said the uncle, laughing joyfully, having finished the dance. - Oh yes, niece! If only you could choose a good fellow for you, - march is a clean business!
“Already chosen,” said Nikolai smiling.
- ABOUT? said the uncle in surprise, looking inquiringly at Natasha. Natasha nodded her head in the affirmative with a happy smile.
- Another one! - she said. But as soon as she said this, another, new line of thoughts and feelings arose in her. What did Nikolai's smile mean when he said: "already chosen"? Is he happy about it or not? He seems to think that my Bolkonsky would not have approved, would not have understood our joy. No, he would understand. Where is he now? thought Natasha, and her face suddenly became serious. But it only lasted for one second. “Don’t think about it, don’t dare to think about it,” she said to herself, and smiling, she sat down again with her uncle, asking him to play something else.
Uncle played another song and a waltz; then, after a pause, he cleared his throat and sang his favorite hunting song.
Like powder from the evening
Turned out good...
Uncle sang the way the people sing, with that complete and naive conviction that in a song all meaning lies only in the words, that the melody comes by itself and that there is no separate melody, but that the melody is only for the warehouse. Because of this, this unconscious tune, like the song of a bird, was unusually good with my uncle. Natasha was delighted with her uncle's singing. She decided that she would no longer study the harp, but would only play the guitar. She asked her uncle for a guitar and immediately picked up the chords for the song.
At ten o'clock a line, a droshky, and three riders arrived for Natasha and Petya, sent to look for them. The count and countess did not know where they were and were very worried, as the messenger said.
Petya was taken down and laid like a dead body in a ruler; Natasha and Nikolai got into the droshky. Uncle wrapped up Natasha and said goodbye to her with a completely new tenderness. He escorted them on foot to the bridge, which had to be bypassed into a ford, and ordered the hunters to go ahead with lanterns.
“Farewell, dear niece,” his voice shouted out of the darkness, not the one that Natasha had known before, but the one that sang: “Like powder since the evening.”
The village we passed had red lights and a cheerful smell of smoke.
- What a charm this uncle is! - said Natasha, when they drove out onto the main road.
“Yes,” said Nikolai. - Are you cold?
- No, I'm fine, fine. I feel so good, - Natasha even said with bewilderment. They were silent for a long time.
The night was dark and damp. The horses were not visible; all you could hear was their paddling through the invisible mud.
What was going on in this childish, receptive soul, which so greedily caught and assimilated all the most diverse impressions of life? How did it fit into her? But she was very happy. Already approaching the house, she suddenly sang the motive of the song: “Like powder from the evening,” a motive that she caught all the way and finally caught.
- Got it? Nikolay said.
“What are you thinking now, Nikolenka?” Natasha asked. They liked to ask each other that.
- I? - said Nikolai remembering; - you see, at first I thought that Rugai, the red male, looked like an uncle and that if he were a man, he would still keep the uncle with him, if not for the jump, then for the frets, he would keep everything. How good he is, uncle! Is not it? - Well, what about you?
- I? Hold on, hold on. Yes, at first I thought that here we are going and we think that we are going home, and God knows where we are going in this darkness and suddenly we will arrive and see that we are not in Otradnoye, but in magical kingdom. And then I thought… No, nothing more.
“I know, I was thinking about him right,” Nikolai said smiling, as Natasha recognized by the sound of his voice.
In Greek, canon means rule, pattern. In life, we often come across this word. We say: "According to strict canons ...". Or we use the concept of canonical in the sense of exemplary, subject to the most stringent rules. In music, the meaning of this term is much narrower. This is the name of a polyphonic piece in which all voices perform the same melody, but not together, but entering in turn, sometimes from the same sound, sometimes from different ones. Strictly speaking, a canon is a piece of music or an episode of it, built on a continuous imitation. An example of such an episode is the duet of Lensky and Onegin in the duel scene in Tchaikovsky's opera Eugene Onegin. Until recently, inseparable friends, they stand one against the other with pistols in their hands. Their thoughts are the same (“Enemies! How long ago did bloodlust take us away from each other?”), Therefore, the melody is the same; but they are no longer together, they are opponents - and therefore their melodies do not coincide in time, each one sounds on its own. The composer used the old polyphonic form so subtly, psychologically justified, A special kind of canon - an endless canon. The melody in it can be repeated as many times as you like, moving from the end to the beginning again.
