In Germany, they were able to decipher a manuscript written in the 18th century and which at one time served as a guide for sorcerers. It is noteworthy that the library staff at the University of Kassel managed to find out the contents of the manuscript. It is known that more than ten thousand other ancient documents of international importance are also stored in this place.
At first, the employees decided that the text containing the secrets of gaining wealth and love was written in Arabic, since the signs and symbols depicted in the manuscript were made in an oriental manner. But then the hypothesis was proposed that the document was written in German. In addition, the encryption scheme was not very complex - each letter of the alphabet had its own symbol. Thus, in just a week, a 90-page manuscript was deciphered.
The content of the book consisted of descriptions of spells for calling spirits, which were supposed to help gain wealth, love and cure ailments. The manuscript also described in detail the procedure for performing each ritual, in order to thereby achieve desired result. So, the document reported that one of the spells would only work if it was read exactly three hours after midnight. In another spell, it was indicated that in order to achieve the effect, it was necessary to lay stones in a circle, and then invoke the spirit.
In addition, the old text contains many Christian symbols. In particular, in addition to the mention of angels, the name of Christ is also found there. It is noteworthy that it is written in several languages - in Latin, German and Greek. Library staff found it difficult to explain this point, stating that this question is in the competence of historians of religion.
The old manuscript does not contain the name of a specific author. Apparently, this is due to the fact that he was a member of one of the secret societies.
According to scientists, in late XVIII century the greatest interest Freemasons and Rosicrucians manifested to magic, alchemy and treasures. However, according to the content of the manuscript, it is difficult to determine to which of them the author belonged.
Recall that the most famous text in the world is the so-called Voynich manuscript. Famous cryptologists from all over the world are unsuccessfully deciphering it. The name of the document was in honor of the antiquarian who acquired it in 1912.
The manuscript is an image codec written in unknown language. A radiocarbon analysis of some pages of the document was carried out, as a result of which it was established that it was written between 1404 and 1438.
In 2003, a system was developed with which you can create texts similar to the Voynich manuscript. Then scientists came to the conclusion that the old manuscript is just a set of random characters that do not make any sense. However, ten years later, physicists Marcelo Montemurro and Damiana Zanette conducted additional research, eventually providing evidence that the text has a semantic model, therefore it is an encrypted message.
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Muslim: The Bible has been changed many times, so it cannot be considered authentic Scripture revealed to Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. What evidence do you have that the Bible is reliable and trustworthy?
Years ago, a young Muslim woman asked me, "Has the Bible ever been changed?" I told her, "Of course not." To this she said, "But doesn't she teach that Jesus Christ is the Son of God?" I confirmed: "Teaching again and again." In response, she stated, "Then she had to change."
Any Christian who reads the writings of Muslim authors will be surprised to find that the arguments put forward in them as a refutation of the authenticity of the texts of the Bible are often extremely weak and unconvincing. This happens for one reason only - Muslims do not believe in the complete safety of the Bible, not because they have found adequate evidence that changes were made to its text, but because they must deny its authenticity in order to support their conviction that The Quran is the Word of God. Two conflicting Books cannot both be the Word of God. When Muslims discovered in the early centuries of Islamic history that the Bible was clear and unequivocal about basic Christian doctrines, such as the divinity of Jesus Christ and His atonement, they could no longer approach it objectively. Since then, they have been striving to prove what is really nothing more than a guess - the Bible had to change! main reason Muslim disbelief in the authenticity of the Bible lies in the lack of choice: they cannot believe the Bible if they must be faithful to the Koran.
It is important to know the evidence for the unalterability of biblical texts, especially the fact that there are genuine manuscripts dating back many centuries before the birth of Islam, proving that the Bible we hold in our hands today is the same Bible that the Jews and early Christians considered their only Holy Scripture. .
The three main manuscript lists of the Bible
Until now, there are three main manuscript copies of the Bible in Greek (including the Septuagint (Old Testament) and the original text of the New Testament), several centuries ahead of the appearance of the Koran.
1. Alexandrian list. This volume, written in the 5th century A.D. contains the entire Bible except for a few missing plates from the New Testament (namely, Matt. 1:1-25:6, John 6:50-8:52, and 2 Cor. 4:13-12:6). It does not include anything that is not part of the modern Bible. The manuscript is kept in the London British Museum.
