Due to the peculiarities of the relief in Japan, three economic and cultural types were developed, which were closely interconnected: seaside (fishing, collecting mollusks and algae, salt evaporation), flatland (agriculture with a predominance of paddy rice cultivation) and mountainous (hunting, gathering nuts, chestnuts). , acorns, roots, berries, mushrooms and wild honey, brushwood and wood harvesting, rainfed agriculture). However, natural features The archipelago predetermined the isolation of individual regions, which hampered the processes of commodity and cultural exchanges (the abundance of mountains contributed to the conservation of local features of life, and short and stormy rivers did not play an important unifying role inherent in rivers in other ancient civilizations). Occupation by sea fishing and irrigated agriculture pushed the ancient tribes to early settled life. The self-sufficiency in resources of most regions of the Japanese islands became a prerequisite for the manifestation of political separatism, which was observed throughout the entire period of ancient Japan.
Climate change at the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the Jomon period forced people to adapt to new living conditions. In connection with the development of forests and the hunting of deer, wild boars, bears, hares, badgers, martens and birds, the bow replaced the spear, and the role of traps and a stone ax increased. Gathering and fishing have become more important than before. With the warming and the expansion of forests to the north, the bulk of the population has moved from northern Kyushu to northeast Honshu, where favorable conditions have developed for fishing (especially chum salmon and pink salmon), gathering and hunting. The rise in the level of the world's oceans has led to the formation of coastal warm shallows, rich in fish and shellfish. It was around such shoals that settlements and “shell piles” arose (most of them were located along the Pacific coast, especially in the Kanto region). The basis of the diet was fish caught in rivers and bays during high tides (salmon, perch, mullet), and shellfish collected in shallow water during low tide, but ocean prey was also found (tuna, sharks, rays and even whales). Often, fishing boats reached the islands of Sado and Mikurajima, and, in addition, crossed the Sangara and Korea Straits.
During the Yayoi period, under the influence of continental culture, a new form of management was established in the Japanese archipelago - most of the population of the islands switched to sedentary intensive agriculture, the basis of which was paddy rice cultivation. In addition, iron tools (axes, sickles, knives) began to be widely used, irrigation was developed (the creation of complex irrigation and drainage systems), people carried out large-scale earthworks that required coordination of efforts to equip flood fields and build dams. Hunting has lost its former importance, as evidenced by a sharp decrease in the number of finds of arrowheads in archaeological layers. early period Yayoi.
Initially, the culture of rice cultivation took root in the north of Kyushu, in the southwestern and central parts of Honshu. In the northeast of Honshu, this process proceeded much more slowly, despite the fact that rice cultivation was already familiar in the north at the beginning of the Yayoi period. Gradually, the center of the economic life of the archipelago moved to central and southern Japan, the population of which quickly overtook the northeastern part of the country. The increase in agricultural productivity was reflected in the appearance of wooden storages on piles, which replaced the pit storerooms inherent in the Jōmon period. But even in the most developed central Japan, the inhabitants of the hilly and mountainous regions practiced upland slash-and-burn agriculture for a long time, continued to hunt and gather, and the inhabitants of the coastal regions continued to fish.
Dotaku. II-I century BC. e. Tokyo National Museum
Thanks to migrants from the continent during the Yayoi period, the archipelago got acquainted with the culture of metals and metallurgy technologies (initially, imported products made in Korea and China were used, but later their own production began). Thanks to the import of knowledge in Japan, the archaeological eras of bronze and iron were not divorced in time and largely overlap (moreover, the use of bronze in the Yayoi period began even later than iron, so immediately after the Stone Age, the Bronze-Iron Age began in the archipelago). Simple tools of economic activity and military weapons (swords, spearheads and arrowheads, fish hooks, shovels, axes and sickles) were made from iron, and more prestigious symbols of power and cult accessories (ritual swords and spears, dotaku, mirrors).
The first evidence of the emergence of metal production (stone and clay molds) was found in northern Kyushu. At the beginning of the Yayoi period, even the ore for casting was imported from the mainland. Each of the resulting economic structures (seaside, lowland and mountainous) had a relatively specialized character, which predetermined the emergence of a natural exchange of goods between the coast and the hinterland. The inhabitants of the hinterland supplied game and wood, which was used for building boats and houses, for heating, for the production of metals, for firing pottery, and for evaporating salt (in the coastal regions and on the plains, the forests were reduced to fields and as fuel rather quickly), and, besides, , wooden utensils (shovels, rakes, hoes, mortars, spoons, scoops, cups), deer bone for hooks, creepers and hemp fibers for nets and woods. In the opposite direction were rice, fish, shellfish, seaweed and salt. The production of metals, ceramics and fabrics existed both in the mountainous regions and on the coast, so in this area the exchange was not so much the products themselves, but their unique samples that differed in style or quality from the base mass.
During the Kofun period, the climate of the archipelago underwent changes: the amount of precipitation increased and the general temperature decreased. This pushed the area of paddy rice cultivation to the south and forced people to adapt to harsher conditions. In connection with the intensification of the economy, metal tools began to be used more widely, almost replacing wooden ones, and the mass construction of irrigation systems began, which led to cooperation at the regional level. Iron ingots were imported from China and Korea, which were used both as raw materials for casting and as some kind of cash equivalent. As a result, the area of cultivated land increased, the centralization of life intensified, and huge state grain storages appeared. The authorities mobilized workers for the construction of huge mounds, palaces, sanctuaries and canals.
By the end of the Kofun period, a significant property and social stratification of society appeared, a noticeable layer of officials and clergymen stood out, labor service and taxation were developed. In a large part of the archipelago, the scattered communities of the Yayoi period were united under the rule of the Yamato rulers. Thanks to active contacts with the mainland, increased productivity of the economy, progress in crafts and agriculture, and the wider use of metal tools, the Kansai and northern Kyushu regions were ahead of the rest of the lands of the Japanese islands in technological development.
According to the Taik reforms (646), private estates and the dependent categories of the population who worked on them were abolished, state ownership of land, an allotment system of land use and a triple system of taxes (grain, fabrics or cotton, and labor service) were introduced, registers of households and tax lists were compiled. . Higher officials received farms for the maintenance of the family in the form of rent in kind from a certain amount yards. Medium and small officials received cuts of silk and other fabrics for their service. The road infrastructure was significantly modernized, post stations and inns with stables were equipped along the main trade routes, which facilitated communication between the capital and outlying provinces.
Household registers were compiled in 646, 652, 670 and 689, after which the publicly liable population and peasants began to be allocated land. For this, the available units of area measurement were established and unified ( tan and those). According to the decree of 691, the authorities determined privileged lands and income from the courts, which complained to the nobility as compensation for lands that had previously passed into state ownership, as well as to dignitaries in accordance with their rank - for service. Finally, the system of privileged possessions (lands allocated for positions, ranks and services to the imperial court) was formed in the VIII century.
The awards included both natural distributions and income from a certain number of yards ( jikifu) assigned to a specific person or institution - a ranking official, a Confucian scholar, a prince or a Buddhist temple. Formally jikifu continued to be under the control of local authorities, who did not allow the transformation of these courtyards into hereditary private estates (quite often the rulers issued decrees according to which they changed the number jikifu granted to someone, or returned them to the state).
During the Nara period, the legislation for individual provinces specified specific local products and products that went directly to the court in the form of taxes (for example, products of sea fishing instead of ordinary fabrics). The taxpayer was not individual person but the whole community. Nara had two big market, which were under the strict control of the authorities, who set fixed prices and monitored the quality of goods. Both merchants and state shops traded in the markets, selling goods that came in the form of taxes from the governors of the provinces and large Buddhist temples. Here you could buy rice, fish, vegetables, seaweed, dairy products, dried meat and salt, as well as writing materials, Buddhist sutras, clothes, dishes, jewelry and dyes for fabrics.
If in the 5th-7th centuries the most time-consuming type public works was the construction of burial mounds, then in the VIII century all the forces of the country, including huge human resources, were directed to the construction of Nara and the communications network. For the construction of the capital, every 50 peasant households were obliged to provide two men as labor service, who were replaced by countrymen every three years.
It was in the 8th century that seven “state roads” were built to ensure communication between the capital and the periphery ( kando), which were subdivided into "large", "medium" and "small". Status "big" kando had Sanyodo, passing from Nara along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan to the province of Nagato (further through Kyushu, the path lay on the mainland). The status of "average" had kando Tokaido (passed along the Pacific coast to the province of Mutsu) and Tosando (passed through the central regions of the island of Honshu to the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, where it connected with Tokaido). The remaining roads were considered "small": Hokurikudo (passed along the coast of the Sea of Japan to the province of Echigo), Sanindo (passed along the coast of the Sea of Japan to the province of Nagato), Nankaido (passed through Awaji to Shikoku, where it diverged to the capitals of all four provinces there) and Saikaido (passed through Kyushu).