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Canon- canon, m. (Greek kanon). 1. The rule or establishment of the church in a particular area (worship, rituals, hierarchical relations, etc.), approved by some. supreme........
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Canon M.- 1. An immutable rule, the position of a smth. directions, teachings, etc. // What is firmly established is taken as a pattern. // What is the traditional accepted norm,........
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Canon- -A; m. [Greek. kanōn - rule, prescription]
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Canon- a rule, a tradition, something that took the form of a law, became generally accepted.
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Body Canon- a normative system of attitudes and ideas about the body and its functions, characteristic of a given culture. (
Isn't it one of the main questions that people who are sincerely fond of music and its origins ask themselves? Very often in everyday life we meet the expression "According to strict canons" or use the word "canonical", implying that the thing or being we are talking about is exemplary and obeys strict rules. But what does canon mean in music? Let's deal with this interesting concept in this article and analyze its origin, typology and use in music.
Canon - what is it?
Translated from Greek, "canon" means a model, something that can be considered an example to follow. The canon in music is a slightly narrower concept: a piece designed for many voices that will perform the same melody, but at the same time enter alternately from the same or different sounds.
Speaking more plain language, then this is a piece of music, which is built on constant imitation. This is the canon. Its definition is varied, but a special form and variety of this concept in music is the infinite canon, where the melody can move from the end to the beginning and repeat an infinite number of times. At the same time, there is more than one type of canon, each of which sounds unique. The main condition in the performance of such music is that the melody played by the first voice must be repeated identically to each sound.
Where did the canon in music come from?
The canon in music is a form, the creation of which Western Europe can be proud of without a twinge of conscience, because this concept and the form itself came from there. This type of music is distinguished by both a complex sound structure and emotionally rich and full form. This form originated in the era of polyphony in Europe, but continued its development in the next seven centuries, and its role does not decrease with the development of modern music. Of course, this term has undergone significant evolution during its existence in the creation of music.
Initially, the canon existed under one meaning, but in modern music this concept means a slightly different form. That is why this term is used to refer to several eras of its development, dividing it into classical and modern.
Etymology and typology of the canon
The Greek word κανών (canon) means "rod, ruler, bar"; "some object that acts as a measure." Another meaning is "rule, measure, norm or pattern". In addition to the Greek definition, this designation refers to the monochord, known as the instrument of the sages. It was because of this instrument that supporters of the mathematical-philosophical definition in the creation of music were called canons.
Byzantine music fixed this term definition as a form church music. This type of music consists of nine odes, in which the second part is mostly absent or the eighth and ninth songs are omitted. A little later, the Byzantine canon passed into Russian music and retained its original structure.
Catholics began to call this definition part of the words in prayer masses Te igitur after Sanctus. This part of the mass is not subject to any modification, and that is why the name "canon" appeared in Catholic masses.
There are such types of canons as simple, derivative, infinite, triple, double and mensural. All of them are somewhat similar to each other, but still have some differences.
Special form of canon
In European music, such a special branch as polyphony has developed. The polyphonic canon in music is a special form of the canon that arose with the powerful rise of polyphonic thinking. With polyphony, continuous imitation of sounds is carried out, while sounds are transmitted from one instrument or voice to another. Thus, polyphonic thought is immersed in the dimension of music that is inside it. Polyphony is an aesthetic effect that defies words.
The canon in music is a rather funny technique in which there is an absolute adherence to the melody, and not a general rule. When performing this branch in music, one of the voices starts the melody, then the second one picks it up and completely repeats the melody without bringing any changes. A third joins the two voices, completely repeating already preset melody. This way of performing music sounds natural and unobtrusive. Polyphony reached a special rise in its popularity in the 2000s, when the sound of a call on the phone was set just the same
The canon is one of those great forms that music can be proud of. Western Europe. In its most significant examples, the form of the canon combines artistic and emotional fullness and richness with a rationalistically strictly calculated (and sometimes incredibly complex) construction of a sound whole. Having originated in the early eras of European polyphony, the canon (with greater or lesser prevalence in certain historical periods) has been developing over the course of seven centuries, moreover, modern music does not at all show a tendency to belittle artistic role canon.
For so long time the canon, of course, could not help but undergo significant evolution. And if the history of the canon of the New Age is more or less known to us, then its beginning has been little studied (primarily because of the inaccessibility of sources, especially in our country). This article aims to outline the contours of the origin and initial stages of development of the form of the canon.