2. Sinai list. This is a very ancient manuscript dating from the end of the 4th century. It contains the entire New Testament and much of the Old Testament. For centuries, it was kept in the St. Petersburg Imperial Library and was sold to the British government for one hundred thousand pounds. It is also currently in the British Museum.
3. Vatican list. This is probably the oldest complete manuscript copy of the Bible that has survived. It dates from the 4th century and is kept in the Vatican Library in Rome. The last part of the New Testament (from Heb. 9:14 until the end of Revelation) is written in a different hand than the rest of the manuscript (probably the scribe who started copying the text was unable to complete the work for some reason).
These manuscripts convincingly prove that the only Scripture given to the Church at least two centuries before the birth of Muhammad is the Old and New Testament known to us.
Other evidence for the authenticity of the Bible
There are many other testimonies that prove the authenticity of the Bible, which date back to an era several centuries ahead of the time of the birth of Islam. In discussions with Muslims, the following points should be highlighted.
1. Masoretic texts. Ancient biblical manuscripts belong not only to Christians, but also to Jews, who revere the Old Testament as the only Scripture given to them. These are texts written in Hebrew, the original language of the Old Testament, and are at least a thousand years old. They are known as the Masoretic Texts.
2. The Dead Sea Scrolls. First discovered in caves in the Qumran Desert near the Dead Sea in Israel, these scrolls contain many passages from the Old Testament in Hebrew and date back to the 2nd century BC. e. They include two copies of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah containing prophecies about the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see: Isaiah 53:1–12), about His immaculate conception(see Isaiah 7:14) and His divinity (see Isaiah 9:6-7).
3. Septuagint. The Septuagint is the title of the first Greek translation of the Old Testament. He corresponded in the 2nd century BC. e. and contains all the main prophecies about the coming of the Messiah, the statement that He is the Son of God (see: Ps. 2:7; 1 Chr. 17:11–14), and some details of His suffering and atoning death (see: Psalm 21:68). The early Church made extensive use of the Septuagint.
4. Vulgate. In the 4th century A.D. e. Roman Catholic Church completely translated the Bible into Latin language, using the Septuagint and ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. This list is known as the Vulgate and contains all the books of the Old and New Testaments as we know them. This translation is approved as the standard text for the Roman Catholic Church.
5. Extracts from the Greek text of the New Testament. There are many passages of the original Greek text of the New Testament that have survived from the 2nd century CE. e. All of these, taken together, constitute the content of the New Testament as we know it. It is very interesting to compare the abundance of these testimonies with the texts of ancient Greek and Roman classical works, many of which were written no earlier than a thousand years after A.D. Truly, there are no other literary works of the same era that would have such a wealth of manuscript evidence as the Greek text of the New Testament.
Most importantly, and this should be emphasized when talking to Muslims, is the absence of a source suggesting that the Bible presents the life and teachings of Jesus Christ in a distorted way. All the apocryphal books rejected by the Church, at least in in general terms, follow the same narrative line as the New Testament manuscripts. Definitely doesn't exist historical evidence, suggesting that Jesus was in fact a prophet of Islam, as the Qur'an makes Him out to be.
In conclusion, it would be nice to ask the Muslims to bring historical facts in support of their claim that the Bible we read is a modified Bible. What was she originally like? What was changed about it that made it the Book we have today? Who made these changes? When was it done? Ask your interlocutor to name real people which he assumes corrupted the Bible, the time it happened, the specific changes made to the original text of the Bible, and you will find that he is not capable of doing so, because such evidence simply does not exist. Always remember that the Muslim vicious attack is based not on the scientific evidence they have, but on assumptions. The Bible, in their mind, had to change, since it contradicts the Koran. Unfortunately, too often Muslims read the Bible not out of a desire to understand its teachings, but solely to find errors in it that justify their prejudice against it.
John Gilchrist "God or Prophet?"
OR RNB. F.p. I.5. Ostromir Gospel 1056–1057 L. 66v. An initial with a zoomorphic element.
OR RNB. F.p. I.5. Ostromir Gospel 1056–1057 L. 87v. Miniature depicting the Evangelist Luke.
