The theme of the struggle for independence was central both in oral folklore and in monuments. written literature that time. The largest patriotic works were "Zadonshchina" and "The Tale of Mamaev massacre”, glorifying the victory of the united Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo. The most significant monument of historical thought were chronicles. Moscow became the center of all-Russian chronicle writing, where at the beginning of the 15th century the first annalistic code of an all-Russian character was compiled. Trinity Chronicle, in which the idea of the continuity of power of the Moscow sovereigns from the Kyiv and Vladimir princes was carried out.
In the historical literature of the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. rationalistic views on historical events are strengthened. The authors of historical works (for example, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the end of the 15th century) sought to affirm the idea of the exclusivity of the autocratic power of Russian sovereigns as the successors of Kievan Rus and Byzantium. The same ideas were expressed in chronographs, summary reviews world history, in which Russia was seen as the last link in the chain of world-historical monarchies.
Expanded not only historical, but also geographical knowledge of people. Due to the complication administration the grown territory of the state began to draw up the first geographical maps ("drawings"). The development of trade and diplomatic relations of Russia also contributed to this.
Russian craftsmen learned how to make rather complex mathematical calculations during the construction of buildings, they were familiar with the properties of the main building materials. Blocks and other mechanisms were used in the construction of buildings. For prey salt solutions deep drilling and pipe laying were used, through which the liquid was distilled using a piston pump. In military affairs, the casting of copper cannons was mastered, wall-beating and throwing guns became widespread.
In the XIV century, stone cathedrals were restored in Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal and other cities. In Moscow, white-stone walls and towers of the Kremlin, a number of cathedrals and monasteries were erected. In the process of formation of the state with the center in Moscow, a new all-Russian style of monumental architecture began to be created. This style was characterized creative use architectural traditions of old Russian cities and, at the same time, their enrichment with the achievements of European architecture of the Renaissance.
The formation of national architecture was accompanied by the rise of Russian fine arts. This rise is associated with the name of the great Russian painter Andrei Rublev. In the first quarter of the 15th century, together with the icon painter Daniil Cherny, he decorated a number of Moscow cathedrals with frescoes and icons. The pinnacle of A. Rublev's work was the icon "Trinity", painted in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery near Moscow. The work of Andrei Rublev had a great influence on the further development of Russian painting. In its own way artistic value and high craftsmanship, it stands at the level of the most outstanding achievements of contemporary Italian painting the Renaissance.
Thus, the formation of the spirituality of the people of the XIV - early XVI centuries. took place largely under the influence of the ideas of the creation of the state and the growing awareness of the unity of its peoples.
In the XVI century. ceased to exist once mighty cultural centers and schools. This was the result of the completed folding process united state. The original features that distinguished one school from another were leveled, the original creative methods and techniques of masters of arts and crafts, architects, icon painters. However, the ongoing processes testified not to the decline of Russian culture, but, on the contrary, to its progressive progressive development.
This was due to the fact that Moscow, having become the all-Russian center of culture, gathered the best craftsmen from all lands, whose creativity, in the conditions of an established national identity, gave powerful push development of culture in all its spheres.
In the XVI century. a national culture was formed, which was formed on the basis of those traditions that developed and improved in traditional centers that retained the identity characteristic of each locality. The process of forming a national culture was accompanied by its further development.
Literature and socio-political thought in the XVI century. are undergoing significant changes, which was associated with the increased activity of discussing the pressing problems of that time. In social thought, the theory "Moscow is the third Rome" has become widespread.
Printing has become an important milestone in the development of Russian culture. In the middle of the XVI century. Ivan Fedorov organized a printing house in the Kremlin, which was then transferred to Nikolskaya Street. The first dated Russian book was The Apostle, published in 1564, which laid the foundation for Russian book printing.
16th century architecture developed in several directions, having received a powerful impetus as a result of work in Moscow at the end of the 15th century. Italian architects. In addition, by this time, Moscow architects and builders had gained a lot of experience, which allowed them to build unique structures. An outstanding monument of this time is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532 by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in memory of the birth of his son Ivan.
Center for the development of iconography in the XVI century. Moscow became, it was here, on the orders of Ivan the Terrible, that the best icon painters were gathered. Moscow icon painters then dispersed to cities and monasteries, spreading common traditions throughout Russia. Differences between schools were smoothed out. On the basis of tradition and new trends, an all-Russian national icon-painting school was formed. Fresco painting continued to develop.
XVII century, being a period of rapid development ancient Russian culture, at the same time was the century of its completion. Keeping the main features of the traditional way of life, Russian society begins to transform in a direction that will later find its highest expression in the reforms of Peter the Great. Russia stood on the threshold of a new era. Two trends are clearly distinguished in culture: the penetration of Western European influences and the progressive process of secularization (secularization), i.e., liberation from the domination of the church.
In literature, the 17th century is the time of the death of many unshakable traditions. The most expressive innovation is the penetration of deliberate fiction into literature. This kind of literature was popular, above all, in a democratic environment. In addition to entertaining and moralizing, it had a strong satirical, accusatory component. It manifested itself most clearly in "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court" and "The Tale of Yersh Ershovich" - works that ridiculed the court order and the venality of judges.