Along kando provincial capitals were located (about 60), from which regional roads were laid to the administrative centers of counties (about 600). On the kando post stations were equipped, which provided the imperial messengers, publicans and ambassadors with lodging for the night and horses. On average, the stations were at a distance of 16 km from each other, and there were more than 400 in total. The new state roads were relatively straight and wide (from 18 to 23 m), the regional ones were inferior to them and for the most part were ancient reconstructed trade routes (they had a width from 5 to 13 m). The distance between the capital and Kyushu was covered by messengers in 4-5 days, and between Nara and the northeastern provinces of Honshu - in 7-8 days. During the Heian period, due to the deterioration of roads and the reduction in the number of post stations, the delivery time for messages almost doubled. Water communications remained undeveloped, and the number of boat stations was extremely small.
Sea communications were used mainly in one direction - from the mainland to Japan. The inhabitants of the archipelago did not build large ships adapted for navigation on the high seas, the absolute majority of their ships were intended for coastal transportation. Gradually, Japan's economic and political ties with the outside world, active during the Asuka period, declined. The sea (especially the Sea of Japan) was perceived as state border, the cycle of reproduction was closed and self-sufficient, rich marine resources and rice paddy contributed to the development of the near space, first of all.
Peasants made up about 90% of Japan's population. Once every six years, the peasant had the right to receive a plot of land, but quite often it was smaller than it was supposed to be, located far from home and represented fragmented plots. The peasant paid grain ( co) and natural ( those) tax, as well as a special tax on those who did not work out labor service ( yo). So was about 3% of the harvest (a significant part of the population was still associated with fishing, hunting and gathering); those was levied from the estate plots of each yard (later - from each adult male) with fabrics, silk yarn and cotton wool, varnish, ceramics and other home crafts, as well as seafood, metals and mining products; yo it was also possible to pay with cloths, rice, salt and other products. labor service ( buyaku) lasted up to 70 days a year and was carried out both in the capital and in the provinces (the construction of temples, administrative buildings, canals, roads and fortifications). The authorities gave workers rations, which were cut in half in case of illness or bad weather, when work stopped. If necessary (for example, during the construction of Nara), the authorities mobilized the population for a longer period. Maximum term service in the homes of aristocrats was set at 200 days a year, but often it was exceeded at the discretion of the owner. Every third adult peasant served military service (protection of borders and order, construction work and annual military training).
There were rice loans for agricultural workers ( suiko), when grain was issued from warehouses at 50% (state loan) or 100% per annum (private loan). In 735-737, an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the country, after which a severe economic crisis ensued. The living conditions of the peasants deteriorated so much that in 737 the authorities were forced to abolish private loans at high interest rates. Despite this, the peasants massively left for the cities, throwing their allotments and refusing to pay their debts.
During the Nara period, about 1% of the population were semi-free artisans. shinabe and zakko(or tomobe). Formally, they belonged to the category ryomin, but in fact stood between ryomin and sammin, since the craft was considered a less worthy occupation than agriculture (despite the fact that most artisans, in accordance with the allotment system, received land for self-cultivation and fed from it). To shinabe included musicians, suppliers of food and falcons for hunting, water carriers, gardeners, potters, dyers, papermakers, pharmacists and winemakers, zakko- blacksmiths, manufacturers of armor, weapons and harness (breast armor, shields, bows, arrows, quivers, bridles and camping tents), manufacturers of musical instruments. Zakko allowed to marry with "good people", and shinabe approached in terms of status comin("emperor's people"). Part shinabe and zakko were petty employees in state enterprises, making up together with toneri(palace employees) and petty officials the lowest level of the bureaucratic apparatus. As civil servants, these groups of artisans were exempted from paying taxes and taxes, as well as from labor service (in fact, they performed it by producing handicrafts according to the instructions of the court economic administration). In 759 shinabe were officially abolished, passing into the category of taxable population.
sammin, according to various estimates, from 3 to 10% of the population, included both public and private slaves, who, in turn, were divided into a number of groups. had the highest social status ryoko- slaves who were subordinate shoryoshi(management of tombs, which was part of shikibusho- ministries of ceremonies). They built the imperial tombs, looked after them and guarded them. They were followed kanko- public servants, close in status to the category ryomin. They were engaged in agriculture and various works purely for the imperial court. State slaves kannuhi (Kunuhi) were used in agricultural work and in handicraft production, serving officials of various departments. domestic slaves canin belonged to the metropolitan and provincial aristocracy, as well as temples. personal slaves sinus were completely subordinate to their master, equated to private property or livestock (these completely disenfranchised people could be sold, donated or inherited).
The basic rules of the allotment system of land use included the following points: peasants received allotments only for temporary use (it was possible to claim their land from the age of six); on a par with free peasants, allotments were received by state slaves, and a third of the norm - by private slaves of all categories; women received 2/3 of the allotment area assigned to a free man; redistribution of land took place every six years; individual aristocrats and officials were given "privileged lands" that were inherited (from one generation to eternal use).
All lands were divided into cultivated (arable lands, vegetable gardens, orchards, household plots) and uncultivated (forests, swamps and mountains). All paddy fields included in the state fund of allotment land use were divided into coden(used by state and religious institutions, as well as the "emperor's people": Buddhist and Shinto temples, post stations, state slaves) and shiden(granted or leased by the emperor to private individuals: peasants, artisans, officials, military leaders, governors of provinces and districts, government land and palace guards).
The main expenditure items of the treasury were the maintenance of the imperial court, the army and law enforcement forces, the bureaucracy, state Buddhist and Shinto temples, as well as the sending and receiving of embassies, the construction and maintenance of roads ( kando), postal and boat stations. The main sources of income were revenues from basic taxes ( so-cho-yo), interest on rice loans ( suiko) and rental fees for public lands. Land tax ( co) remained almost entirely at the disposal of local authorities (heads of provinces and counties), and the main part those by the forces of the peasants themselves was delivered to Nara. In the Kinai metropolitan area, a significant part of the population had various privileges and was exempted from paying taxes. The provinces of the northeastern part of Japan did not pay taxes at all, only occasionally bringing tribute to the emperor's court. The main form of exploitation of the population was various types of labor service.
In 708, the first silver and copper coins denomination of 1 mon. Due to the lack of silver (the country had the only deposit on the island of Tsushima), the release of silver coins was soon discontinued. In 711 1 mon was equated with six sho rice (about 4.3 liters), and 5 mon- to a piece of cloth measuring approximately 4 m by 70 cm. Half mona corresponded to the daily subsistence minimum of that time. Since 711, seasonal salaries to officials, along with fabrics, rice and tools, were also paid in cash. The real value of money gradually decreased, largely due to uncontrolled emission. In the years 708-958, 12 issues of coins were held, each time the authorities set an inflated price in relation to the old issues, while the quality of the coins was constantly deteriorating. In 958, only the new issue was recognized as "correct", and the circulation of old coins was banned, in fact, the money savings of the population were confiscated.
Many officials received an extraordinary increase in rank thanks to monetary offerings to the treasury (persons above the 6th rank needed a special decree of the emperor for this). With the appearance of coins in circulation, certain types of taxes in kind were allowed ( those and yo) replace with money, lease land plots for money, pay workers employed in the construction of state facilities, allowances in money. To stimulate money circulation, rich peasants were allowed to trade rice on the roads, and the authorities set "fixed prices" for basic foodstuffs. Wishing to put trade under hard state check, the authorities began to grant ranks to merchants. Despite all the measures taken, the bulk of the population of the Japanese archipelago preferred a natural exchange of goods and services.
Coins of the Nara period
In an effort to increase revenues to the treasury, the authorities encouraged the cultivation of new, previously unused or abandoned land. To intensify the process, in 723 a decree was issued according to which a person who began cultivating new land received its possession for three generations, and a person who began cultivating abandoned land and restored old irrigation canals received an allotment until his death. The development of virgin lands was taken up by the metropolitan aristocracy and large temples, using landless and runaway peasants for these purposes. In 743, a new decree introduced a norm according to which a person who began the development of a wasteland received a developed area in eternal private possession. Permission for land development began to be issued by the heads of provinces, which accelerated the formation of private land ownership. The authorities set the limits of permissible possessions for the nobility and ordinary peasants (if a prince of the 1st class or an official of the 1st rank could own a plot of no more than 500 those, then a peasant, county inspector or accountant - no more than 10 those), but at the same time, the aristocracy skillfully circumvented these restrictions and seized control over vast territories.
In 765, a decree was issued that forbade the nobility to use the forced labor of peasants in their private estates. This practice distracted them from working their own allotments, which ultimately reduced taxes and revenues to the state treasury. On the basis of private land holdings, the nobility and the clergy formed extensive estates ( shoen) that were passed down from generation to generation. The growing influence of newly-minted latifundists led to the fact that the ban on the use peasant labor in private estates was canceled already in 772, and new decrees (784, 797 and 801), trying to somehow stop or limit the seizure of new lands and turning them into shoen actually did not give positive results. During the reign of Emperor Kammu (802), the period for the redistribution of land allotments was increased from six to 12 years, but at the same time, in the 9th century, real estate revision was carried out only twice - in 828 and 878-880 - and only in the Kinai region.