At the end of the tenth century Rus', simultaneously with the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, adopted the Cyrillic script, which by that time was already widespread among the southern Slavs.
The collection of the Old Russian handwritten book of the Russian National Library reflects the history of the Russian handwritten book tradition in the most complete way - from the Ostromirov Gospel of the 11th century to the 11th century. to the late Old Believer manuscripts of the early twentieth century.
The subject of the material is unusually wide. There are also richly decorated liturgical books, and the most important historical monuments- annalistic and chronographic, books for "spiritual" reading and for practical application- herbalists, medical books, treatises on military affairs, various areas of medieval knowledge, and even textbooks for reading texts written in cursive. Special interest present four collections containing works of various genres: theological treatises, monuments of instructive eloquence, hagiographic works, plot stories, ecclesiastical polemical works, monuments of Russian journalism, syllabic verses.
OR RNB. Erm. 20. Izbornik. 1076
OR RNB. F.p. I.36
"Minea of Dubrovsky" (Service Menaia for July).
The exceptional value of the ancient Russian funds of the National Library of Russia is emphasized by the fact that it is here that the monuments are stored, to which one can rightfully apply the definition of “first” - in the sense of “the oldest extant”). First of all, this is the famous Ostromir Gospel of 1056–1057, the oldest accurately dated Russian handwritten book that has survived. Manuscript created in an era of cultural upsurge and flourishing ancient Russian state For Sophia Cathedral Veliky Novgorod - the main temple of northwestern Rus' - and witnessing the thousand-year path of development of Russian culture, is included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
OR RNB. Soph. 1.
Panteleimon's Gospel (Aprakos complete). Con. XII - beginning. 13th century (?). Novgorod or Novgorod lands. Scribe Maxim Toshinich
If the Ostromir Gospel - liturgical book, then stored in the Russian national library The Izbornik of 1076 is the oldest Russian handwritten book that has come down to our days, exactly dated, that is, a book literary content. It reads many articles of a moral and Christian nature, addressed to the secular part of ancient Russian society, primarily to the princely elite. These are the Stoslovets of Gennady of Constantinople, the Wisdom of Isusov the son of Sirahov, Afanasiev's answers, etc. The collection was compiled in Rus' on the model of the Izbornik of 1073, which is a list from the Bulgarian original.
The key source of all Russian historiography is the Lavrentiev Chronicle of 1377, kept in the Library since 1811, which is the oldest accurately dated Russian chronicle that has survived to this day. The Laurentian Chronicle, a date-forming monument of Russian statehood, is included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
OR RNB. OLDP. F.6.
Kyiv Psalter. 1397
The Old Russian funds also contain the oldest accurately dated illustrated Russian handwritten book that has come down to us. This is the famous Kiev Psalter of 1397. The manuscript contains more than 300 miniatures illustrating the text or interpreting it symbolically. Before the Kyiv Psalter Old Russian manuscripts they had only "front" miniatures depicting the author of the text (evangelists, King David, etc.), members of the princely family, patron saints of the customer of the manuscript.
OR RNB. F. p. I. 2. Psalter. 14th century
Stylistic sophistication decoration, miniatures, initials turn many monuments Old Russian writing V original works art. Such is the Frolovskaya Psalter of the 14th century, known to all art critics, decorated with headpieces and initials of the teratological style and interesting ornamentation of initials, including numerous inclusions of human figures.
Unlike countries Western Europe, whose culture developed in cities and universities, in Rus' the most important centers book culture were monasteries in which book-writing workshops worked, were created literary works, rich libraries were formed. special value The ancient Russian collections of the National Library of Russia are given by the fact that there are collections of the oldest Russian book depositories. First of all, this is the library of the Novgorod Sophia Cathedral, which includes manuscripts created in various book centers northeastern Rus', containing unique lists of monuments ancient Russian literature, for example, the author's list of the Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh by the famous hagiographer Pachomius Logofet. The ancient Panteleimon Gospel with a rare miniature of St. Panteleimon and St. Catherine, the St. Sophia set of the Great Menaia of the Fourth by Metropolitan Macarius, and many other rarities. In the Department of Manuscripts of the National Library of Russia, the libraries of the largest Russian monasteries are preserved in the integrity of their main array: Kirillo-Belozersky Uspensky and Solovetsky Spaso-Preobrazhensky. These collections have brought to our days the most valuable monuments of Russian medieval monastic book culture, such as the manuscripts of the cell library of St. Cyril or the encyclopedic collections of the 15th-century monk-scribe Euphrosynus.