In the development of architecture of the XVII century. three stages can be distinguished. At the beginning of the century, the general character of architecture still differed little from the architecture of the end of the 16th century. A characteristic feature of the second stage, covering the middle of the century, is the emphasized decorativeness, elegance and multi-colored architectural decoration. Patriarch Nikon forbade the construction of popular in the XVI century. hipped temples as non-canonical, different from the Greek models. By special orders, the architects were obliged to return to the traditional cross-domed scheme. However, architects easily circumvented the ban. Was found new opportunity use a favorite architectural element - bell towers were crowned with tents. As a result, buildings of intricate, asymmetric, “fabulous” architecture, remarkable in beauty, appeared. Such, for example, are the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (1634) and the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1652). The third stage begins in the 90s. 17th century In Russian architecture there are significant changes. Appears a new style- “Naryshkin baroque”, which got its name because the main customers of buildings made in this style were relatives of the second wife of the tsar, mother of Peter I, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina.
A significant phenomenon in fine arts In the 17th century, which marked the dawn of a new time, there was the appearance of a portrait - a parsuna. Parsuna is still very similar to an icon, the image is still conditional in many respects, but through the icon scheme, individual features are already visible in them. Parsuns are known, depicting the tsars Ivan the Terrible, Fedor Ioannovich, Prince Skopin-Shuisky.
The period of the beginning of feudal fragmentation.IN literary texts local
features and themes.
Increasing urgency and publicity
literature.
The main theme of literature is the call of princes to
unification and longing for the lost unity. Artworks:
"Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh
to my children"
INSTRUCTION - a didactic statement addressed to
listeners or readers.
"The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener"
Prayer is a petition.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" The period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
The genre of the military story is developing. MILITARY
STORY is a genre based on
depiction of a historical event associated with
heroic struggle of the people against external
enemies.
Religious principle in the explanation intensifies
historical events. The invasion is perceived
as a threat to faith => as a threat to culture and
the state. Artworks:
"The Tale of the Devastation of Batu
Ryazan"
"The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River" An era coinciding with the economic and cultural
the revival of the Russian land in the period before and after the Kulikovo
battles.
Art, culture, interest in people are being revived
(chronicles, architecture, historical narrative,
creation of icons).
The new trend is hesychasm. Hesychasm - Christian mystical
worldview, an ancient tradition of spiritual practice,
which forms the basis of Orthodox asceticism (S. Radonezhsky,
A. Rublev).
The emergence of a new style - "word weaving". The style is ornate,
heavy, complex syntactic constructions. Artworks:
A cycle of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo
"The Legend of the Mamaev Battle"
"Zadonshchina"
(Tells about the victory of the Russian troops, led by the great
Prince of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy) and his
cousin Vladimir Andreevich, over the Mongol Tatar troops of the ruler of the Golden Horde Mamai) Construction, formation
centralized Moscow state.
The rapid development of social thought and
journalism. Literature and journalism
inherent belief in the power of words and beliefs, in
the power of the mind.
Works are created that can be
attributed to fiction (based on works
stories of a historical and everyday character). Artworks:
"The Tale of Dracula"
"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"
(combination of life, historical story and
fairy tale)
The Journey of the Tver Merchant Athanasius
Nikitin for three seas "(the first secular
text in the genre of walking, this text gives
beginning of travel literature)
10.
Approval (organization) of the Russian Centralizedstates.
Publicism is developing in literature (in the genre of letters),
for example, "Correspondence of A. Kurbsky and Ivan IV." In the 15th century
The correspondence was not personal.
During this period, the influence of the official
power and politics. From the metropolitan, tsar or boyars
are literary enterprises that wear
the nature of the prescription.
11.
Literary enterprises:"Stoglav" (document regulating
church life of the Russian state)
"Domostroy" (a collection of rules, tips and
guidance in all areas of life
individual and family, including public,
family, economic and religious
questions)
12.
Age of transition to the literature of modern times.The age of development of the individual principle in everything: there are
first professional writers, develop
individual styles, there is a sense of copyright
property, personality traits appear in the characters
literary works.
Old literary genres are being destroyed (military
story => "The story of the Azov siege seat of the Don
Cossacks; life => "Life of Archpriest Avvakum",
written by him).
The genre of the story appears (written for reading, do not have
no function other than literary).
13.
Artworks:"The Tale of the Shemyakin Court"
"The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"
"The Tale of Frol Skobeev"
"The Tale of Ersh Ershovich"
"The Tale of a Naked and Poor Man"
"The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox"
The process of formation of a single centralized state was reflected in the development of Russian culture. Its influence was ambiguous. So, many features of the development of local cultural traditions that “did not fit” into its general course were lost. The local chronicle is replaced by a single grand-ducal chronicle, entire icon-painting schools disappear, as happened with the Tver icon-painting.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to Russian culture. In the fire of the invasion, churches, books, icons were destroyed, many cultural values were destroyed, artisans, craftsmen, a huge number of rural and urban workers were killed or taken captive. Stone construction stopped for a while, the experience of craftsmen accumulated over the years was forgotten. The dynamic rise of culture is associated with the victory at the Kulikovo field (1380), since that time we can talk about the formation of an all-Russian culture. One of the main themes in the literature of this time is the struggle against the Mongols-Tatars.
In folklore, these are “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh”, “The Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich”. In the historical story, these are: “About the Battle of the Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (a story about the exploits of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat), “The Tale of the Mamaev Battle”. Particularly famous is the pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", written by Zephanius Ryazants, which combined Orthodox heroism with deep sorrow for the dead.