1. Canon. Concept and term
The word "canon" is one of the most ambiguous among the words included in musical terminology.
. The "instrument of the sages" monochord was called the canon. By the name of this instrument, the supporters of the mathematical-philosophical explanation of music were called "canons".
In late Greek (Byzantine) music, the term "canon" was assigned to a particular form of church music. The Byzantine canon (from the end of the 7th century) consists of nine (or fewer) parts od. From Byzantium, the canon passed to Russian soil and retained the same structure (nine songs, the second of which is mostly absent; in some cases others are also omitted - the eighth, ninth).
In the Catholic Mass, the canon (canon missae) is the part after the Sanctus from the words "Te igitur" (the prayer texts of this part of the mass are not subject to change, hence the name "canon").
All the enumerated meanings of the word "canon", however, have nothing to do with the polyphonic form of the canon that developed in European polyphonic music. The source of its emergence is the powerful upsurge of historically new polyphonic polyphonic thinking, intensively developing the opened possibilities of repeating thematic material when transferring it from one voice to another and, at the same time, achieving unheard-of effects of deepening musical thought, as if immersing it in the inner dimension of music. Bringing the Continuous Simulation to the Center artistic interest composition forms a new aspect of musical time and an aesthetic effect of the interaction of two identical, but non-simultaneous voices that cannot be described in words.
The study of the stages of formation of European canonical forms is complicated by the difference in the ways of development term And concepts canon. What from our point of view is the real canon (that is, continuous imitation) originally existed under other genre names, and what was called "canon" does not completely coincide with the canon in the current sense of the term. Since such discrepancies occur precisely in the early epochs of the development of the canon, this issue is one of the most important in this work.
2. The genesis of the canon. Imitation in the metrized organum of the Notre Dame school. Vote exchange
The canonical forms of the 13th and 14th centuries arose directly on the basis of principle of imitation and chronologically, apparently, simultaneously with it. In terms of writing technique, canon and imitation are, in essence, homogeneous and can be considered as two different degree manifestations of the same general principle (transfer of material from one voice to another). The development of the nascent imitation into the canon as a consistent imitation, consisting of several departments, takes place already around 1200, with Perotin. An example is his Christmas organum Viderunt (a fragment is given):
In the early stages of their development, imitation and the canon manifested themselves within the framework of a certain method of organizing musical material, which received a specific name in the literature - "exchange of voices" ( German. Stimmtausch). The essence of this “voice exchange” is that a given combination of two (or more) votes repeats exactly, and its constituent melodies transmitted from voice to voice in such a way that each melody was in all voices. After completing the circle of conducting each melody in all voices, everything returns to the original ratio.
The exchange of votes combines several phenomena: (1) ostinato, (2) imitation and (3) canon(infinite canon: infinitus, or "continuous", circular canon perpetuus, in later terms).
The exchange of votes is also related to technology double and triple counterpoint. In addition, the absolute "Gothic" delimitation of melodic segments as well as the geometric correctness of their order, in the simplest form, but with complete certainty, operates with melodies as themes, melodies undergoing development through permutation.
The technique of exchanging voices probably originated in England (second half of the 12th century) and among the masters of the Notre Dame school (end of the 12th beginning of the 13th century) as one of the methods for composing a three- and four-voice organum (in the last stage of its evolution so called metrized organum).
In terms of the 13th (?) century, the technique of exchanging voices was designated as "repetition in different voices". The term " repetition"significantly points to the main property of the relationship between the voices participating in this exchange and, in meaning, connects the ideas of that time with the present (defining both imitation and canon through "repetition"). In Johannes de Garlandia (Garlandia), in the systematics of repetitions, “repetition in different voices” (exchange of voices) is paired with “repetition in the same voice”, that is, with ostinato. Both types of repetitions are considered as color, decoration of the sound structure (not without connection with the ways of decorating oratorical speech).
3. Rondelle. Catalan canons
Rondel ("Ave mater domini") from Odington's treatise (in transcript):
The circular "wheel-like" movement of the rondel (cantus rotundellus) explains the name rondellus. Odington writes: “The treble has many kinds. If what one sang, everyone repeats in turn (recitent pronounce), such singing is called rondel, that is, wheel-shaped or circular "
| I | a b | ... |
| b a | ... | |
| II | m n | ... |
| n m | ... |
"Putting" the two structures together certainly anticipates one of the principles of future composite canons.