The concentration of arable land in private hands (lands granted by the emperor for special merits, lands of Buddhist and Shinto temples, virgin lands) undermined the economic foundations of the “state ritsuryo". The state (in the person of the emperor) ownership of land was replaced by a system of private landownership ( shoen). The allotment system of land use, which formed the basis of the "state ritsuryo”, actually functioned only in the Kinai metropolitan area, and in remote provinces it either did not exist, or the local nobility customized it to fit their realities (in addition, the allotment system assumed the existence konden einen shizai ho- “private ownership of newly developed lands”). At the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, several types of private land holdings appeared. To sho included lands, the rights to which were recognized by the state - allotments of the imperial house, the highest aristocracy, large temples and monasteries. To Siryo included sections of the lower aristocracy and the provincial nobility, who had to pay land taxes to the heads of the provinces (at the end of the 11th century, taxes were abolished for them as well). To shoki shoen("early shoen”), the vast forest tracts granted by the state for the economic needs of monasteries and temples were ranked (over time, they added the newly developed surrounding lands to the forests).
The largest landowner in the 8th-9th centuries was the Todai-ji temple, which owned almost 3.5 thousand hectares. those lands in the provinces of Echizen, Etchu and Echigo (the temple received full independence over its possessions only in the XII century). Due to tax oppression and labor duties, peasants fled en masse from state plots, finding shelter and land with the provincial nobility and temples. The real power in the province became dogo(“having power over the land”), supplying the peasants with everything necessary for agricultural and irrigation work, and in some places maintaining order. Soon many dogo became chiefs of counties, cooperated with provincial governors or metropolitan aristocrats, who, in response, turned a blind eye to the growth of their land holdings. Newly developed lands, which were cultivated by residents of neighboring villages on the basis of lease relations, also eventually passed into the category shoki shoen. Lands owned by the aristocracy or developed by peasants from the virgin lands, in contrast to the lands of temples and monasteries, were taxed.
Gradually the difference between the state ( kubunden) and private ( joden) was erased by the lands, and they received common name fumyo. Allotments were processed tato("strong peasants"), which were divided into daimyō tato("large tato") and shomyo tato("little tato"). The first worked on extensive fumyo, the second - on small ones. Daimyo tato could hire poor peasants and have personal slaves. Often from among tato went out myoshu- rich and respected peasants in their midst, who followed the processing of fields dogo, for the collection of crops and taxes from a certain group of peasants. Temple shoki shoen, although they were actually private estates, they continued to depend on the authorities to a certain extent (in order to attract peasants from the surrounding villages to cultivate the land, it was necessary to obtain permission from the head of the county).
In 822 and 830, severe epidemics occurred in Japan, which led to another economic crisis. Diseases and pressure from the authorities on landowners have led to the fact that many cultivated lands (including shoki shoen) were abandoned in the second half of the 9th - early 10th centuries. At the beginning of the 10th century, a new type began to take shape. shoen - Kissin Chikay(a plot cultivated by a peasant to his overlord, who in his possessions had full administrative and fiscal power). Owners Kissin Chikay were small landowners ryoshu) from among the local nobility, who received positions and the lands corresponding to them, as well as metropolitan officials appointed to positions in the province. Over time, opposing groups of landowners arose. On the one hand, the local nobility, who occupied high positions in the provincial administrations, and on the other hand, ryoshu, forced to look for patrons who are able to protect their vassals (such landowners, in exchange for patronage, transferred ownership of the land to a noble aristocrat or religious institution, while retaining the right to directly manage the property).
As patrons ( honke) members of the imperial house, the Fujiwara family and other influential families, major Buddhist and Shinto shrines, provincial governors who received part of the income from the ward shoena. On the honke numerous ryoshu who formally owned the site and also received part of the income from it. At the bottom of the pyramid were semin, among which were myoshu(they answered ryoshu for the collection of taxes, the condition of the fields and canals, the provision of seeds to the peasants). Noble families could take care of hundreds of scattered plots of land, and for better management they were created mandokoro- advice from senior managers of all shoen kind who collected income from allotments and led directly ryoshu.
After the decline of agriculture in the 9th-11th centuries, which was largely facilitated by a series of droughts, epidemics and military conflicts between factions of the nobility, from the end of the 11th century, crop areas began to expand (mainly due to the restoration of previously abandoned plots), food production revived, however, there was no noticeable progress in agriculture.
During the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjo, a "department for the study of land rights" was created ( kiroku shoen kenkeisho or for short kirokujo), which was engaged in controlling the size and exchange of fields, the seizure of state plots and peasants, registration of property rights to land. officials kirokujo they checked all private properties, both temple ones and those belonging to influential families. As a result of the fact that all allotments that were not documented were seized in favor of the imperial house, the emperor soon became the country's largest private landowner (by the XII century ruling family amounted to more than a hundred shoen in 60 provinces). Emperors Shirakawa and Toba continued their policy of strengthening the economic base of the imperial house. With them separate shoen began to unite into vast possessions, such as Hachijoin. In the second half of the 12th century imperial court widely practiced farming out to trusted aristocrats and temples of entire provinces in which they collected taxes.
dwelling
With the beginning of sea fishing in the Jomon period, the first relatively large settlements of fishermen began to appear on the coast. Gradually, the inhabitants of the mountainous regions moved to the coastal regions and river valleys, and the subcultures of the inhabitants of the interior regions and the coast became more and more isolated. If in numerous settlements of hunters and gatherers scattered in mountainous areas, on average, there were 4 - 5 dwellings ranging from 5 to 15 square meters. m, then coastal settlements consisted of several dozen dwellings, the area of \u200b\u200bwhich could reach 40 square meters. m. In the largest settlements there could be up to 400 dwellings located in a circle around the central space. The plan of an ordinary dwelling was a circle with a diameter of 4 - 5 m (less often - a rectangle). The wooden frame of the house was covered with bark, grass, moss and leaves. The earth floor was at a depth of 50 cm to 1 m from the surface, but in some cases it was covered with stone flooring (some of the houses were built on piles for a number of reasons). In the center of the dwelling, as a rule, there was a hearth (at the beginning of the Jomon period, it was taken out of the house). At some sites, large collective dwellings with an area of more than 270 m and with several hearths were found, most likely used in winter by the whole family.
During the Heian period, a prosperous Japanese dwelling acquired its traditional features. The floors of the living quarters were almost completely covered with straw mats ( tatami), divided into several sections by low wooden thresholds. Part of the paper walls ( shoji and fusama) was made sliding, which made it possible to change the appearance of the room. Behind the grooves shoji there were wider grooves for external shutters ( amado), which moved at night and in bad weather. Often between shoji and amado passed narrow verandas engawa). Later, the central part of the interior became tokonoma- a niche in the end wall, which was decorated with vases, censers, scrolls with painting or calligraphy. The almost complete absence of furniture was made up for by flat cushions for sitting ( zabuton), low dining tables, mats, and wadded mattresses for sleeping. Kitchens with earthen or wooden floors were equipped with charcoal braziers ( hibachi), often - equipped with open hearths in the floor ( irori or kotatsu). Separate outbuildings housed large wooden tubs for bathing.
clothing
In ancient times, the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago already knew simple clothes made from hemp and expensive silk robes. long time among the nobility, the Korean type costume prevailed. During the Nara period, Chinese-style clothing dominated the life of the capital. Early models of bathrobes ( kimono) with wide sleeves ( sode) were similar to traditional Chinese hanfu, later pants were added to them ( hakama), belts ( obi) and short capes ( haori). Women's kimono were sewn from fabrics of light and bright patterned colors, and men's - from dark one-color fabrics. Various types of straw or wooden sandals were worn on their feet ( waraji, geta and zori), later there were special socks for them ( tabi).
Kitchen
The basis of the meal was boiled rice, which was served with various vegetable and fish seasonings. Fish soups with the addition of vegetables and bean paste, rice balls with slices of fish ( sushi and norimaki), rice cakes mochi. Since ancient times, traditional cuisine has used fresh and dried seaweed, salted and pickled vegetables, as well as ingredients such as radish. daikon, lettuce hakusai, garden thistle root gobo, leaf chrysanthemum shungiku, ginkgo tree nuts ( ginnan), mushrooms, young bamboo shoots, lotus rhizomes, shellfish, octopus, squid, cuttlefish, trepang, crabs and shrimp. Often, vegetables, fish and seafood were prepared without heat treatment, only finely chopped and served raw with various sauces (in some cases, fermented or acidified). Food was served in bowls, using for eating wooden sticks (hashi). Among the drinks, tea was considered the most exquisite; rice mash was used at court and in temples. sake.
They say what your friends are, so are you. And what about the ancient legends in this case? "Tell me, what were your gods of old, and I'll tell you what you are now?" Can it be argued that there is a direct relationship between such a long past and the present? Probably not. But something of him still remains in us. Well, is this so, let's look at the example of the history of Japan and the role that the spear, sword and ... its most ancient heroes played in the development of the spiritual culture of this nation.