Lives of the Saints Sergius of Radonezh, Stephen of Perm are known, belonging to the pen of Epiphanius the Wise (n. XV century). The most complete chronicles were preserved in those places where the Mongols did not reach: in Novgorod, Pskov, etc. In 1442, the Russian Chronograph appeared - a description of world history compiled by Pakhomiy Logofet.
Stone construction is resumed, first of all, in Novgorod and Pskov, then in other cities. Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented heights. Man and his spiritual world became the main motifs in painting. The most famous painters of this time: Feofan Grek (Novgorod school - his style of painting is distinguished by the choice of bright rich colors, emotionality, expression) and Andrei Rublev (Moscow school - pure light colors, high spiritual pathos and penetrating humanity). A. Rublev (c. 1360-1370 - c. 1439) painted the frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, several wonderful icons (“Trinity”, symbolizing the idea of the unity of the world and humanity).
Another famous painter was Dionysius (c. 1440-1441 - after 1502-1503) Murals: Joseph-Volokalamsky, Ferapontov monasteries; iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
Literature of the 15th–16th centuries
At the end of the XV century. the Moscow chronicle appears, covering historical events from the standpoint of victorious Moscow. Under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius, a " The power book of the royal genealogy, describing events from the reign of Olga to Ivan IV. She substantiated the idea of uniting the Russian lands under the rule of Moscow princes and emphasized the role of the church. From the environment of the Makaryev circle, in particular, came such a monumental collection ancient Russian literature, How "Great Cheti - Menaion". This is a 12-volume (according to the number of months) collection of the lives of the saints, teachings, works of canon law and other texts arranged according to the days of Christian holidays and the days of memory of saints.
Born in the 16th century. And political journalism: critical issues the life of society, in particular, about the nature of power and the state, become the subject of extensive discussion by both ecclesiastical and secular authors. I. Peresvetov in his works (petitions, written in the 40-50s), he substantiated the need for a strong state power, but built on the principles of justice and law.
Bright talented publicists were A. Kurbsky and Ivan the Terrible- in the controversy that A. Kurbsky opened with his message to Ivan after fleeing to Lithuania in 1564.
The genre of "journeys" - descriptions of journeys to distant countries - becomes popular. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" described his journey to India, Persia and other countries of the East (1466-1472).
In the 2nd floor. 16th century The first Printing House opened in Moscow. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets publish the first printed book "Apostle", next year "Hours". In total, 20 books were published by the first book printers, which so far were more expensive than handwritten ones.
Architecture
The strengthening of the Moscow prince, the final unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, directly affected the architecture of the capital. In the second floor. 15th century The Kremlin has undergone a grand restructuring. New walls were erected, majestic cathedrals:
Uspensky (1476-1479)- Italian architect Aristotle Fiorovanti; Blagoveshchensky(1484-1489) - Pskov masters; Arkhangelsk(1505-1509) - Aleviz the New and the Faceted Chamber (1487-1491) - Italians Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari created for ceremonial receptions.
In the 16th century, intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses was going on in Russia, although in general Rus' remained wooden. The most widespread marquee style in architecture. One of the best examples of this style is Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, founded in honor of Ivan the Terrible (1532). Built by architects Barma and Postnik, Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral)) in Moscow was originally white (1555-1560), received its motley color already in the 17th century. The cathedral was founded in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Fortifications are under active construction. Kremlins are being erected in Tula, Kolomna, Serpukhov, Smolensk (Fyodor Kon) Nizhny Novgorod(Pyotr Fryazin).
Culture of the 17th century
For Russian culture of the XVII century. secularization (liberation from church influence) and growth are characteristic Western European influence. It was expressed in the spread of secular knowledge, the departure from religious canons in literature, architecture, painting, increased attention to human personality.
Enlightenment and science. In 1634, the first primer of Vasily Burtsev was printed, and by the second half. In the 17th century, 300 thousand of them were already published. In the 40s. F.M. Rtishchev set up a school for young nobles. There were also several private schools. Under the apothecary order, the first scientific library appears. In 1687 it was opened in Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy led by the Greek brothers Likhuds. It was an educational institution for people "of every rank and age", where the clergy and officials were trained.
In the 17th century people were able to extract cube and square roots, solve equations, measure areas. The need for the manufacture of medicines, the development of artillery led to the fact that the properties of many substances were known. A work on the structure was translated into Russian human body Andrew Vesalius. In 1676-1678. Nikolai Spafari made a trip to China, the description of which provided a lot of new information. Along with astrological information, the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus was known in Russia. In the 70s in Kyiv, and then in Moscow, the first printed book on history was published - "Synopsis" Kyiv monk Innocent Gizel, who set out in an accessible form events from antiquity to modern author era.
Literature
The appearance of a number of narratives of spiritual and secular authors about the events of the Time of Troubles: "The Tale" by Abraham Palitsyn, "Vremennik" by deacon Ivan Timofeev, "The Word" by Prince I.A. Khvorostinin. The official version of the events of the Time of Troubles is contained in the "New Chronicler" of 1630, written by order of Patriarch Filaret. The main purpose of this work is to strengthen the position of the new Romanov dynasty. The greatest publicist was Simeon Polotsky(monk S.E. Petrovsky-Sitnianovich, a native of Polotsk). An example of literary innovation was "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself." It is distinguished by the brightness of images, the richness of language.