The technique of exchanging voices was also important for one of the varieties of the Gothic English motet (XIII mid-XIV century). In such a “rondel motet” we find another variant of the rondel form “rondel of the upper voices” (X. Eggebrecht) in contrast to the previous types, where all voices are covered. The scheme of a variant frequent among the "rondelle motets" of the "Worcester" fragments is as follows:
| a b | c d | ... |
| b a | dc | ... |
| m m | n n | ... |
Thus, in the rondel, a technique close to the canon becomes the basis of the musical form.
The canon-“glase exchange”, in addition to the metrized organum and the rondel, also found application in the so-called “Catalan canons” (or “Pilgrim canons”). They date back to the 14th century and constitute the transition to the shas and kachcha genres. This is indicated by their name caça. One of these canons (the third one) has a remark: “caça de duobus vel tribus vel sic” “kacha two or three [voices] or so”, that is: it is allowed to perform in two or three voices, as well as in one voice.
4. Company. Canon as consistent imitation
The later form of the company or rotula (also: radel “wheel” the German name for the company), close to the rondel, is already a real canon from a modern point of view as a continuous and consistent imitation.
Very few works in the form of a company have come down to us. The famous example of a company is the English "Summer Canon". In musical form, however, it is a combination of a company (in the four upper voices) and a rondel (the so-called pes) in the two lower ones. Shape scheme:
The theoretical explanation of the company (rotunda, rotundel) by Johannes de Groheio (Grocheio, right. Grokéyo. - S.L.; XIII-XIV centuries) emphasizes the circular nature of the form: “Any cantilena is called by many a rotunda or rotundel, because, like a circle, it turns around in itself and begins and ends in the same way”
In the original recording of the "Summer Canon" there is such an inscription, and it is placed between the melody of the company and the pes-rondel. Unlike later puzzles, this inscription is simple and is more of a simple explanation of how to sing than a literary polished saying. The inscription reads: "This company can be sung by four comrades (socii) ... but less than three or two, it should not be sung, except for those two who sing the feet (pedem)". In the manuscript, one sign (cross) is clearly distinguished, showing the entry of each new voice (in relation to the last one to enter). 5. Kachcha. Shas. Canon in some other genres of the 16th century. "Fugue" In the 14th century, canonical forms spread more widely. Two related "pictorial" genres stand out in particular - the Italian caccia and the French chasse (chasse, chace). These terms themselves (both are translated in the same way: “hunting”) indicate with greater certainty the canonical structure of the work: one voice allegedly “hunts” for another. Like the works of the genres described above, kachcha and shas have a secular content. In addition to the usual pictorial moments (scenes of hunting, chasing, barking dogs), a more or less open allegorical plot of a love nature is often introduced into the content of kachcha. Both are best embodied in the canonical conduct of voices (“chase”, “pursuit”, or another name for caccia incalzo, “race”). Therefore, the opposite is also quite probable: the canon, as a continuous imitation, was figuratively perceived as hunting and, accordingly, received its names. A typical polyphonic construction of a caccha is as follows: a three-voice fabric, where the two upper voices form a canon (in unison), the lower is free; a large distance in time between proposta and risposta is characteristic (up to six to ten, sometimes even fifteen bars). Unlike caccha, the French shas is a canon in unison, covering all three voices (however, there were also two-voice shas). It is important to note that, like the author of the "Summer Canon", the creators of the French shas use the method of recording the canonical three-voice in the form of one voice (indicating others to enter using special signs or remarks: fuga post ... tempore). In addition to "hunts", the form of the canon is also found in other genres of the 14th century. So, Guillaume de Machaux's 17th ballad "Sanz cuer m" en vois" ("From a heart full of weeping and sorrow") is written in the form of a three-voice canon, that is, in the form of shas. The most famous of these samples is the 14th rondó Macho "Ma fin est mon commencement" ("My end my beginning"): Machaux's 14th rondo is considered historically the first example of a canon canon. Only the upper voice (bars 1-40) and the first part of the countertenor (bars 1-20) are notated in the manuscripts.