OR RNB. Q p. I. 32.
Blagoveshchensky kondakar. Con. XII - beginning. 13th century
OR RNB. OSRK. F.IV.233
Facial chronicle. Second half of the 16th century Laptev volume.
Old Russian is widely represented in the funds of the Sector. church singing. These are more than 1000 notated singing codices of the 12th-20th centuries. (including Old Believers): irmologii, oktoikhs, everyday life, sticherari, triodi, holidays; as well as singing alphabets intended for the practical development of Znamenny singing. One of the five known manuscripts in the world is stored here, distinguished by a special system music notation, – Blagoveshchensk kondakar at the turn of the 12th–13th centuries.
OR RNB. F. XIV. 62.
Collection of Kirsha Danilov. Last quarter XVIII V.
The traditions of ancient Russian singing art were preserved in the Old Believer environment. Due to the large number and fragmentation of the Old Believer communities, liturgical singing in almost every one of them had its own local characteristics. The funds of the Sector contain manuscripts of the 18th – 20th centuries, representing the singing art of different centers of the Old Believers, differing not only in content, but also in artistic design.
A separate group of manuscripts is made up of notolinear codices, which contain both liturgical and secular works of the 17th–19th centuries. They contain panegyric cants and genres of spiritual lyrics. In these manuscripts, anonymous texts coexist with the author's poetry of Simeon Polotsky, V. K. Trediakovsky, A. P. Sumarokov, M. V. Lomonosov. This group also includes the most valuable monument folk poetry- The collection of Kirsha Danilov is the first collection of Russian epics and historical songs in Russian folklore, provided with notes.
OR RNB. OSRK. F.IV.482
Journal of N. P. Rezanov's travel from Kamchatka to Japan. 1804–1805
The Sector of Old Russian Funds also stores handwritten books and other handwritten materials XVIII-XIX centuries, not related to the actual old Russian tradition. These are manuscripts of scientific, historical, literary content, essays on military affairs, jurisprudence, other branches of knowledge, personal diaries, maps, plans, travel albums, etc. The Hermitage contains a valuable set of copies made in the 18th century. for Empress Catherine II clerk's copies from ancient Russian handwritten books and documents.
The Voynich Manuscript is an illustrated text written in the 15th century. by unknown author, in an unknown language using an unknown alphabet. Attempts to decipher the text of the manuscript by experts have not yielded any results...The Voynich manuscript - an ancient encyclopedia of the Slavs
Today it is considered that Voynich manuscript or the Voynich Manuscript is the most mysterious book in the world. At 209 pages, it contains an illustrated text written in the 15th century by an unknown author, in an unknown language using an unknown alphabet. Numerous and very energetic attempts to decipher the text of the manuscript by Western experts did not give any results.
However, notorious for its unreadability, Voynich manuscript actually turned out to be decryptable. The change in the method of approach to deciphering the manuscript gave a positive result. We managed to translate a significant number of words. Analysis of the content of the manuscript, taking into account the meaning of the translated words, showed that this artifact was born on the territory of ancient Rus' and is a kind of collection of necessary Everyday life household knowledge. Peculiar encyclopedia of household knowledge.
…
Our ancestors left us many mysteries. Among others, a special place is occupied by the so-called. "The Voynich Manuscript"(hereinafter "RV"). Its peculiarity lies in the variety of content and a high level of encryption. Concerning transcripts the text itself, then this question in Lately It can be said without exaggeration that great attention was paid and great efforts were invested. Moreover, they were involved in deciphering it the best minds cryptology, including such government agencies as CIA And US NSA.
Specialists of other branches of knowledge and even specialists of occult theories did not stand aside. Modern possibilities of computing facilities were used. Many languages were analyzed for their possible use in the manuscript. As a result of this painstaking work, a single result was obtained - RV is a real document, which is a semantic text written using an unknown language.