Storyline historical tale journalistic character actively supplanted the traditional chronicle. The development of autocracy put on the agenda the issue of creating a work on the history of the Russian state. This required a systematic collection of historical materials. This from 1657 to 1659. dealt with the Record Order. Trying to collect wide circle historical sources was undertaken by the clerk F. Griboedov, the typographical "referencer" (editor) Polikarpov and the author of "Scythian History" Andrei Lyzlov.
Changes in public life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in the development of literature. It was characterized, first of all, by the emergence of satirical stories ("About Shemyakina's Court", "The Tale of Yersh Yershovich", "Service to the Tavern", "The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man", "The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox", etc.) . These works were created among the urban population. They contained a protest against the ruling order. Both secular gentlemen and the clergy were ridiculed. The literature of the 17th century, especially democratic literature, was characterized by attention to the human person. This is connected with the emergence of a new hero - a fictional character. If earlier in literature heroes were historical figures, belonging to the top of society, now portrayed both merchants and ordinary townspeople.
Architecture. The tastes of the townspeople were clearly manifested in architecture and painting. Secularization in architecture manifested itself, first of all, in the desire for external picturesqueness, elegance, decor. Merchants and township communities are increasingly becoming customers of churches. It was in the township churches that the secular beginning, the tastes and moods of the democratic strata of the population were manifested. Such temples include the Moscow churches of the Trinity in Nikitniki, the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, the Yaroslavl church of Elijah the Prophet.
The clergy stubbornly opposed the secularization of religious architecture, the penetration of secular principles into it. Patriarch Nikon in the 50s He forbade the construction of hipped temples, putting forward the traditional five-domed church instead. On his initiative, ensembles of New Jerusalem (near Moscow), Iversky (on Valdai) and Cross (on the White Sea) monasteries were built.
Further development of architecture led to the emergence at the end of the 17th century. "Naryshkin style" or "Moscow baroque" A significant role in its formation was played by the influence of Western European architecture. characteristic features of this style were: clarity, symmetry of the composition, aspiration upward, multi-tiered, decorative decoration of buildings. A remarkable monument of this style is the Moscow Church of the Intercession in Fili, built by the uncle of Peter I L.K. Naryshkin, buildings of the Novodevichy Convent.
Main building material there was still a tree. pinnacle wooden architecture 17th century is a luxurious later demolished royal palace in Kolomenskoye. The volume of brick construction is gradually increasing, multi-colored tiles, white stone details are widely used, which gave the buildings a festive look.
The process of secularization also affected painting. The main thing in it was the development of realistic tendencies, the desire to convey the beauty of earthly existence. Within the framework of church painting, an everyday genre, parsuna (persona), developed. At the head of the new direction was Simon Ushakov. In the icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands" he depicted the living, spiritualized face of a man.
The new direction also affected the painting of temples. Examples of this are the murals of the Trinity Church in Nikitniki and Yaroslavl churches. At the end of the XVII century. painters are moving from parsuna to painting portraits with paints on canvas (portraits of Prince B.I. Repnin, G.P. Godunov, L.K. Naryshkin).
Tasks for self-fulfillment
1. Prepare messages or presentations on topics:
- “Heretical movements “Strigolniki” and “Judaizers”;
- “The Church in the period of the unification of Rus'. Transfer of the Metropolia to Moscow. Union of Florence";
- "Metropolitan Alexy and Sergius of Radonezh".
2. Making a contour map "Accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates", "Occurrence of Western Siberia into Russia".
3. Completion of tasks in workbook on this section.
form of control independent work:
Protection of messages and reports;
Protection of presentations;
Checking the workbook.
Questions for self-control
Answer the test questions:
1. The final overthrow of the yoke of the Golden Horde in Rus' took place in:
2. Among the main prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow in the 15th century. did not have the following:
A) the transfer of the Metropolitan's residence to Moscow;
B) favorable geographical position;
C) performances of Moscow as the organizer of the struggle against the German knights;
D) the rapid economic development of the Moscow principality.
3. The state structure of Russia in the XVI century.
A) autocratic monarchy;
B) estate-representative monarchy;
C) a constitutional monarchy;
D) feudal monarchy.
4. The first Moscow prince:
A) Yuri Dolgoruky;
B) Daniil Alexandrovich;
B) Ivan Kalita;
D) Alexander Nevsky.
5. The historical event to which the literary work "Zadonshchina" is dedicated:
A) the battle on the Kalka River;
B) standing on the Ugra;
C) Battle of Kulikovo;
D) the capture of Kozelsk by the Mongols.
6. The work of the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev falls on:
A) con. XIV - beginning. XV centuries;
B) con. XIII - beginning. XIV centuries;
C) the middle - the second half of the 15th century;
D) the end of the 15th - the beginning of the 16th centuries.
7. The nationwide crisis in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, which manifested itself in politics, economics and social relations, is known in history under the name ....
A) rebellious age;
B) oprichny terror;
C) dynastic crisis;
D) troubled times.
8. The code of laws that established St. George's Day went down in history under the name:
A) Sudebnik;
B) "Russian Truth";
B) Cathedral code;
D) Decree on "lesson years".
9. Which of the following is typical for economic development Russia in the 17th century?
A) the beginning of the industrial revolution;
B) agrarian overpopulation;
C) the formation of a capitalist structure in industry;
D) the emergence of the first manufactories.