In the 14th century, to the terms denoting “hunting” or “chase”, another one was added, similar in meaning, “fugue” ( Italian name consequential). From that time (until about the 17th century) they also designate the canon (not a fugue in our sense), that is, “run”, “chase”. In the second half of the 14th century, the words of this root are associated with the French chasse.
Since the 15th century, the word "fugue" has become more and more common (by J. Ciconia, d. 1411, Matteo of Perugia, d. c. 1418, Dufay, etc.) in inscriptions-aphorisms indicating the method of deriving voices from the notated (for example, fuga in diapente) . From the second half of the 15th century, the genre of canonical missa ad fugam arose (with Standlay, de Ortho, Josquin).
The understanding of "fugue" as the canonical identity of the deducing and deduced voices, obviously, passes at this time (from the process of "running") also to the compositional-technical correlation of voices. Thus, the "fugue" begins to be interpreted as a certain compositional form. Its essential feature is imitation repetition. The late 15th-century theorist Johannes Tinctoris, in his Determinant of Music (c. 1473-1477), characterizes "fugue" as "identity of voices" (or "identity of voices")
The peak of the evolution of the canon (perhaps not surpassed in all subsequent development) falls on the second half of the 15th first half of the 16th century. And this peak this time stands in direct connection with the term "canon". But the difficulty is that the term "canon" means here (in the XV-XVI centuries) something else, only partly consistent with our interpretation of the word. In some meanings, "canon" has almost no points of contact with its modern understanding. As has already been shown, the canon in the form of a consistent imitation is a company, shas, kachcha, "fugue". "Canon" in the 15th century was called inscription- a saying, in a simple or, conversely, intricate (often deliberately obscure) formulation, indicating the method (“rule”, “law”) of the performance of the work. The classic definition of this canon-rule belongs to Tinctoris: "The canon is a rule that reveals the will of the composer under the cover of some darkness." Compiling symbolic, even intriguing, enigmatic epigraphs, the composers seem to have found an object of intellectual play for themselves. Some samples:
As you can see, this form does not correspond at all to the concept of canon in the current sense of the word. Hence the question: is the structure of a work equipped with the remark “canon” a form? What is the formative factor due to the "canon"?
Our answer is this. Historically, in European polyphony there were two different forms, defined by the term "canon", and, accordingly, two concepts of canon. The first of these forms (canon-rule) is the concept of the 15th-16th centuries; the second (continuous imitation or sequential imitation) is the current concept. There is no reason to ignore this historical fact and to deny some of the forms of the old ("Dutch") canon the right to bear this name for the sole reason that its structure does not correspond to the developed Later new concept. It is impossible to absolutize one of these two concepts, it cannot be said that the canon of the XV-XVI centuries (in some of its forms, artificially separated from those subject to the same rule) is not a canon; this will only say that it is not canon in the later sense. We can also formulate the essence of the structure defined by the concept of "canon": canon-rule is a form with inferred votes, that is, a form that is built by reading an unnotated voice (votes) according to the part of the notated voice (votes). It can also be defined as a form with reflected votes.
According to the proposed formulation (canon form with deducible voices), it turns out to be possible to find a connection between the two concepts of canon old and current: the canon as a consistent imitation is a special case of the canon-rule. All forms of the canon in the present sense can be understood (and in principle notated) as a structure with derivable voices (see, for example, the canons in Part I of Scheidt's "Tabulatura nova" and in J.S. Bach's "Musikalisches Opfer")
Canon as a saying-motto most clearly captures the essence of the canon as the principle of deducing voices. Therefore, we can use the canon-label method as follows: The canon is a form with inferred voices. Canon has a vote deduction rule . Considering Feininger's classification to be the most complete, although not devoid of terminological controversy, we present it with some amendments. Two aspects of the canon need to be classified: (a) writing technique and (b) form.
