How good people honored the last sheaf of Ivanushka In the village, the most ardent defeat. So that the ripe bread does not crumble, they need to be squeezed as soon as possible. Therefore, a little dawn will break, while the children on the floors are watching their last sweet dreams, all the adults are already at work

The appearance of the ancient Slavs

Undoubtedly, the nature of the nature where the Slavs lived influenced their constitution, life, and character.

Severe weather conditions have also shaped the nature of the movements of people themselves. If a milder climate favors unhurried, measured movements, then “the inhabitant of midnight lands loves movement, warming his blood with it; loves activity; gets used to endure frequent changes in the air, and is strengthened by patience. According to the description of modern historians, the Slavs were cheerful, strong, tireless. It seems that it is possible, without any comments, to quote here an excerpt from Karamzin's “History of the Russian State”: “Despising the bad weather characteristic of the northern climate, they endured hunger and every need; they ate the coarsest, raw food; surprised the Greeks with their speed; with extreme ease they ascended steepnesses, descended into clefts; boldly rushed into dangerous swamps and into deep rivers. Thinking without a doubt that main beauty the husband has a fortress in the body, strength in the hands and ease in movements, the Slavs cared little about their appearance: in the mud, in the dust, without any neatness in clothes, they appeared in a large gathering of people. The Greeks, condemning this impurity, praise their harmony, tall stature and manly pleasantness of the face. Sunbathing from the hot rays of the sun, they seemed swarthy, and all, without exception, were fair-haired, like other native Europeans. In his notes to the edition of the above-mentioned work, Karamzin notes: “Some write that the Slavs were washed three times in their entire lives: on their birthday, marriage and death.”

In a word, in the descriptions of contemporaries, we see the Slavs as healthy, strong, beautiful people.

As for clothing, we have almost no information on this subject. It is only known that it was quite simple and was designed to shelter from the weather, bypassing luxury and pretentiousness: “The Slavs in the 6th century fought without caftans, some even without shirts, in some ports. The skins of animals, forest and domestic, warmed them in cold weather. Women wore a long dress, adorned with beads and metals obtained in the war or bartered from foreign merchants. Some historians even say that clothes were changed only when they had already completely lost their suitability.

The nature of the Slavs

Herodotus describes the character of the ancient Scythian Slavs as follows: “in the hope of their courage and large numbers, they were not afraid of any enemy; they drank the blood of slain enemies, using their dressed skin instead of clothes, and skulls instead of vessels, and in the form of a sword they worshiped the god of war, as the head of other imaginary gods. The ambassadors described their people as quiet and peaceful. But in the 6th century, the Slavs proved to Greece that courage was their natural property. “For some time, the Slavs fled battles in open fields and were afraid of fortresses; but having learned how the ranks of the Roman Legions can be torn apart by a swift and bold attack, they did not refuse to fight anywhere, and soon learned to take fortified places. The Greek chronicles do not mention any main or general commander of the Slavs: they had only private leaders; they fought not with a wall, not in close ranks, but in scattered crowds, and always on foot, following not a general command, not a single thought of the chief, but the suggestion of their own special, personal courage and courage; not knowing the prudent caution that foresees danger and protects people, but rushing straight into the midst of enemies.

Byzantine historians write that the Slavs, "beyond their ordinary courage, had a special art of fighting in gorges, hiding in the grass, astonishing enemies with an instant attack and capturing them."

The art of the Slavs for a long time to be in the rivers and breathe freely through through canes, exposing their end to the surface of the water, which testifies to their ingenuity and patience, is also unusually surprising to contemporaries. "Ancient Slavic weapons consisted of swords, darts, arrows smeared with poison, and large, very heavy shields."

The courage of the Slavs also admired, since those who were captured “endured any torture with amazing firmness, without a cry or a groan; they died in agony and did not answer a word to the enemy's questions about the number and plan of their army.

But in peacetime, the Slavs were famous (do not take it for a tautology!) Good nature: “they knew neither guile nor anger; kept the ancient simplicity of morals, unknown to the then Greeks; treated the captives kindly and always appointed a period for their slavery, giving them free, either redeem themselves and return to the fatherland, or live with them in freedom and brotherhood.