10. The name of the first printer Ivan Fedorov is associated with the century:
11. Which of the following provisions refers to the church reform of Patriarch Nikon?
A) Establishment of the Holy Synod;
B) separation of church and state;
B) duodenal replacement sign of the cross tripartite;
D) the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.
12. Which of these events refers to the 17th century?
A) the struggle of the Josephites and non-possessors;
B) church schism;
C) the creation of the Holy Synod;
D) the establishment of a patriarchate in Russia.
13. Which of the following terms refer to architectural style churches and temples in the 16th century?
A) cross-domed;
B) gothic;
B) tent;
D) romance.
Complete the tasks:
1. Arrange the rulers of Rus' in chronological order:
A) Dmitry Donskoy;
B) Ivan Kalita;
C) Simeon the Red;
D) Ivan the Red.
2. Set the sequence of events:
A) Battle of Kulikovo;
B) the raid of Khan Tokhtomysh;
C) "great standing" on the river Ugra;
D) the battle on the Vozhzha River.
1 .______ 2.______ 3. ______ 4.______
3. Set the correspondence between events and dates:
| 1) oprichnina; | A) 1547; |
| 2) Livonian War; | B) 1556; |
| 3) wedding to the kingdom of Ivan IV; | C) 1549; |
| 4) annexation of the Astrakhan kingdom; | D) 1565-1572; |
| 5) convocation of the first Zemsky Cathedral; | D) 1552; |
| 6) annexation of the Kazan Khanate. | E) 1558-1583 |
| A) | B) | IN) | G) |
6. Arrange the names of the following religious figures in chronological order of their life and work:
A) Metropolitan Hilarion;
B) Patriarch Nikon;
C) Patriarch Filaret;
D) Joseph Volotsky.
1 .______ 2.______ 3. ______ 4.______
Solve the crossword on the topic "Time of Troubles":
Horizontally: 1. Armed intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state. 2. Place of signing of the armistice with Poland in 1618. 3. Service people. 4. Head of the Russian Orthodox Church since 1589. 5. Nobleman, one of the organizers of the first militia. 6. The name of the first king from the Romanov dynasty. 7. Large landowner in Poland and Lithuania.
Vertically: 8. The period of boyar rule in Russia in the 17th century. 9. Petty feudal lord in Poland and Lithuania. 10. Leader of the uprising of peasants and serfs in 1603
Rice. 11 “Crossword on the topic “Time of Troubles”.
3. MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE
current control
List of frontier control points:
| No. TRK | Name of the fuel dispenser in accordance with the KTP | Knowledge control form | The topics of the shopping mall sections |
| Broadcasting Company No. 1 | Paperwork | Section 1 "The oldest stage in the history of mankind", Section 2 "Civilizations of the Ancient World". | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 2 | Paperwork | Sections 3.4 "Civilizations of the West and East in the Middle Ages"; History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 3 | Paperwork | Sections 4.5 "History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century"; "Origins industrial civilization: countries Western Europe in the 16th-18th centuries. | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 4 | Paperwork | Section 6 "Russia in the 18th century". Section 7 "The Formation of an Industrial Civilization". | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 5 | Testing | Section 9 "Russia in the 19th century". | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 6 | Paperwork | Section 10 "From new history to the newest. | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 7 | Paperwork | USSR in the 20-40s Section 11 "Between World Wars". Section 12 "Second World War". | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 8 | Paperwork | Section 13 "The World in the Second Half of the 20th Century". Section 14 "USSR in 1945-1991". | |
| Broadcasting Company No. 9 | testing | Section 15 "Russia and the World at the Turn of the 20th-21st Centuries". |
3.2 Final control by discipline
Based on the results of studying the discipline, an exam is held in the form of computer testing, and points of boundary control are also taken into account.
In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. two stages are clearly visible. The internal frontier in the development of culture of the XIII-XV centuries. was the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). If the first stage is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merger of local art schools into the all-Moscow, all-Russian culture.
Folklore.
During the period of struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, an appeal to epics and legends Kyiv cycle, in which battles with the enemies of Ancient Rus' were described in bright colors and the feat of arms of the people was famous, gave the Russian people new strength. Ancient epics acquired a deep meaning, began to live in oh life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that went to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic and historical songs is taking shape. Among them is the “Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich”, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.
Chronicle.
Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming more and more necessary. From the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records, the appearance of paper led to the acceleration of writing. To replace the “charter”, when square letters were written out with geometric accuracy andfemininity, a semi-ustav comes - a freer and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. shorthand appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, in especially important cases, parchment continued to be used, various types of rough and household records were made, as before, on birch bark.
As already noted, chronicle writing in Novgorod was not interrupted even during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. new centers of chronicle writing emerged. Since 1325, chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow as well. During the formation of a single state with its center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. When Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod, it was not by chance that he took with him the deacon Stepan the Bearded: to prove, on the basis of the chronicle, the necessity of annexing Novgorod to Moscow.
In 1408, an all-Russian annalistic code was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which died in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow annalistic code is attributed to 1479. They are based on the idea of all-Russian unity, the historical role of Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, the continuity of the traditions of Kiev and Vladimir.
Interest in world AI, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - works on world AI. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.
Common literary genre of that time there were isic stories. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. The story often was, as it were, part of the annalistic text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the story “On the Battle of the Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (it told about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat), stories about Alexander Nevsky and others were widely known before the Kulikovo victory.
The brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 is dedicated to a cycle of historical stories (for example, “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”). Zephanius Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", built on the model of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". But if in the "Word" the defeat of the Russians was described, then in the "Zadonshchina" - their victory.