After analyzing the work done by specialists in deciphering the RW, it is easy to see that all of them, basically, tried to see the letters of the alphabet of any language in the signs with which the RW is written. Moreover, the languages of the peoples of the West were taken as the basis, in the main. No such language has been found. I mean high level professionalism of these specialists, it can be safely concluded that there is no such language, the letters of the alphabet of which would be denoted by such signs.
Consequently, the signs with which RV is written carry a different meaning, or their purpose is different. Therefore, it is necessary to change the method of approach to decoding, i.e. take as a basis not individual signs, but a system of signs as a whole. Namely, it is necessary to find a language, the structure of the alphabet of which would correspond to the structure of the system of signs used in the writing of RW.
Now it is necessary to find a pattern in the variety of signs with which RV is written. After analyzing the signs used in the RV, it was possible to detect such a pattern. In other words, all the set of signs is not chaotic, but represents a certain system (format).
Now the question arose to find a language whose alphabet format would coincide with the format of RV characters. The searches have yielded results. found ancient language, whose alphabet format coincided with the character format used in the text of the RW. But then everything did not go smoothly. In terms of structure, the complex of characters and the alphabet of the proposed language are identical, but the number of letters turned out to be somewhat larger. I had to return to the text.
As a result, a numerical mark was found in the text itself. Using this mark as a hint and attaching to a certain amount two letter characters everything fell into place. Later, when translating some short words, the indicated assignment of signs to letters was confirmed. That's what it is second level encryption.
Further, after analyzing the text with the already available data, it turned out that in words that begin with vowels, these vowels are omitted. Moreover, vowels are rarely used within words. This can be considered third level of encryption. These two circumstances further exclude the possibility of using computer programs to translate text RV.
"Manual" translation is also difficult. So, for example, if a word in the text consists of 4 characters, then this supposed word will correspond to 8 letters, 4 of which must be excluded. Thus, it is practically impossible to do without a perfect knowledge of this language of the ancestors. When translating short words, I used information obtained on the Internet, and there, as you know, they are limited and only of generally accepted use. And in this case, we have specific themes and an ancient language.
Using the above in the so-called, botanical section translated the following short words(short in the text RV): Sweet drink, nectar. Food, food. Pleasure, enjoyment. Grain, bread. Six. Drink, absorb. Maturing, maturity. Saturated. Hemp, hemp, hemp clothes. Food, food. Maybe. Cleanse (intestines). Drink. Wish. Knowledge. Sweet drink, nectar and others.
There is no doubt that the correlation coefficient of the meaning of these words with the depicted plants is very high. Further in the text, we managed to translate a significant number of words, the meaning of which corresponds to the figure.
This allows us to draw two conclusions. Firstly. The language is correct. Secondly. Attaching the letters of the alphabet to the signs corresponds to the real cipher.
Upon careful examination of the content of the RV, one can notice, at first glance, the only recognizable element - in the form of a wall with architectural elements of the "dovetail" type. It is known that such elements were first used in Italy, then in Russia during the construction of the Moscow Kremlin. In the future, more detailed analysis fragments of this drawing confirmed that this image corresponds exactly Moscow Kremlin.
Now there is a need to turn to the history of the artifact itself. The analysis of samples of parchment on which RV was written showed that it was made in the period from 1408 to 1438. Some researchers consider this period to be the period of writing RW.
This is not entirely correct. Findings by archaeologists clean sheets parchment give reason to believe that sometimes parchment was made in reserve. Moreover, on some sheets, traces of washing off of the old text were found, which indicates their reuse. Thus, it would be more correct to assume that RV was written not earlier than 1438.
A well-known period in the history of RV, which is documented, begins from the moment when it belonged to the Roman Emperor, the Czech and Hungarian kings Rudolf-2 who died in 1612. It is known that he bought it, but it is not known from whom.
It should be noted that during this period in Europe there is a flourishing alchemy, and the content of the RV, even at the present time, is perceived by some as an alchemical treatise. Its center is Prague, where Rudolf-2 lived for some time. He himself was interested in the secret sciences of astrology and alchemy.
After the death of Rudolf-2 (1612), the manuscript became the property of his doctor and caretaker of the botanical garden Jacob Harczycki who was also known as an alchemist. This fact has been established precisely, since on the rubbed spots on the first sheet of the RV, it was possible to read his name and surname. It should also be noted here that in the period 1605-1608. Rudolf-2 invited a famous Polish alchemist to his place Mikhail Sendzivy. Together they worked until the death of Rudolph-2 (1612).