Let's start with the fact that the ancient Japanese books "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", written down at the beginning of the 8th century, report that the first gods were invisible, and no one knew their names. Then the two gods Izanagi and Izanami appeared, brother and sister, the first of the gods whose names became known to people. The elder gods instructed them to create the earth and gave ... a magic spear. They stood on the heavenly floating bridge, plunged the spear into the ocean, stirred up its waters with this spear, and when they pulled it out of the water, drops fell off the tip, which fell and turned into Onogorojima - “Itself thickened island”. Then the brother and sister settled on this island, and the jasper spear was used as a pillar in their house. That is, without the spear, Japan would simply not exist!
Literally next, the first mention of the sword is also found. It belonged to the god Izanagi, with which he killed his own son - the God of Fire, at the birth of which Izanami experienced severe pain. The Goddess was greatly upset by such “concern”, and she went to underworld. Well, Izanagi repented that he had committed the first murder in the world, and went down to underworld to get her back. But the evil spirits and gods of the dungeon did not allow him to do this, although he fought with them with this sword. Returning, he performed numerous ablutions to cleanse himself of hellish filth, and gave birth to three more children, who later became the main Japanese gods and played a very important role in the history of the Japanese. So, it was his daughter, the goddess of the sun Amaterasu, who sent her grandson Ninigi no Mikoto (“Young man - the god of rice ears”) to the earth, and gave him three magical items: a bronze mirror (with which the gods once lured her out of the cave), jasper pendants and the "Sword of Swirling Clouds" - a gift from her brother, the terrible god Susanoo.
Three Sacred Regalia of Japanese Emperors
But here's what's interesting: Susanoo obtained this sword not so much by force as by cunning. At that time, a certain giant snake lived on earth in the Izumo region, which had eight heads and eight tails (in Japan, eight is a lucky number!), And he was so big that his tails filled eight valleys at once. The eyes resembled the Sun and the Moon, and forests grew on the ridge. The snake ate people in whole villages, but he especially liked young girls, so Susanoo volunteered to kill him. Choosing as bait beautiful girl, he armed himself with his father's sword and hid nearby. However, in addition to supplies for the monster, there is also a fair amount of sake. The serpent crawled up and, not paying attention to the girl, plunged all eight heads into sake cups (apparently, these cups were the right size for him!) and drank every drop. Now the drunken serpent was an easy prey for Susanoo, who promptly chopped it to pieces. When he reached the tail, he found there another magic sword, which he presented to his sister. And since black clouds swirled above the tail, where it was found, it was given the name: “Ame no Murakomo no tsurugi”, or “Sword of Swirling Clouds”.
Even the philosopher Socrates noticed an interesting feature of contemporary Greek mythology: its Olympian gods behave in it in a way that no normal person could have imagined. ancient Greek. They are gluttonous, indulge in debauchery with earthly women, and the gods-children overthrow the gods of their fathers instead of respecting them. The children of the gods behave accordingly, for example, the same Hercules, who is far from always being an object worthy of imitation in myths. Don't believe? But he also uses arrows poisoned by the poison of the Lernaean Hydra, that is, he uses weapons that valiant warriors have always condemned. What's this? Accident? Or was it done on purpose to show mere mortals how not to do it, and what is allowed to Jupiter, not allowed to the ox?! Interestingly, the gods in Japan behaved in exactly the same way.
The same god Susanoo, wanting to annoy his sister Amaterasu, firstly, demolished the boundaries in her fields, and filled up the irrigation canals. And, secondly, in her chambers intended for food, he defecated and scattered the feces. Moreover, the goddess, as a true Japanese woman, did not reproach him for this (although his behavior cannot be called anything other than ugly), but spoke as follows: “It looks like a bowel movement, but this is my brother - God, probably, having vomited while drunk, you did it. And what demolished the boundaries, filled up the canals, so it’s probably my brother God, you took pity on the earth and therefore did it, ”that is, she found a decent excuse for all his outrages.
Statue of Yamato Takeru at Kenrokuen in Kanazawa, Ishikawa Province
We meet the same thing in the legends about the exploits of the legendary prince Yamato Takeru. With his courage, he could compete with the Knight of the Round Table Lancelot Ozerny or one of the ancient Russian epic heroes. But he didn’t have a truly chivalrous spirit, and many of his actions seem simply strange, to say the least!
So, he began his exploits by killing his older brother just because he was late for dinner. And not just killed, but strangled, tore off limbs, wrapped it all in mats and threw it away! This act so shocked his father, Emperor Keiko, that he sent his son to the island of Kyushu, where he would fight against the enemies of the emperor. The first ones he had to kill on the orders of his father were the brave Kumaso brothers. He approached the house of the enemy, and finding there three rows of guards, changed into women's clothes given to him by his aunt, after which he joined the enemy leaders feasting there. When they got drunk, like the ill-fated snake, he pulled out a dagger hidden under his clothes and killed them both, that is, he acted not like a samurai, but like a real vile and despicable ninja. Then he defeated another leader in the province of Izumo, and again, not by force, but by cunning. At first, he became friends with him so that he began to consider him almost his brother. Then he made himself a wooden sword and began to wear it, thrusting it into the scabbard as if it were a real one. Well, he invited the gullible leader to swim in the river. They left their swords on the shore, and then, coming out of the water, Prince Yamato invited him to exchange swords as a sign of friendship. The leader agreed, and then accepted his insidious offer to cross swords in a friendly duel. Of course, he immediately discovered that his new sword was made of wood, but it was too late, because Prince Yamato immediately killed him.
It is clear that all these actions of Prince Yamato frankly do not correspond to the ideal image of a samurai warrior, but in the future he did not behave at all like a real samurai, that is, a “knight without fear and reproach”! Having received the order to set out again, he again visited his aunt, the high priestess of the great shrine in Ise, and received from her the sacred "Sword of Swirling Clouds", that is, the most powerful weapon of all that existed at that time. But, even possessing such a sword, Yamato won the victory in this campaign by no means with his help. By the way, huge snake, who was killed by Susanoo, it is not clear how he resurrected again, overtook him and demanded that the Sword of Swirling Clouds be returned. However, Yamato jumped over the snake, but did not fight him. Then he met the girl Iwato-hime (well, how without a girl ?!), whom he passionately fell in love with. But instead of marrying her and living happily ever after, for some reason he left her and went to the Sagamu region, the ruler of which decided to kill him. The hero was lured by cunning into a valley overgrown with dry tall grass, and then it was set on fire. It was then that the prince finally used the sword, mowed the grass around him, set it on fire and thereby escaped. Naturally, he killed everyone who wanted him dead, and burned their bodies. And his sword then began to be called "Kusanagi no tsurugi" ("Sword that Parts the Grass").
Then he again came to Iwato-hime. But knowing (from where, it is not clear!) that he could not stay with her, he left her again, giving her the “Sword of Swirling Clouds”. Iwato-hime took the sword and, with tears in her eyes, for some reason hung it on a mulberry tree. Here the hero was again attacked by the ubiquitous giant snake, over which he again jumped, but at the same time hit him with his foot. This raised his temperature, and he bathed in a cold stream. The fever subsided, but he could not recover, and anticipating his imminent death, he wanted to see Iwato-hime. And she immediately appeared before him, because all this time she secretly followed him in his wanderings. The prince perked up, but only he did not get better, and as a result he died, after which he became a white bird that flew south.
Prince Yamato ended his life in such a strange way, and this end of it, we note, contains all the features of epic tales about the exploits of the samurai, as well as the knights of the Round Table, which are constantly encountered: our hero is lonely, he is pursued by enemies, and in the end he dies young from an absurd chance. Moreover, the image of a lone warrior-hero samurai is alive in Japan today, and Prince Yamato is the first among her heroes. Moreover, his name is in the earliest histories of the country - the semi-mythological "Kojiki" ("Notes on the deeds of antiquity"), written in 712, and "Nihon shoki", 720 years. Surprisingly, Japanese history is simply replete with such “heroes” and losers. And it is not clear why the image of Yamato, from which, in fact, everything began, was created so contradictory and restless? Perhaps this was done on purpose, and in this case we are again dealing with the “principle of Jupiter and the ox”, and he was supposed to show the samurai what is in their history and such examples that obviously do not need to be followed ?! Or, on the contrary, the heroic in him (although what is it, this most “heroic”?) should have overshadowed everything negative in his image? As a result, the sword became the "soul of the samurai", but for some reason the spear did not become deified! Interestingly, the Christian Bible does not indicate with what weapon Cain killed Abel. He could be cursed or made a symbol, but its creators clearly did not want this. Therefore, “rose and killed” is given in it without details. Not so in Japan, only her heroes ancient history with spears and swords turned out to be somehow very strange.
Usually, religious beliefs are understood as ancient religious practices that are not associated with the church hierarchy. This is a complex of ideas and actions based on prejudices and superstitions. Although folk beliefs differ from the temple cult, the connection between them is obvious. Let us turn, for example, to the ancient cult of the fox, which the Japanese have worshiped since time immemorial.
The deity in the form of a fox, the Japanese believed, had the body and mind of a person. In Japan, special temples were built, where people supposedly possessing a fox nature gathered. To the rhythmic sounds of drums and the howling of priests, parishioners with a "fox nature" fell into a trance state. They believed that it was the spirit of the fox that instilled its powers in them. Therefore, people with a "fox nature" considered themselves in some way sorcerers and seers, able to predict the future.