During the period of unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature. Talented writers Pachomius Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of major church leaders Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sershev Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde.
“Journey beyond three seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the opening of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.
Architecture.
Earlier than in other lands, stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov. Using previous traditions, Novgorodians and Pskovians built dozens of small temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the Church of Fyodor Stratilat on the Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov. abundance decorative ornaments on the walls, general elegance, festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus is mainly on local traditions.
The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality date back to the 14th-15th centuries. The temples that have come down to us in Zvenigorod - the Cathedral of the Assumption (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-S Ozhev Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a powerful, full of grandeur, dignity and strength of the Moscow Kremlin.
The first white-stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then occupied leading place in Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.
The Kremlin territory of 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the thickness of the walls was 3.5-6.5 m, and their height was 5-19 m. century, 18 towers were erected out of the currently existing 20. The towers had hipped roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (now included in the collection) into the Moscow River. From the side of Red Square, a moat was built to connect both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin found itself, as it were, on an island. It was one of the largest fortresses in the world, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, the palaces of the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan, buildings of state institutions, and monasteries were erected.
The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square, on which the main cathedrals overlook; its central structure is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (finally completed under Boris Godunov, reaching a height of 81 m).
In 1475-1479. the main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the Assumption Cathedral was built. The temple was started to be built by Pskov craftsmen (1471). A small "coward" (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the topmast of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was entrusted to the talented architect of the Italian Renaissance, Aristotle Fiorovanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorovanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian (primarily, Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here the tsars were crowned kings, Zemsky Sobors met, and the most important state decisions were announced.
In 1481-1489 vols. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it, also on Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Aleviz the New, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509). If the plan of the building and its design are made in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, then the external decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Faceted Chamber was built (1487-1491). From the "edges" that adorned the outer walls, it got its name. The Faceted Chamber was part of royal palace, his throne room. The almost square hall, whose walls rest on a massive tetrahedral pillar erected in the center, occupies an area of about 500 square meters. m and has a height of 9 m. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the king, receptions were held, important decisions were made.
Painting.
The merging of local art schools into the all-Russian one was also observed in painting. It was a long process, its traces were noted both in the 16th and in the 17th centuries.
In the XIV century. in Novgorod and Moscow, the wonderful artist Theophan the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. The fresco paintings of Theophanes the Greek that have come down to us in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and loftiness of the human spirit. Theophanes the Greek was able to create emotional tension, reaching tragedy, with strong long strokes of his brush, sharp “gaps”. Russian people came specially to observe the work of Theophan the Greek. The audience was amazed that the great master wrote his works without using icon-painting samples.
The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of Feofan the Greek's contemporary, the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information about the life of the outstanding master has been preserved.
Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory at the Kulikovo field, the economic upsurge of Muscovite Russia, and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist's works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous "Trinity" (stored in Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the peaks of world art, embodies the main features and principles of the painting style of Andrei Rublev. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of the unity of the world and humanity.
A. Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad that have come down to us.
RUSSIAN CULTURE of the 16th century
The religious worldview still determined the spiritual life of society. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 also played an important role in this. It regulated art, approving the patterns that were to be followed. The work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.
In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. In the Russian lands, which became part of a single state, more and more things were found in common in language, life, customs, customs, etc. In the XVI century. More tangibly than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.
Socio-political thought.
Events of the 16th century caused a discussion in Russian journalism of many problems of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc.
At the beginning of the XVI century. was created literary-journalistic and historical essay "The Tale of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir". This legendary work began with a story about the Great Flood. Then followed a list of rulers of the world, among whom the Roman emperor Augustus stood out in particular. He allegedly sent his brother Prus, who founded the family of the legendary Rurik, to the banks of the Vistula. The latter was invited as a Russian prince. The heir of Prus and Rurik, and consequently of August, Prince of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh received from the Emperor of Constantinople and the symbols of royal power - a cap-crown and precious barms-mantles. Ivan the Terrible, proceeding from his kinship with Monomakh, proudly wrote to the Swedish king: “We are related to Augustus Caesar.” The Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of Rome and the Kievan state.
In the ecclesiastical milieu, the thesis about Moscow, the “third Rome,” was put forward. Here the historical process acted as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" - perished because of heresies; “to oh Rome” - Constantinople - because of the union with the Catholics; “Third Rome” – the true guardian of Christianity – Moscow, which will exist forever.
Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Peresvetova. Questions concerning the role and place of the nobility in the administration of the feudal state were reflected in the correspondence between Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.
chronicle writing
In the XVI century. Russian chronicle continued to develop. The writings of this genre include “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom”, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. Another major work of that time is the “Book of Powers of the Royal Genealogy”. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans in it are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. Such an arrangement and construction of the text, as it were, symbolizes the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.
In the middle of the XVI century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge annalistic code, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name of the Facial Vault (“face” - image).
Along with chronicle writing, historical stories, which told about the events of that time, received further development. (“Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Baiy to the City of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were created. The secularization of culture is evidenced by a book written at that time, containing a variety of useful information for guidance in both spiritual and worldly life - “Domostroy” (in translation - housekeeping), which is considered to be Sylvester.
Beginning of typography.