1. Simple canon - the most elementary type of canon of two or more voices, reproducing proposta without changes in duration, vertical direction, horizontal direction, without changes in the composition of the melody (for example, without skipping sounds or pauses). According to the principle of a simple canon, a huge, complex work. Such, for example, is the legendary 36-voice canon-colossus "Deo gratias", attributed to Okegem
The no less famous 24-voice canon in Josquin's motet "Qui habitat in adiutorio" belongs to the same type (addition additio of four simple six-voice canons). Since, despite the pauses, the voices in Josquin's canon do not stop, a real 24-voice arises, and it turns out that Josquin's "Qui habitat" surpasses "Deo gratias" in the number of votes The type of simple canon, obviously, should include the "zero canon" with the simultaneous entry of voices (that is, with zero distance in time) without applying the above-mentioned modifications of the melody. Coinciding with the technique of doubling voices, the zeroth canon differs from it in the meaning of duplication. In the old polyphony (by Dufay, Josquin), the parallel conduction next to the melody of its imitation turns out to be a special case of deriving one voice from another, differing from other types only in the entry time. This is the principle of Faubourdon with the doubling of a given voice (canon zero) into a fourth. Based on the simultaneity of the entry of voices, we will combine the zero canon with other types of canon sine pausis (“without pauses”), not necessarily related to the immutability of the theme. We find this kind of sine pausis canon in Scheidt's Tabulatura nova (1624), part I, in canons nos. 6 and 7. ; however, the combination with the lower voice also introduces the effect of a proportional canon.) The following 36-voice canon consists of nine four-voice choirs, which, in turn, are formed canonically by derivation from a single theme:
2. A complex canon is characterized by the fact that the proposta is not monophonic, but polyphonic, that is, in essence, the starting point is the combination of two or more (three or four) proposta. A complex canon is the union of two or more simple canons.
3. The proportional canon is notated as one voice with two or more meters indicated (“proportions”, “scales”). The voices enter at the same time and even seem to go each at its own pace. One of the most outstanding examples "III vocum ex unica" ("four voices from one") by Pierre de la Rue
4.1. The linear canon (Feininger: Linearkanon) is more at odds with the current concept of the canon than any other. The tenor or linear canon involves holding melodies derived from the notated one in the same voice, that is, a one-line imitation.
4.2. Feininger's distributed linear canon is called "formal canon" (Formalkanon), which seems inaccurate, since with other types of technology, canonical voices also become the basis of the form (in addition, the word "formal" has a different connotation). The essence of this type is the extension of the tenor function as s. f. (in the linear canon) to other voices (in order of imitation and especially pre-imitation). Sample distributed canon:
5. The inversion canon as a concept unites both the actual inversion (vertical reversal) and the rakokhod (horizontal reversal). Sample inversion canon 14th rondo by Machaux (example 3) .
6. Feininger's elisional canon is called Reservat-canon. Its essence is to skip all pauses or all small notes. Feininger describes Agnus II from Isaac's Mass "O Österreich": the corresponding voice is written without keys, with three signs, and is substantially longer than the only free accompanying voice; the voice I should be read in a bass clef and jumps to the last at the first sign; voice II enters 4 measures later and in the soprano clef (that is, goes to a quart through an octave), it jumps from the first sign to the second and ends at the last; voice III also enters after 4 measures, is read in the alto key (that is, in a double quart) and goes smoothly to the second character. Sample elision canon:
When considering the phenomena of music of the distant past, modern researchers (Vl. V. Protopopov is one of them) seek to connect them with our time. There are grounds for this trend in the very nature of contemporary musical culture.
In many ways, modern musical thinking corresponds with all past eras. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the middle of the 20th century was the time of the discovery of past eras of music. In the musical and performing life countless ensembles early music, in musical science restoration of musical forms of the Baroque, Renaissance, Middle Ages.
The musical consciousness itself has changed. We have gained the ability to hear and understand how alive art as human thought what Fyodor Krestyanin, Perotin or Andrei Kritsky tell us.
Today it seems strange to us how it was possible (not so long ago!) to consider the term cantus firmus "terrifyingly active" and "the personification of contrapuntal scholasticism", and the isorhythmic motet "simultaneous combination [...] of independently emerging melodic lines", allowing "only a speculative comprehension of its meaning, its structure"
Musical thinking XX century in some ways turned out to be close to the old Netherlanders, and Gesualdo, and even medieval monody. Thus, in order to develop the canonical raskhodny structures of the old Netherlanders, modern music widely uses canonical, rakhodnye, mirror forms (examples: A. Berg, Allegro misterioso from the "Lyric Suite" for string quartet; P. Hindemith, prelude and postlude from Ludus tonalis; P .S.Ledenev, the second of "6 pieces for harp and string quartet"). Therefore, it is also natural to use (sometimes at a new level, with new tasks) the principle of inferred (reflected) votes, the principle of the old canon. Without taking now numerous more extreme phenomena, we will demonstrate this closeness by (re)canonization (encryption) of a musical structure, the author of which did not count on this at all.