And now we should turn to Poland of that time. In the period 1610-1612, the Polish garrison, led first by Zholkiewski and then by Gosnevsky, occupied the Moscow Kremlin. And not just occupied, but everything that could be taken out was taken out of it. There was a real robbery. It should also be noted here that several sheets are missing from the RV, including those with naked women. This can be explained by the fact that at first the RV fell into the hands of illiterate soldiers and they used these sheets in their own way. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that RV was taken by the Poles from the Moscow Kremlin and fell into the hands of Rudolf-2 through the Pole Mikhail Sendzivogo.
Here it is necessary to note one more point. The Moscow Kremlin with dovetail elements began to be built in 1485. Therefore, the RV could have been written no earlier than 1485. Further analysis of the content of the RV showed that it could have been written no later than 1530. Thus, the supposed period of writing RV 1485-1530.
At further analysis content of RV using translated words, it was possible to determine content of RV in general. The document contains several topics.
1. Description of plants growing in the territory of writing RV. The order of their cultivation and use in everyday life.
2. Organization proper nutrition, cooking and eating ritual.
3. The current clock. Year by lunar calendar indicating the name and description of the months and days of simple and sacred months. Daily time with the name of each hour.
4. At all times in Rus' great attention devoted to the birth of healthy offspring. It was believed that this entirely depends on the health of the woman. At the same time, both the astrological features of the pregnancy of women, and directly their physical health. One of the sections presents the features of the passage of the period of pregnancy of women at its beginning under various signs Zodiac. Another section contains advice on maintaining a woman's health at a level that ensures the birth of healthy offspring. Here, most likely, are the recipes for the preparation of the necessary different situations therapeutic baths and the order of their reception.
5. One of the sections presents healing properties roots and fruits of various plants and the order of their use. Here is the method of preparation and the order of use of various tinctures.
6. Of particular importance is one of the drawings, consisting of nine independent, but interconnected fragments. Detailed Analysis showed him that this figure the structure of the Great Tartary state that existed at the time of writing the RV is shown. The meaning of the translated words indicates the principles of the formation of this state. The city is shown as the capital of this state Asgard of Iria, which was destroyed by the Dzungar hordes in 1530. This year, most likely, should be considered the last in the possible period of writing the RV. In general, this drawing is very informative.
This is the majority of the contents of the RT that could be determined using the proposed key. The meaning of the last, text section is not defined. There is an assumption, but so far it has not been possible to confirm it.
Summing up the results of the above analysis of RW, the following suggests itself. conclusion. The Voynich manuscript is nothing but encyclopedia of household knowledge of our ancestors. It was written, most likely, by the priests, who possessed such wide knowledge.
A natural question arises about the reason for coding this knowledge. the true reason it is difficult to establish, but, given the surviving crumbs of our true history that have come down to us, we can conclude that during the writing of the RV, a period began decay states Great Tartaria. In order to prevent this sacred knowledge from going beyond certain limits, they were coded.
Nikolay Anichkin, 15-06-2017
The deciphered materials of the Voynich Manuscript are published on the Food of the Republic of Armenia website ...
Voynich manuscript. Voynich Manuscript
These books are several thousand years old. They are invaluable both for culture and history, and for us, ordinary readers.
The Tale of Gilgamesh
Most full version poem about Gilgamesh was found in mid-nineteenth century during the excavations of the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in ancient Nineveh. The excavations were carried out by the English archaeologist Austin Henry Layard. The epic was written in cuneiform on 12 six-column clay tablets in the Akkadian language and included about 3,000 verses. Scientists date the epic to the 8th-7th centuries BC. e. Tablets with the text of the epic are stored in the British Museum, where they were transferred in 1852 by the archaeologist's assistant Ormuzd Rasam.
Thanks to the legend, we have an idea about the religion of ancient people and about their philosophy. The main characters of the epic were the demigod Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk and the clay man Enkidu. Great popularity of the epic contemporary readers explained by the story of Deluge which is included in it.
book of the dead
This mystical collection ancient Egyptian texts include prayers, chants and spells that were supposed to ease the afterlife for the deceased.