The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated book “The Apostle” was published by the first printer Ivan Fedorov. However, there are seven books with no exact publication date. These are the so-called anonyms - books published before 1564. One of the most talented Russian people of the 16th century was involved in organizing the creation of a printing house. Ivan Fedorov. Printing work begun in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building was built for the printing house. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian primer - "ABC". Throughout the 16th century in Russia, only 20 books were printed by typography. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
Architecture.
One of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture was the construction of hipped temples. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. Most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries and as the main cathedrals - in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.
Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.
In the XVI century. extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s of the XVI century. the part of the settlement adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin from the east was surrounded by a brick wall, called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of isiks believe that the name comes from the word “whale” - a knitting of poles used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name comes either from the Italian word - city , or from the Turkic - a fortress). The wall of Kitay-gorod protected the city of Red Square and the nearby settlements. At the very end of the XVI century. The architect Fyodor Kon erected the white-stone walls of the 9-kilometer-long White City (modern Boulevard Ring). Then Zemlyanoy Val was erected in Moscow - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the rampart (modern Garden Ring).
Stone fortresses with fire were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in the cities to the south (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Pechory ) and even in the far North (Solovki Islands).
Painting.
The largest Russian painter, who lived in the late XV - early XVI century, was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the fresco painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of the Moscow Metropolitan Alexei, and others. Dionisy's painting is characterized by extraordinary brightness, festivity, and sophistication, which he achieved. applying such techniques as lengthening the proportions of the human Body, refinement in the decoration of every detail of an icon or fresco.
RUSSIAN CULTURE XVII.
In the 17th century the formation of the all-Russian market begins. With the development of handicrafts and trade, the growth of cities, the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it are connected. This process was called in the literature "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular).
The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it a Western, “Latin” influence. The Moscow rulers of the 17th century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from Muscovites - in the German settlement specially designated for them (now the area of Bauman Street). However, new ideas and customs penetrated into the established life of Muscovite Russia. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia contributed to the expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.
Education.
In the second half of the XVII century. several public schools were established. There was a school for the training of employees for central institutions, for the Printing House, the Pharmaceutical Order, etc. The printing press made it possible to publish uniform textbooks for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) for one day of the “Primer” by V.F. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. The "Grammar" of Meletius Smotrytsky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.
In 1687, the first institution of higher education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was founded in Moscow, where they taught “from grammar, ri iki, piitika, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sofrony and Ioanniky Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. also studied at this academy. Lomonosov.
In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc. with great accuracy), in observing nature.
Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.
E.P. Khabarov in 1649 made a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.
Literature.
In the 17th century created the last annalistic works. The “New Chronicler” (30s) recounted the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.
Historical stories, which had a journalistic character, occupied a central place in isical literature. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik dyak Ivan Timofeev”, “The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn”, “Another Tale”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.
The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century of the satirical story genre, where fictional characters act. The “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazinsky Petition” contained a parody of the church service, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, and “The Tale of Ruff Yershovich” contained judicial red tape and bribery. New genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on AI. The Kiev monk Innokenty Gizel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint mission of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian AI.
Theater.
A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. It featured German actors. Male and female roles were performed by men. The repertoire of the theater included plays based on biblical and legendary stories. The court theater did not leave any noticeable trace in Russian culture.
In Russian cities and villages, since the time of Kievan Rus, a wandering theater has become widespread - the theater of buffoons and Petrushka (the main character of folk puppet shows). The government and Church authorities persecuted buffoonery for their cheerful and bold humor, exposing the vices of those in power.
Architecture.
Architectural buildings of the 17th century. are of great beauty. They are asymmetrical both within a single building and in an ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings of the 17th century multicolored, decorative. Architects were especially fond of decorating the windows of buildings with intricate, unlike each other platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called “stone pattern”, “wonderful pattern”.
These features are well traced in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have come down to us, in the New Jerusalem Monastery, built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the church of Elijah the Prophet and ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings in Moscow of the 17th century. you can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (near the metro station "Park Kultury"), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putanki (near Pushkin Square), the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (near the metro station "Kitay-gorod").
The decorative beginning, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses lost their military significance, and the hipped roof, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the calm grandeur and feminine power of the heart of the Russian capital.
In Rostov the Great, in the form of a Kremlin, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.
The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style, which received the name “Naryshkinsky” (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow, baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod and others were built in this style.
The Moscow baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of storeys of buildings, the use of columns, capitals, etc. as decorative ornaments are clearly traced. Finally, in almost all the buildings of the “Naryshkino” Baroque one can see decorative shells in the cornices of buildings, which were first erected in the 16th century. by Italian masters when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, testified that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of a common European culture.
In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. "The Eighth Wonder of the World" was called by contemporaries famous palace Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and windows. It was built by Russian craftsmen Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and lasted until mid-eighteenth century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.
Painting.
The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. Major Artist XVII century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.
The tendency towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of S. Ushakov, is closely connected with the spread in Russia of portraiture - “parsuna” (persons), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and others. However, the technique of the artists was still similar to that of icon painting, i.e. wrote on the boards with egg paints. At the end of the XVII century. the first parsuns appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the heyday of the Russian portrait art in the 18th century
The content and direction of its development in the XIII-XV centuries was determined by the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the creation of a single state. Cultural-historical process ser. XIII - ser. 14th century characterized by decline and stagnation, which were due to the Mongol invasion. Its results: death and captivity of thousands of people; destruction of cities, architectural structures; the disappearance of many crafts; the cessation of stone construction for half a century; death literary monuments, interruption of the annals.