The wolf has long been worshiped in Japan. He was considered the spirit of the Okami Mountains. People asked Okami to protect the crops and the workers themselves from various misfortunes. Japanese fishermen still ask him to send down a favorable wind.
In some areas of Japan, especially on the coast, already in antiquity locals worshiped the turtle. The fishermen considered her the deity of the sea, on which their luck depended. Huge turtles off the coast of Japan were often caught in fishing nets. The fishermen carefully pulled them out, gave them sake to drink, and released them back.
In Japan, there was also a kind of cult of snakes and mollusks. At present, the Japanese eat them without trepidation, but some types of snakes and mollusks are considered sacred. These are tanisi, inhabitants of rivers and ponds. Some scholars suggest that the reverence for them came to Japan from China. According to legend, in the Aizu area, there was once a temple of Wakamiya Hachiman, at the foot of which there were two ponds. If someone caught tanishi in them, then at night he heard a voice demanding her return. Sometimes the sick caught the tanisi on purpose in order to hear the voice of the deity of the pond and demand recovery for themselves in exchange for the release of the tanisi. Old Japanese medical books indicate that tanishi is a good remedy for eye diseases. And, on the contrary, there are legends that only those who do not eat them are cured of eye diseases.
Shark (same) in Japan in ancient times was considered a creature endowed with divine power, that is, kami. There were various legends about the shark. One of them tells that once a shark bit off a woman's leg. The woman's father in prayer asked the spirits of the sea to avenge his daughter. After some time, he saw a large flock of sharks chasing one predator in the sea. The fisherman caught her and found her daughter's leg in her stomach. The fishermen believed that the shark could help to avoid misfortune at sea. According to their beliefs, shoals of fish stretched behind the sacred shark. If the fisherman was lucky enough to meet her, he returned with a rich catch.
The Japanese also idolized the crab. An amulet made from his dried shell protected him from evil spirits and diseases. It was said that once the crabs appeared in the coastal region, where no one had ever seen them. The fishermen caught them, dried them and hung them on trees. Since then, evil spirits have bypassed these places. There is still a legend that the Taira warriors, who were defeated in the war with the Minato clan, plunged into the sea and turned into crabs. Therefore, in some rural areas, it is believed that the belly of a crab resembles a human face.
Along with the veneration of animals in Japan, the worship of mountains, mountain springs, stones, and trees spread. The Japanese peasant deified nature in his ideas. The contemplation of individual stones, trees caused real pleasure among the Japanese. Among the trees in the first place was the willow. The Japanese idolized the weeping willow (yanagi). Many poets have sung from it since ancient times, artists have depicted it on engravings and scrolls. Everything graceful and graceful is still compared by the Japanese with willow branches. Yanagi was considered by the Japanese to be a tree that brings happiness and good luck. Willow was used to make chopsticks, which were used only on New Year's Eve.
The religions that came to Japan from the mainland had a huge impact on the beliefs of the Japanese. This can be illustrated by the example of the Koshin cult.
Koshin (year of the monkey) is the name of one of the years of the old cyclical chronology used in Japan until 1878 (that is, the famous bourgeois Meiji reform). This chronology consists of repeating 60-year cycles. The Koxin cult is associated with Taoism, which came from China. Taoists believed that on the night of the New Year, the kosin, which lives in the body of every person, as some kind of mysterious creature, leaves him and rises into the sky, where he reports to the heavenly ruler about sinful deeds. Based on the report, the lord can take a person's life. Therefore, it was recommended to spend koshin nights without sleep. In Japan, this custom has become widespread, gradually absorbing elements of Buddhism and Shintoism.
Many deities from Buddhism entered the national pantheon by themselves. The Buddhist saint Jizo gained great popularity. In the courtyard of a temple in Tokyo, a statue of him was erected, entangled with straw ropes. If any valuables were stolen from a person, he tied Jizo and promised to release him upon discovery of the loss.
Researchers classify the ancient folk beliefs of the Japanese as follows:
Industrial cults (related to agriculture and fishing),
healing cults (providing cures for diseases),
patronage cults (aimed at protection from epidemics and other troubles),
cult-keeper hearth(protected from fire and maintaining peace in the family),
the cult of good luck and prosperity (which gave gains and blessings of life),
a cult of scaring away evil spirits (aimed at getting rid of devils, water, goblin).
Here I would like to especially dwell on the tea ceremony (in Japanese, chanoyu). This ceremony is one of the most original, unique and ancient arts. For several centuries, it has played a significant role in the spiritual and social life of the Japanese. Tyanoyu is a strictly scheduled ritual, in which the “tea master” takes part, brewing tea and pouring it, as well as those who are present at the same time and then drink it. The first is the priest performing the tea action, the second are the participants joining it. Everyone has their own style of behavior, covering both the sitting posture, and all movements, and facial expressions, and manner of speech. Aesthetics of chanoyyu, its refined ritual obeys the canons of Zen Buddhism. According to legend, it originates from China since the time of the first patriarch of Buddhism, Bodhidharma. Once, the legend says, while sitting in meditation, Bodhiharma felt that his eyes were closing and he was falling asleep. Angry with himself, he ripped out his eyelids and threw them to the ground. Soon an unusual bush with succulent leaves grew in that place. Later, the disciples of Bodhiharma began to brew his leaves hot water The drink helped keep them awake.
In fact, the tea ceremony originated in China long before the advent of Buddhism. According to sources, it was introduced by Lao Tzu. It was he who in the 5th century. BC, proposed a ritual with a cup of "golden elixir". This ritual flourished in China until the Mongol invasion. Later, the Chinese reduced the ceremony with the "golden elixir" to a simple brewing of dried leaves of the tea course. In Japan, the art of chanoyu has reached its logical conclusion.
b>Japanese house:
In Japan in the Middle Ages, the design of a traditional Japanese house developed. It was a wooden frame with three movable and one movable walls. They were not a support and could be freely removed. In the warm season, lattice structures pasted over with translucent paper were used as walls; in cold seasons - wooden panels. Since the humidity in Japan is very high, the houses rose about 60 cm above the ground. The house stood on support pillars with stone foundations. The frame of the building was light and flexible, which reduced the destructive force during earthquakes. The roof, tiled or reed, with a large canopy, under which there was a veranda. All details of the latter were carefully polished to protect against moisture. A garden was laid out around the house, symbolizing the unity of man and nature.
Usually the house was divided into two parts: a living room and a room at the entrance, although the size, number and arrangement of rooms could be regulated using internal partitions. An important part of the living room is a small niche arranged in a fixed wall, in which a scroll of painting hung and a bouquet of flowers stands. The place next to her was considered the most honorable in the house. The floor in such a dwelling is wooden, covered with special mats. They sat and slept on the floor - on mattresses, which were put away in the closets during the day. In general, there was almost no furniture in the house.
Japanese kitchen:
The traditions of Japanese cuisine are 1500 years old. The basis of modern Japanese cuisine is vegetables (cabbage, cucumbers, radishes, turnips, eggplants, potatoes, soybeans, various types of legumes), rice, fish, seafood (clams, sea cucumbers, octopuses, crabs, shrimp, seaweed). Fats, sugar, meat, milk are almost completely unpopular.
Meat and milk were allowed on the Japanese menu until about the end of the 7th century. But since Buddhism became one of the main religions (VIII century), the country has introduced severe restrictions on animal products. It was then that the first semblance of sushi (we pronounce it as sushi) appeared on the tables of wealthy Japanese - rice balls with pieces of raw fish.
For the next three centuries, Japan was under the strong influence of China. This is where the art of making tofu came from. It is a cheese made primarily from soy protein and similar in appearance to cottage cheese. An almost ubiquitous breakfast dish. China was also the birthplace of shoyu soy sauce. From China, in the 9th century, the Japanese became addicted to green tea. Like the Chinese, the Japanese court nobility of that time eats at the table and sits on chairs. Everyone uses spoons, although they are of the Japanese type. This, as it were, introduces them to the higher Chinese culture at that time. But the courtiers became not so much gourmets as gluttons, they added numerous intermediate snacks and tea parties to the usual two meals a day for the country.
In the 10th century, national kitchen utensils appeared - bowls for each type of food (tea, rice, soup), sticks. All appliances were purely personal, but the tea bowl could be shared, which brought people together at the table. Again - and now for a long time - chairs, higher tables and spoons disappear from everyday life.
In 1185, the country's government moved to Kamakura, where a harsh, even ascetic lifestyle of samurai warriors reigned. Samurai Zen Buddhism required a much more modest and healthy diet. Buddhist vegetarian cuisine adopted in Chinese monasteries became typical of that time. The wide variety of vegetarian dishes was offset by the fact that such dishes were served in small portions.