1 Canonical forms starting from Bach are demonstrated or mentioned on a large number of musical samples in the two-volume Vl. V. Protopopov "History of polyphony in its most important phenomena" (M., 1962, 1965).
2 The canon was also called: the numerical ratio of sounds (by Diogenes Laertius); a fixed starting point (Plutarch has chronological milestones, on the basis of which other dates were calculated); a list of exemplary Greek writers established by the Alexandrian grammarians. The term "canon" was used in sculpture (the famous "canon" of Polykleitos), architecture (Vitruvius), literature, and music. In the early Christian era, the term "canonical" ("correct") was used to separate the texts of sacred scripture (the New Testament) officially recognized by the church from those rejected ("apocryphal").
3 The invention of the monochord (at first not yet called canon) is attributed by legend to Pythagoras. But, apparently, the historically first description of the canon of the monochord belongs to Euclid ("Division of the Canon", III century BC). "Eve" ( Persian."ganun") also the name of the string plucked instrument at different peoples(we have in Armenia called "canon").
4 X. Besseler dates Perotin's quadruple "Sederunt" (in which an exchange of votes occurs) to 1199 (see: Besseler H. Die Musik des Mittelalters und der Renaissance. Potsdam, 1937, S. 114). L. Feininger points out that in the school "Notre Dame" the exchange of votes appears precisely with Perotin, not earlier: "with Leonin it would be impossible" ( Feininger L. Die Frühgeschichte des Kanons bis Josquin des Prez (d. 1500). Diss. Emsdetten, 1937, S. 2).
5 The expression of Johannes de Garlandia (Garlandia) (Johannes de Garlandia. "De musica mensurabili positio"). However, it must be noted that, according to latest research E. Reimer, this chapter of the treatise is considered inauthentic (see: Reimer E. Johannes de Garlandia: De mensurabili musica. Kritische Edition mit Commentar und Interpretation der Notationslehre. Wiesbaden. 1972, Tl. 1. S. 91, 95; Tl. 2, S. 39 ff.).
6 Prosdocimus de Beldemandis (CS III, 226) directly points to this, explaining color as "repetition" and using the term "figure" ("...in colore musico fit pluries similium figurarum..."). 7 In addition to this form of rondel (or round round), others (continental) are known with a different construction. 9 The term appears in the article: Eggbrecht H. Rondellus. In: Riemann Musiklexikon. Sachteil, 1967, S. 818.
11 Dating is difficult. The dates named in the literature vary within two centuries (XIII-XIV centuries). Apparently, it belongs to the beginning of the XIV century, but it is possible to the second half of the XIII (c. 1260). If "Summer Canon" belongs XIII century, it should be considered the first outstanding example of the canon proper.
12 Quot. by ed.: Rohloff E. Die Quellenhandschriften zum Musiktraktat des Johannes de Grocheio. Leipzig, s. a., S. 51, 132 (133). 13 See: Besseler H., Gulke P. Schriftbild der mehrstimmigen Musik (Musikgeschichte in Bildern, Bd. 3, Lfg. 5). Leipzig, 1973, S. 45.
16 M. Saponov calls it a "canonical ballad" ( Saponov M. Musical Forms by G. de Machaux. Graduate work. MGK, 1973). Hereinafter, Yu.N. refers to " sequence numbers"Machot's works according to the (outdated) edition of F. Ludwig. The reader should keep in mind that in other editions (for example, in the edition of L. Schrade, which has been considered normative since the mid-1950s), the ordinal numbers of the plays are different[S.L.].
17 Diagram of an eight-line rondo:
| numbers of eight lines of text | 1 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 |
| lines of text rhymes of verse and lines of music string functions |
a b a b refrain |
With a vers |
a a refrain |
dc a b vers |
a b a b refrain |
19 In addition to the cases mentioned, the canon occurs occasionally, for example, in the madrigal (see: Besseler H. Bourdon and Fauxbourdon. Leipzig, 1974, S. 71, 230).
20 Hence the possibility of various decodings. So in ed.: Masho G. de. Ensembles (M., 1975) give two versions of the implementation of the 17th ballad (numbered 9 and 9a). made by F. Ludwig and L. Feininger. In one transcript, the voices of the canon enter after one measure; in the other after two.