Cultural-historical process 2nd floor. XIV-XV centuries - this is the rise of Russian culture, due to the success of economic development, the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, the leading role of Moscow. The golden age of ancient Russian culture is the rise of culture in the 15th century. The "golden age" of Russian icon painting - the heyday of icon painting of the late XIV-XV centuries, is associated with the work of Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. Andrei Rublev owns the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank - "Savior", "Archangel Michael", "Apostle Paul". For the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad, Andrei Rublev created the famous Trinity icon, which embodies the truth of the Christian understanding of the One God in three persons.
Russian culture of the XVI century. still determined Christian worldview. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 played an important role in this. He approved the patterns to be followed. In icon painting, it was the work of Andrei Rublev, in architecture - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius. The ideology “Moscow is the third Rome” is being formed. It presents the historical process as a succession of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" perished because of heresy, the second Rome - Constantinople - due to the conclusion of a union with the Catholics, the third Rome - Moscow - the true guardian of Christianity. These ideas were embodied in the murals of the Smolensk Cathedral of Moscow's Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530).
In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. Secular elements in culture are more tangible. Russian culture XVII V. completes the medieval period of history, elements of the culture of the New Age are emerging, which is characterized by the process of comprehensive "secularization".
16. Transformations in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century: contents, results, consequences.
In the 17th century, as a result of the activities of the first Romanovs, the socio-economic and political crisis of the Time of Troubles was overcome. At the end of the century, there were trends towards the Europeanization of the country. Russia has been active foreign policy and trade in Europe and Asia, the transition from small-scale handicraft production to manufactories began in the economy, Western European culture actively penetrated into the culture of Russia. For further effective development countries needed to provide access to the seas. The solution of this problem assumed the presence of a strong personality in power, the reorganization and rearmament of the army, the development of the economy for waging a long war. Due to the absence of the bourgeoisie, these tasks had to be solved by the autocratic power at the expense of the forces and means of the whole society. This reformer was Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725).
The activities of Peter can be divided into two periods: 1695–1715 and 1715–1725.
An important feature first period is to solve the problems of internal reorganization of the country because of the Seven Years' War. The reforms were mainly by force and were accompanied by gross state intervention in the economy (regulation of trade, industry, taxes). The reforms did not have a clear plan and were carried out as a response to the needs of the current moment, the relevant people were not trained to carry out the reforms, there was a struggle with the old administrative cadres. Therefore, many reforms were unsuccessful and incomplete.
In second period reforms have become more systematic. The results of the reforms began to show, experienced people (chicks of Petrov's nest) began to appear.
On the whole, Peter's reforms were subordinated to the interests of the whole society. All the activities of Peter were based on this, although they were of a violent nature. Concerning pace of reform, then they depended on the urgency of the decision specific task. At the same time, some reforms led to a cardinal breakdown public relations and the restructuring of structures and institutions.
At the head of all reforms was the creation of a combat-ready army of the European model, all other reforms were subordinated to this main concern of Peter. At the initiative of Peter, a regular army and navy were created, military educational establishments(navigation, engineering and artillery schools), military legislation was adopted, army and navy control bodies were created. The army was recruited on the basis of regular recruiting kits and was for life.
In foreign trade actively pursued a policy mercantilism(encouraging the development of own production and exports, high taxes on imports). The industry was protected from foreign competition by high import duties ( protectionist policy).
But first of all, Peter took care of those industries that worked to supply the army. Peter allowed the owners of manufactories to buy peasants to work in manufactories ( sessional peasants).
Reform control systems country was carried out according to Western, mostly Protestant models. As a result administrative reforms a centralized bureaucratic apparatus was formed, which, on the whole, survived until 1917. This apparatus was headed by the tsar himself, who had full legislative, executive and judicial power. Thus, Russia entered period of absolutism. In 1711, the finally degraded Boyar Duma was replaced by Senate whose members are appointed by the king. The function of the Senate was the issuance of decrees, it had executive and judicial power. Oversaw the activities of the Senate since 1722 prosecutor general with the right of a personal report to the king and the prosecutor's office subordinate to him. In 1717–1718, Peter replaced the old system of orders with branch orders. colleges. Cities are subject magistrates, the patriarchate was abolished in the church and the Synod. Thus the church became part of the state apparatus. In 1708-1710 passed regional reform: the country is divided into 8 provinces headed by governors who had administrative, judicial and military power. Provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.
In 1718-1724, a census was conducted and the poll tax(tax on men). This led to a doubling of taxes and the spread of serfdom to the previously free sections of the population. As a result of the census, the peasants were divided into public and private. The urban population is divided into regular(merchants, industrialists, merchants, large artisans) and irregular(small artisans and the urban poor). This division made it possible to increase the economic activity of merchants and artisans by freeing regular people from many government duties.
The privileged classes remained aristocracy and nobility. However, their land ownership was made dependent on the state service. Thus, the aristocracy and the nobility were finally equalized in rights. Promotion on the social ladder was facilitated by the introduction Table of ranks, which allowed to expand the layer of the nobility. Career advancement was determined professional qualities person.
“For military ranks who rise to the rank of chief officer (VIII class) not from the nobility, then when someone receives the rank described above, he is a nobleman, and his children who are born in the chief officer, and if there are no children at that time, but eat before, and the father will beat with his forehead, then the nobility will be given to those, only to one son, about whom the father will ask.