Name " book of the dead” came up with the Egyptologist Karl Lepsius, although the collection has more accurate name: "Chapters on going out into the light of day."
It was created from the VI to the I century BC. e. Most of the texts were found in the burials of the city of Thebes, where they were written on papyri and decorated with excellent drawings depicting scenes of the burial of the dead and the afterlife.
The most significant papyri are kept in the British Museum.
Codex Sinaiticus
The most ancient book format familiar to us - the Codex Sinaiticus dates from the 4th century AD. e. The first 43 pages of the codex were found by the German scholar Konstantin Tischendorf in 1844 in the library of the monastery of St. Helena on the Sinai Peninsula.
The scientist found them in a pile of waste paper prepared for destruction. Another 86 pages he found as a result of targeted searches. Tischendorf took them to Europe and made them public. He wanted to return to the monastery to take out the rest, but the monks didn't even let him look at the pages.
The position was saved Russian emperor Alexander II, who paid 9 thousand rubles, after which Tischendorf took the pages to Russia. On the thinnest white parchment in Greek, an incomplete text of the Old Testament was written, a complete text of the New Testament and two works of early Christian authors: The Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Until 1933, the Codex Sinaiticus was kept in the Imperial National Library in Russia, but the Bolsheviks decided to get rid of it and "conceded" it to the British Museum.
The 347 pages of this book now have four owners: National Russian library, the British Museum, the University of Leipzig and the Convent of St. Helena.
Gospels of Garima
The two Gospels of Garima are kept in Ethiopia, in the monastery of St. Garima, which is located near the city of Adua. Created in the period from 330 to 650. According to legend, Saint Garima rewrote them on a vow in one day. The gospels are written in sacred written language ancient Abyssinia Geez.
The gospels were found in 1950 by British art historian Beatrice Plain. But the books ended up with a barbarian bookbinder, who wove pages of the 15th century into one of them. And only in 2006, scientists were able to return the books to their original state and date them. Unfortunately, it was not possible to restore the books, and they remained in the monastery.
The gospels are framed in the same manner, but rewritten in different handwriting. The first book has 348 pages and 11 illustrations, the binding is made of boards covered with gilded copper. The second book contains 322 pages, 17 miniatures, including portraits of the four evangelists. The binding is made of silver. Scientists have found that the artist and copyist worked at the same time, and the illustrations were made by African artists.
Diamond Sutra
The Diamond Sutra, the world's second printed book containing the founding text of Buddhism, was printed using the woodcut printing method. The book is a scroll of six sheets of text and one engraving depicting the Buddha.
A scroll almost five meters long was found by archaeologist Mark Stein in the Magao cave near the city of Danhuang in western China in 1900. He bought the scroll from the Taoist monk Wan Yuanlu and took it to the UK. The book was printed by a man named Wang Ji on behalf of his parents on the 15th day of the 4th moon of the Xiantong year, that is, May 11, 868. Stored in the British Library.
Torah
In 2013, the oldest Torah manuscript was found in the University Library of Bologna in Italy. It is a 36-meter scroll made of soft sheepskin.
Nothing was known about the book due to an error in determining the age of the book, which occurred in 1889. The librarian then dated the book to the 17th century.
The error was discovered by university teacher Mauro Perani. He examined the manuscript and saw that the style of narration was in the tradition of ancient Babylon, which means that the parchment may be older. In addition, the text contained details that had been forbidden to be reproduced since the 12th century. The age of the Torah was determined by radiocarbon analysis twice: in Italy and in the USA. It became clear that the Torah was written over 850 years ago.
Ostromir Gospel
The oldest precisely dated book of Rus'. Stored in the Russian National Library (St. Petersburg). Written in 1056-1057 by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, a relative of Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavovich. The book is unique in that after the canonical text, the deacon wrote in detail about the circumstances of its production and indicated the date from the creation of the world.
The gospel was found among the property of the Resurrection Church of the Verkhospassky Cathedral in 1701. By order of Peter I, she was sent to St. Petersburg. It was rediscovered in the chambers of Empress Catherine after her death and presented to Alexander I. The emperor transferred the Gospel to the Imperial Public Library.
It was thanks to the Ostromir Gospel that the modern dictionaries and grammar of the Old Slavonic language.