In the 15th century, the structure of the Japanese dinner changed again. To the main course - rice - additional are served: soup, marinades. This period is characterized by excessive luxury treats. The abundance of additional dishes had to reach such quantities that it was impossible to eat everything at once. Hot dishes cooled down and lost their taste and attractiveness, for this reason the reform of the "art of the table" again took place, and received further development tea ceremony. It turned into a kind of ritual-philosophical mini-performance, in which every detail, object, order of things had its own unique meaning.
Tea ceremony:
Tea was brought to Japan from China in the 7th century. In China, it was valued as a medicinal plant that helps with fatigue, eye disease, and rheumatism. Then, as a refined pastime. But such a cult of tea as in Japan, perhaps, was not in any country. The Japanese monk Eisai, the founder of the monastery in the samurai residence in Kyoto, introduced the Japanese to the tea ceremony with the support of the emperor himself.
In the 16th century, a game called "tea competition" became fashionable in samurai circles. Tea was brought from different places. While drinking a cup of tea, the participants had to determine his homeland. Since then, the Japanese have fallen in love with tea, tea drinking has become a custom. Permanent tea plantations appeared in the Uji region near Kyoto. Until now, the best teas in Japan are harvested in Uji.
Since the 15th century, Japanese monks have been mastering the technique of the tea ritual, and in the following centuries it reaches perfection. The tea ceremony becomes the art of embodying the grace of Emptiness and the goodness of Peace (cha-no yu). In turn, this ritual gave rise to arts such as ikebana, the wabi style of ceramics, Japanese gardens, and influenced porcelain, painting, and the interior of a Japanese house. The tea ritual influenced the worldview of the Japanese, and, conversely, the worldview of the Japanese of the 16th century brought to life the wabi style, determining the measured way of life, tastes, and the mental warehouse of the Japanese. The Japanese say that anyone who is well acquainted with the tea ceremony should be able to regulate his behavior in all cases of life with ease, dignity and grace. Japanese girls before marriage, they took lessons in cha-no yu in order to acquire a beautiful posture and graceful manners.
There are different schools of the Art of Tea. The nature of the tea ceremony largely depends on the occasion of the meeting and the time of year. Competitors dress in soothing colors: plain silk kimono and special white socks designed for wooden shoes. Everyone has a small folding fan. The whole ritual is divided into two acts.
First action.
Guests (usually five people) first, accompanied by the owner, follow a special path through the twilight of the garden. The closer to the tea house, the more they move away from the bustling world. Approaching a small pool of clear water, they wash their hands and mouth. The entrance to the tea house is low, and guests have to literally crawl through it, subduing their temper.
The small tea house is divided into three parts: tea room, waiting room and utility room. N. S. Nikolaeva in the "Japanese Gardens" perfectly described this ceremony: "Bending low, one after another, they pass through the door, leaving their shoes on a special stone. The last of those who enter closes the door. The owner does not appear immediately. Guests should get used to the lighting rooms, carefully examine the hanging picture, appreciate the refined charm of a single flower, feel inwardly, guess the subtext of the ceremony proposed by the owner. herbs in a bouquet will be a subtle sophistication of the pattern on a ceramic dish.
Only after the guests have become accustomed to the situation, the host appears and greets the guests with a deep bow, silently sits opposite them, by the brazier, over which a pot of boiling water has already been hung in advance. Next to the owner on the mat are all the necessary items: a cup (the most precious relic), a box of green tea powder, a wooden spoon, a bamboo whisk, which is used to churn tea, poured with slightly cooled boiling water. Immediately there are ceramic vessels - for cold water, for rinsing and other items; everything is old, but immaculately clean, and only the water bucket and linen towel are new, sparkling white.
Entering the tea room, where there is a brazier for the teapot, the guest bows politely. Then, holding a folding fan in front of him, he expresses admiration for the scroll hanging in a niche. Having finished the inspection, the grateful guests sit down and greet the host.
All stages of the ritual take place in strict order. Sitting down, the guests proceed to sweets. The owner then invites them into the garden. The start of the ceremony is announced by a gong - five and seven strikes. After the gong, the guests leave the garden and return to the tea room. The room is now brighter, the bamboo curtain outside the window has been moved away, and instead of a scroll in a niche, there is a vase with a flower. The owner wipes the caddy and spoon with a special cloth and washes the stirrer in hot water, which he pours from the kettle with a ladle. Then he puts three spoons of powdered green tea previously ground in a special porcelain mortar into a bowl, pours it with a ladle hot water and whisk the tea with a stirrer until the tea thickens slightly. All movements of the hands, body, special, truly ceremonial, while the face is strict and motionless. End of the first act.
Strong green tea is made from young leaves of tea bushes aged twenty to seventy or more years. The norm of laying tea on average is 1 teaspoon of tea powder per 200 grams of water. An important feature The Japanese way is that not only the teapot, but the water itself for brewing tea should be between seventy and ninety degrees. The brewing time does not go beyond 3 - 5 minutes.
Action two.
The main guest bows, puts the bowl on the palm of his left hand, supporting with his right. With a measured movement of the hands, the cup is slowly brought to the mouth. Taking a small sip, evaluates the taste of tea; takes a few more sips, wipes the bitten place with special paper and passes the bowl to the next guest, who, after a few sips, sends it further until, having passed in a circle, the bowl returns to the owner.
The tea is extremely tart in taste. Its concentration corresponds to approximately 100 - 200 grams of dry tea per 500 grams of water. But at the same time, this tea is very aromatic. The presence of aroma in tea is very important to the Japanese.
For the whole circle, the cup is drunk completely and this procedure should take no more than ten minutes. There are no conversations in the second act, and everyone is sitting in decorous poses, in strict formal attire. The final. In general, the process of tea drinking itself is a very long ceremony that takes place entirely in front of its participants.
Thus, Japanese tea is presented not as a gastronomic reality, but as a ritual group action that has deep historical and philosophical roots of a nationwide Japanese culture and is one of the art forms of Japan.
Formed in the 16th century, the "Way of Tea" (chado) philosophy is now becoming more and more popular in America and Europe. The author of the book "On the Way of Tea" well-known in the West, K. Iguti, explains the reason for such popularity by saying that "people are tired of mechanical civilization and the frantic rhythm of life. And when life becomes too restless, vain, we seek peace, freedom for the soul. If if we follow etiquette, then the behavior, manners of a person will be balanced, a sense of beauty will return to him. That is why our time cannot do without the Way of tea.
There are four basic rules of tea philosophy according to Rikyu, the famous master of the tea ceremony of the 16th century: Harmony, Reverence, Purity and Tranquility.
Harmony.
Harmony is the very atmosphere of the tea ceremony. When you approach the tea house, you see mossy stones, an overgrown pond - free nature, which man has not imposed himself. With a thatched roof and rough wood or bamboo props, the tea house is a natural extension of the garden. The room is in twilight: the low roof barely transmits light. Not a single extra item, not a single extra color. On the shelf in the tea room are a jug of water, a stand for a ladle, a cup for water. All over the patina of antiquity, the breath of eternity. Time seemed to have stopped. Only a ladle of cut bamboo and a fresh linen tablecloth. The whole atmosphere is designed to distract you from everyday life, to bring the spirit into a state of peace and balance.
Respectfulness.
Respect implies sincere, kind relationships between people. The tea house is not only the abode of simplicity and naturalness, but also the abode of Justice. Respect prescribes that everyone should feel equal and that the noble should not boast of his nobility, and the poor should not be ashamed of his poverty. Whoever enters the tea room must overcome the feeling of superiority.
Purity.
Purity should be in everything: in feelings, in thoughts. The origins of the cult of purity go back to the rite of the Great Purification.
Calm.
Calmness implies complete peace, external and internal, balance, serenity. No wonder the hieroglyph djaku (calmness) is translated as nirvana.
Of course, the tea ceremony in Japan is not a daily ritual, and the Japanese drink tea more often than they do the tea act described above. In these cases, they prefer green tea, rather than black, which is widespread among us, but in everyday life they sometimes use it. It is also noteworthy that the Japanese, like the Chinese, drink tea during the day, before meals, while we drink it after meals. Well, in all other respects we are not much different from the Japanese!
Samurai:
Samurai appeared in Japan during the Middle Ages. That is, Japanese samurai are almost the same as European knights, samurai considered only military affairs worthy of a noble person. However, there is a difference between a European knight and a Japanese samurai. And this difference is in the samurai code of conduct, a collection of rules and traditions called Bushido.
Bushido claims that the main, and only, goal of the samurai is to serve the master. This is how the word "samurai" is translated - "to serve a great man." A warrior brought up in the spirit of bushido had to evaluate his own actions, decide what is right and what is not, and punish himself.
The most famous rite of the Japanese samurai, the legendary hara-kiri, also comes from bushido. Actually hara-kiri is suicide. The samurai had to commit suicide if he violated the rules of honor, to wash away the shame with blood. But not only: since serving the owner is the main goal, in the event of the death of the owner, the samurai also had to commit hara-kiri. By the way, it was for such barbarism that this rite was banned.
Bushido is not a book of rules, it was not studied from textbooks. Bushido mainly exists in the form of legends about samurai who behaved correctly. And by the way, according to this tradition, the samurai had to not only fight, but also learn.