21 Meanwhile, the very words "canon", "canonical" are occasionally used in the terminology of musical texts in the general meaning of "rules". So, Johannes de Groheo (see: Rohloff E. Op. cit., S. 124, 144) we read: “de musica composita vel regulari vel canonica” (“about a composed or following the rules, or canonical music"), "canones universales artis musicae" ("general rules of musical art").
Story
The word "canon", which has many other meanings, began to be used to designate a musical form only in the 16th century. The earliest known English canons date from the 13th century (e.g., "Sumer Is Icumen In"- "Summer canon"); canons were written in large numbers in Italy in the 14th century, using the term caccia, and also used them in French chansons. In the era of the Franco-Flemish school (1430-1550), the form of the canon developed further, and the rules for composing canons finally known now were formed by the composers of the Roman school. At this time, the form of the canon reached its highest development. Much attention was paid to the canon by Josquin Despres, Johann Okeghem (who is credited with the 36-voice canon Deo gratias), Palestrina and others. Later, the canon was referred to less and less (with some notable exceptions, such as The Musical Offering by J. S. Bach). In the 20th century, Schoenberg revived interest in the canon using the twelve-tone technique.
Prior to the separation of the fugue into a separate musical form, the canons, like other imitative-polyphonic works, were often called fugues.
Canon types
Canons are classified according to different parameters: the number of voices, the interval between the first notes of proposta and risposta, the presence of a circulation or return movement of voices, the time difference between the introductions of voices, the accuracy of repeating the intervals of proposta risposta and the tempo of risposta.
Simple
In the simple canon, satellite melodies repeat exactly the main melody in the first voice, perhaps an octave above or below the main voice. An example of such a canon is Frère Jacques.
interval
If the risposta does not begin on the same note as the proposta, then the canon is called interval. At the same time, the melody of the risposta no longer has to exactly coincide with the proposta: the intervals between two notes of the main melody can be replaced by the same name (for example, a major second into a minor one). If the melodies in all voices coincide, then the canon is called accurate, if not, then diatonic.
Contrapuntal derivatives
Risposta may not coincide with proposta, but be its contrapuntal derivative.
Appeal
In the inverted canon, satellite melodies are the inversions of the chief melody. This means that if the main melody jumps, for example, a fifth up, the satellite in the same place jumps a fifth down, and vice versa. If at the same time the distances between the notes are exactly preserved, then such a canon is called mirror.
return movement
In risposts, a return movement, or a rakhod, can be used, when the main melody is recorded backwards. Canons that are simultaneously inverted and in a return motion are sometimes called canons: it can be played if a table is placed between two musicians and notes of the main melody of the canon are put (each will read the melody in his own direction).
Mensural
In the mensural, or proportional, canon, a risposta is a proposta extended or compressed in time (that is, played at a different tempo). For example, the melody of a risposta can be played twice as slowly as a proposta (canon per augmentationem) or twice as fast (canon per diminutionem). Technically, mensural canons are the most difficult to write. Such canons were written in large numbers during the Renaissance, especially at the end and beginning of the 16th century; Okeghem wrote a whole mass ( Missa Prolationum), each part of which is a mensural canon.
Endless
Endless ( canon perpetuus) is called a canon, the end of which smoothly passes into the beginning, that is, one that can be played for an arbitrarily long time. At the same time, the melody at the end can turn out to be in the same key in which it began, or modulate into a different key (spiral canon, per tone) - in this case, a new round of the canon begins already in a new key.
double and triple
If there are two (or three) independent themes in the canon, each of which has satellites, such a canon is called double (respectively, triple).
Methods of writing the canon
Composers did not always explicitly write out all the voices in the canon. Sometimes one voice was recorded with notes that made it possible to uniquely restore the entire canon - such a recording is called closed. If only the main melody of the canon is written out without indicating the places and intervals of the entry of the rispost, then the canon is called mysterious.
audio snippet
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZHw9uyj81g&NR=1(Classic) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcR9mKKk2UE&feature=related(Rock variant)
Links
- Anatomy of the Canon
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See what "Kanon (musical form)" is in other dictionaries:
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Polyphonic form, one of the types of imitation. In it, a long melody, after its appearance in one voice and long before its end, is exactly repeated in another voice, starting from the same step or from another, as a result of which K ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