Taiko drums:
Japanese taiko drums are ancient instruments. They have existed for over ten centuries. The drums are made from trees that are at least five hundred years old. A core is hollowed out at the trunk, it is shaped into a drum, and then specially dressed leather is stretched. By the way, the strength of the sound depends on its manufacture. And the height of the sound of the drum is adjustable with the help of mounts.
Such careful work on the sound capabilities of the instrument is understandable. In the old days, with the help of taiko, the Japanese turned to the gods.
Today, many types of Japanese theater still use them, and taiko play a significant role in national festivals.
Traditional costumes:
Kimono(traditional Japanese women's clothing) has a two thousand year history.
In Japan, they are very fond of traditions, so they dressed according to the established rules: first they wrapped their hips with a cloth, then they put on a light tight-fitting robe, then a floral robe over it, followed by a kimono and jacket, and decorated the whole structure with a belt. The number of belts at the waist of the Japanese was always seven, they were tied on the back into an elegant bow, reminiscent of a butterfly sitting down to rest. Nature and animals have a special place among the Japanese, they do not like various decorations, but they richly embroider their clothes using images of trees, flowers, fabulous monsters and dragons.
Few people wear kimonos these days, older people quite often, but young people wear kimonos only on special occasions, such as festivals or chapel weddings (these kimonos are usually white and very expensive).
By the sleeves of a kimono, one can judge the age of a woman and her wealth. Girls or girls wore colorful kimonos with long, loose sleeves (such kimonos are called furisode). married women wore kimonos with shorter sleeves.
The summer kimono is called yukata. Mostly yukatas are dark blue or white, but girls and girls like to wear bright yukatas with flower patterns more.
Japan
The culture of Japan has developed as a result of historical process, which began with the migration of the ancestors of the Japanese people to the islands of the Japanese archipelago from the mainland.
Modern Japanese culture has been strongly influenced by Asian countries (especially China and Korea), later by Europe and North America.
One of the features of Japanese culture is its long development during the period of complete isolation of the country (sakoku policy) from the rest of the world, which lasted 200 years until the middle of the XX century - the beginning of the Meiji period.
The culture and mentality of the Japanese were greatly influenced by the isolated territorial position of the country, geographical and climatic features, as well as special natural phenomena (frequent earthquakes and typhoons), which was expressed in the peculiar attitude of the Japanese to nature as a living creature. The ability to admire the momentary beauty of nature, as a feature of the national character of the Japanese, has found expression in many forms of art in Japan.
PREHISTORIC PERIOD(40 thousand years and up to 300 AD)
1) Kyu: sekki, he is the pre-ceramic period, he is the Iwajuku period, he is also proto-jomon (from 40,000 BC - about 13,000 BC)
2) Jomon(8 thousand BC - 1 thousand BC)
3) Yayoi(300 BC - 250-300 AD)
ANCIENT JAPAN- from 300 AD to 1185 (3-12 centuries).
Yamato(300-710 AD).
Kofun(300-592)
Asuka(593-710)
2) Nara(710 - 794 AD)
3) heian(794 - 1185 AD)
MEDIEVAL (FEUDAL JAPAN)- from 1185 to 1868
1) Kamakura(1185-1333)
2) Restoration of Kemmu(1333-1336)
3) Muromachi(1336-1573)
4) Azuchi Momoyama period (1573 - 1603)
5) edo(1600 - 1868)
MODERN JAPAN- the period from 1868 to the present.
1) Meiji(1868 - 1912)
2) Taisho(1912 - 1926)
3) Showa(1926 - 1989) In this era, the occupation period (1945-1952) and the period of Japan after the occupation (1952-1989) are distinguished.
4) Heisei(1989 to present).
Prehistoric period: In 1949, in Iwazuku, Gunma Prefecture, stone tools were recovered from a layer below that in which pottery was commonly found on the Kanto Plain. This discovery marked the beginning of the search for the remains of the Paleolithic culture in Japan.
The oldest monuments of art in Japan belong to the Neolithic period - Jomon (VIII millennium - mid-I millennium BC):
ceramic dishes with lush molded decor,
stylized idol figurines,
anthropomorphic masks.
A mythological system is being formed.
Jomon:
Tribal communities of the population of the Japanese islands were engaged in gathering, hunting, and fishing.
It is believed that during this period, Shintoism (from Japanese Shinto - “the way of the gods”) is formed - a religious-mythological and ritual-practical complex associated with the worship of the gods by the kami.
The origins of Shinto are the folk beliefs, myths and rituals of ancient Japan;
As a dogmatic teaching, Shinto developed from the 7th-8th centuries as a response to the teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.
The first samples of ceramics, figurines of people and animals dogu.
Mythology:
Most of the Japanese myths known today are familiar from the Kojiki (712), the Nihon Shoki (720) and some additional sources. These codes constituted the official Shinto mythology, partially adapting, and partially pushing the local shamanistic cults into the lower mythology.
"Kojiki", or "Records of the deeds of antiquity" - the oldest collection of myths and legends to date.
Japanese mythology is directly connected with the cult of the emperor: it is believed that the emperor is a direct descendant of the gods. Term tenno(天皇), emperor literally means "divine (or celestial) ruler".
The myth of the creation of the Earth:
The completion of the cosmogonic process falls on the share of the fifth pair of these gods, Izanaki and Izanami. By the time of their appearance, "the earth had not yet emerged from infancy" and was rushing around sea waves, therefore, the highest heavenly gods instruct these gods to turn the liquid earth into firmament, which they do by stirring the water with a spear. Then, having entered into a marriage, they give birth to the islands that make up Japan, and then - the gods-spirits who should inhabit this country. The world gradually takes on its usual form: mountains and trees, plains and gorges, fogs in the gorges and dark crevices appear, and the kami born here become the “owners” of all objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
When Izanami gave birth to the fire god Kaguiuchi, he singed her womb and she died. Izanaki, mourning her death, followed her into realm of the dead Yomi no Kuni to bring her back. But, seeing what his wife had turned into - a corpse covered with worms and larvae, fled from her and blocked the entrance to the kingdom of the dead with a large boulder. On earth, Izanaki performed a purification, during which many gods were born. The last three great deities were born: from the drops of water with which Izanaki washed his left eye, the goddess of the sun appeared Amaterasu, from the water that washed his right eye, the goddess of the night and the moon Tsukuyomi, and, finally, from the water that washed the nose of Izanaki, the god of wind and water expanses Susanoo. Izanaki distributed his possessions between them: Amaterasu received the plain of the high sky, Tsukuyomi - the kingdom of the night, and Susanoo - the plain of the sea.
Amaterasu gave the government of the land to her great-grandson, the prince Ninigi.
Creation myth:
Okho-Yama had two daughters: the eldest - Yaha-Naga and the youngest - Ki-no-hana. Yaha-Naga's eldest daughter was nowhere near as good as her sister. Okho-Yama wanted to give the prince a wife of both daughters, both the eldest and the youngest. The mountain spirit wished that the offspring of Prince Ninigi would live forever like rocks and bloom like cherry blossoms. So Oho-Yama sent his daughters to Ninigi with sumptuous robes and precious gifts.
But the prince loved only the marvelously beautiful princess Ki-no-hana and did not look at Yaha-Naga. Then the latter exclaimed in wild anger: If you took me as your wife, then you and your children would live forever on earth, but since you loved my sister, your offspring will be fleeting and instant, like Sakura flowers!
But Prince Ninigi did not listen to her and married the beautiful princess Ki-no-hana.
Jōmon pottery is distinguished by a rope pattern ("jo" is a rope, "mon" is a pattern, and "doki" is pottery)
About 15,000 dogu figurines, 8 to 30 centimeters high, have already been discovered. They belong to the Neolithic era (IV-II centuries BC) of the "jomon" period. The meaning of "dogu" is a device, a tool. Among the dogu, there are both images of various animals, and very conditional interpretations of the human body. Spread out and schematized, almost completely covered with carved and stuccoed magical decor, they are similar to vessels in their ornamental design.
Yayei (300 BC - 250-300 AD)
1884 Pottery was found in the Yayoi area, differing in style from the Jōmon period.
Characteristics:
paddy rice cultivation,
use of potter's wheel and loom,
processing of metals (copper, bronze and iron) - dotaku.
construction of sheltered fortifications.
Dotaku bells (analogous to drums, associated with an agricultural cult)
To date, it is not known for certain whether this culture, which is commonly called the "Yayoi culture", was brought to Japan as a result of migrations from the Korean Peninsula and the territory of modern China, or was developed by the inhabitants of the Japanese islands, who imported some "know-how" from the continent. .
Agriculture strengthened the settled way of life and the social structure of society - agricultural community.
Country (kuni) villages (mura) house communities (courtyards - ko): 5-6 dugout dwellings (tateana), sometimes pile buildings (takayuki), used as a granary, subsequently converted to Shinto shrines.
Ancient Japan (300 - 1185)
1)Yamato(300 - 710 years).
Kofun(300 - 592)
Asuka(593 - 710)
2) Nara(710 - 794 years)
3) heian(794 - 1185 years)
Yamato
The era of the formation of a centralized state
Kofun:
The country was united under an emperor by 300 AD.
The appearance of mounds that served for the burial of rulers (jap. "kofun").
Expansion of the country from Kyushu to Kanto.
Enshrined in historical sources.
Small plastic - figurines of people and animals (Khaniva).
Asuka:
Buddhism was brought to Japan between 538 and 552. The emergence of writing.
Prince played a huge role in the spread of Buddhism Shotoku Taishi, regent during the reign of the empress Suiko. He is credited with creating in 604 " Code of seventeen articles", in which he preached Buddhism and Chinese ideals of statehood.
In 645 were held Taika reforms:
implemented Chinese schemes for the structure of the state apparatus and administration,
the lands were bought by the state and equally divided among the peasants,
introduced a new (according to the Chinese model) taxation system.
At the same time, Taoism, Confucianism and hieroglyphics came from China and Korea to Japan - kanji, a local religious system began to take shape - Shintoism.
In 622 Emperor Tenchi accepted "Code Tenchi"- the first legislative code known to us from the chronicles in Japan.
Period Asuka was marked by a strong the influence of Chinese and Korean cultural traditions on the development of Japanese culture.
However, at the same time, an original Japanese style developed. So the architectural ensembles of the temple horyu-ji, which was built by Prince Shotoku in 607, have no analogues in China and Korea.
Buddhist temple complexes differed in layout depending on whether they were built in the mountains or on the plain.
The temple ensembles built on the plain are characterized by a symmetrical arrangement of buildings.
In mountainous conditions, due to the very nature of the terrain, a symmetrical arrangement of buildings is usually simply impossible, and architects each time had to find a specific solution to the problem of the most convenient location of the structures of the temple complex.
The Japanese temple-monastery originally consisted of seven elements:
outer gate ( Samon),
main, or golden hall ( condo),
sermon hall kodo),
drum or bell tower ( koro or severely),
sutra repository ( kyozo),
treasury ( shosoin) ,
multi-tiered pagoda.
Covered galleries, as well as the gates leading to the territory of the temple, were often architecturally remarkable independent structures. The complex also included living quarters for monks, a dining room.
For all Shinto shrines approximately the same layout. An important element of Shinto religious architecture is the gate to the temple - torii. Torii are arches resembling the letter "P" with two crossbars, the upper of which is longer and slightly concave. Previously, they were built only of wood and were always painted red. They are followed by a pair of statues of "Korean dogs", which are supposed to drive away evil spirits.
A typical Shinto shrine complex consists of two or more buildings.
The main sanctuary for kami, is called honden. Closed to the public. Priests enter the honden only for rituals.
The prayer hall is called haiden, where is altar.
Located in the main room goshintai (literally - "kami body"). It is believed that in xingtai the soul is infused kami. body kami there may be a stone, a tree branch, a mirror, a sword, or a wooden tablet on which the name of a given god is written.
Ise Temple Complex - The earliest Shinto building in Japan: survived to this day due to the custom of rebuilding and renovating temples every 20 years (since the 7th century).
Nara era (710-794)
It began with the restoration of the capital of the state in the city of Heijo-kyo (modern city Nara),
ended with its transfer to the city of Heian-kyo (modern city Kyoto).
According to legend, after the proclamation of Heijo-kyo (the old name of Nara) as the capital of Japan, the god of the shrine kasuga taisha came to defend this city white deer.
Yamato Japan
The first written monuments (using Chinese characters): Kojiki 712g and Nihon shoki 720g; a collection of 4.5 thousand poems about love and the sacred places of Asuka, Nara, etc.
The main temple ensembles of the city of Nara
Todaiji (743-752)
considered the largest wooden structure in the world. Buddhism is already the state religion.
In the main hall of Todaiji there is a Buddha statue of Vairochana, which is the largest Buddha statue in Japan (437 tons of bronze, 150 kg of gold, 7 tons of wax)
Toshodaiji (founded 752)
Its foundation is associated with the name of the Chinese Buddhist monk Chienchen (Jap. Ganjin). Toshodaiji can be translated as Temple of the Visiting Chinese.
Toshodaiji is famous for the fact that within its boundaries largest number buildings of the Nar era.
Heian (794 - 1185)
The formation of the institute of samurai belongs to the Heian era ( bushi).
At the end of the 10th century, the Imperial Palace became the center of cultural prosperity. His chambers were decorated with works of art by the best masters.
The time when festivities were held, to which the best poets of that time were invited, musical and poetic tournaments were held, various games borrowed from China.
In painting, the national style gained great popularity yamato-e.
Old folk songs, performed according to the rules of gagaku, came into fashion.
There is a proper Japanese writing system.
Buddhist monk, writer, calligrapher Kukai(Kobo-daishi) created the syllabary hiragana based on Chinese cursive characters. Later, the sounds of the same alphabet began to be written with signs of a different system. So was born katakana(the system used to write loanwords has been in use since the 8th century.)
The first schools and a university were created for the metropolitan aristocracy. The training was conducted according to the Chinese model and included the mastery of the six Confucian arts. : ritual, music, literature, mathematics, archery and chariot driving. Some noble aristocratic families had their own schools, but university education remained the standard for them.
Heian literature
In 905, by order of Emperor Daigo, the canonical text "Kokinshū" ("Collection of Old and New Songs") was written. With its release, the leading poetic genre of the century (“Japanese song”), also known as tanka (“short song”, containing 31 syllables), took shape.
Brilliant court prose of this period was created by women, for it was fitting for a man to write exclusively in Chinese, and if he did, then only poetry. In the XI century. saw the light of the genre narrative novel. The first outstanding example of the genre was the novel by the court writer Murasaki Shikibu (978-1014) "The Tale of Prince Genji" (1010). It is also becoming popular genrelyrical diary(nikki), which tended to become a lyrical tale of his life. At the end of the tenth century one of the first famous women's diaries appears "Diary of a Flying Web".
In the 9th century, two new Buddhist schools appeared in Japan at once: Tendai and Shingon. Both teachings were united by the position of the presence of the Buddha Nature in each individual phenomenon and the universality of "enlightenment", that is, the disclosure by each of the "essence of the Buddha." The task is to discover the nature of the Buddha in oneself, which can be done within one lifetime.
Tendai (Lotus Sutra) originated from the Chinese school of the same name, Tiantai Zong.
In 805, the Japanese monk Saicho (Japanese: 最澄; also Dengyō-Daishi 伝教大師) practically re-introduced and spread the Tendai school. Later, the Tendai school underwent significant development and became significantly different from the original Chinese Tiantai school.
In 785 Saicho , disillusioned with the Buddhism of that time, shut himself up with several students in a small monastery on Mount Hiei (jap. 比叡山). Traveling to China in 804, he received the rank of teacher of the Tiantai school, and was initiated into some of the rituals of Tantric Buddhism. When Saicho returned from China with the new Tiantai texts, he built a temple on Mount Hiei temple Enryaku-ji (Jap. (延暦寺), which became the center of the Japanese Tendai school for many hundreds of years.
The essence of the teaching:
Buddha Shakyamuni, after gaining awakening, was in the "sea reflection" samadhi, where he saw the whole world as the absolute unity of the infinite Mind. The Buddha outlined his vision in the Avatamsaka Sutra, and then in the form of the Lotus Sutra. Before the final departure to nirvana, the Buddha also preached the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which in the Tiantai school is considered a confirmation of the highest truth of the Lotus Sutra.
The Avatamsaka Sutra, according to the Tiantai school, is accessible to people only with developed intellect, while the Lotus Sutra accessible and understandable to both educated and ordinary people.
The two most important ideas of tian tai are the doctrine of "three thousand worlds in one act of consciousness" and the concept of "one mind".
Shingon-shu- one of the main Buddhist schools in Japan, belonging to the direction of the Vajrayana. The word shingon (Chinese zhenyan) means "true, right word" or mantra- prayer formula. The school originated in the Heian period (794-1185). The founder of the school is the monk Kukai.
In 804 Kukai went to China, where he studied tantra and returned back, bringing with him a large number of texts and Buddhist images, on the basis of which he developed his own teaching and practice, associated primarily with the Buddha Vairochana (Mahavairochan Tathagata).
Temple complexes: Muro-ji, Daigo-ji
Amidism(Pure Land Buddhism) One of the paths leading living beings from the fetters of samsara to Nirvana is the practice of sincere, based on deep faith, pronouncing the name of Buddha Amitabha (Amitayus), which ensures the subsequent automatic birth in paradise - in the land of Buddha Amida. Since salvation through one's own efforts and virtues is impossible.
Painting of the ancient period:
The earliest surviving outstanding works date from the Nara period (645-794) - these are the murals of the Horyuji Temple. Executed with flexible lines, with a light tint, they have something in common with Indian and Chinese designs.
During the Heian period (794-1185), mandalas, which are symbolic schemes of the universe, became widespread in Buddhist painting.
The first samples of secular painting, presented in horizontal scrolls, illustrating aristocratic stories and novels, belong to the same period.
During this period, the national Japanese style Yamato-e begins to develop.