Just as rare, apparently, in other nations was Slavic hospitality, which has been preserved in our customs and character to this day. “Every traveler was for them, as it were, sacred: they met him with kindness, treated him with joy, saw him off with a blessing and handed him over to each other. The owner was responsible to the people for the safety of the stranger, and whoever failed to save the guest from trouble or trouble, the neighbors took revenge for this insult as for their own. The Slav, leaving the house, left the door open and food ready for the wanderer. Merchants, artisans willingly visited the Slavs, among whom there were neither thieves nor robbers for them, but a poor man who did not have a way to treat a foreigner well was allowed to steal everything he needed from a rich neighbor: an important duty of hospitality justified the crime itself. In addition, “the Slav considered it permissible to steal for the treat of a wanderer, because with this treat he exalted the glory of the whole family, the whole village, which therefore condescendingly looked at the theft: it was a treat at the expense of the whole family.”

Solovyov explains hospitality by a number of reasons: the opportunity to have fun while listening to travel stories; the opportunity to learn a lot of new things: “there was nothing to be afraid of a lonely person, you could learn a lot from him”; religious fear: “every dwelling, the hearth of every house was the seat of a household deity; a wanderer who entered the house was given under the protection of this deity; to offend a wanderer meant to offend a deity”; and, finally, the glorification of a kind: "the wanderer, well received and treated, spread the good glory about the man and the hospitable family."

Marriage and family relations

Contemporaries of the ancient Slavs highly appreciate the chastity and marital fidelity of the latter: "Demanding from the brides proof of their virginal purity, they considered it their sacred duty to be faithful to their spouses." In the notes to the edition of The History of the Russian State, Karamzin writes that adultery was punished very severely and even cruelly: the guilty person was given the choice of becoming a eunuch or dying.

On the other hand, there is evidence that not all Slavic tribes honored the institution of marriage. In the Russian chronicle we read that “the glades were more educated than others, meek and quiet by custom; modesty adorned their wives; marriage has long been considered a sacred duty between them; peace and chastity dominated families. The Drevlyans had wild customs, like animals, with whom they lived among the dark forests, eating all sorts of uncleanness; in strife and quarrels they killed each other; did not know marriages based on the mutual consent of parents and spouses, but girls were taken away or abducted. The northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi were likened to the manners of the Drevlyans; also knew neither chastity nor marriage unions; but young people of both sexes converged on games between villages: grooms chose brides, and without any rituals agreed to live with them; polygamy was their custom. Solovyov, based on the same chronicle, argues that polygamy among the Slavic tribes is an undoubted phenomenon.

Just as undoubted is the custom of widows to burn themselves at the stake, along with the corpse of their deceased husband, since the widow who remained to live brought dishonor to the family. This is evidenced by many contemporaries and chroniclers. Ibn Rusta writes: “When someone dies among them, his corpse is burned. Women, when a dead person happens to them, scratch their hands and faces with a knife. The next day after the burning of the deceased, they go to the place where it happened, collect the ashes from that place and put them on the hill. And after a year after the death of the deceased, they take casks of twenty or more of honey, go to that hill where the family of the deceased gathers, eat and drink there, and then disperse ... And if the deceased had three wives and one of them claims that she is especially loved him, then she brings two pillars to his corpse, they drive them upright into the ground, then they put a third pillar across, tie a rope in the middle of this crossbar, she stands on a bench and ties the end of the rope around her neck. After she has done this, the bench is removed from under her, and she remains hanging until she suffocates and dies, after which she is thrown into the fire, where she burns. Solovyov comments on this custom as follows: “If a woman married into a strange family, then with the strict and jealous supervision of new relatives, the husband was the only creature from whom she expected love and patronage; the husband was dying - the position of the wife, who had lost her only support, the only link that connected her with someone else's family, became bitter.

Noteworthy is also the habit of killing members of their families in cases stipulated by the unspoken laws of that time. “Every mother had the right to kill her newborn daughter when the family was already too numerous, but she was obliged to preserve the life of her son, who was born to serve the fatherland.” There was also the right of children to kill their parents, old and sick, burdensome for the family and useless to fellow citizens, but at the same time, our ancestors "... were famous for their respect for their parents, and always cared about their well-being."

As for intra-family relations, the husbands considered their wives to be their property, who did not dare to complain or contradict, having only one thing to do: to run the household and raise children.

“The mother, raising her children, prepared them to be warriors and irreconcilable enemies of those people who offended their neighbors: for the Slavs, like other pagan peoples, were ashamed to forget the offense. Fear of inexorable revenge sometimes averted atrocities: in the event of a murder, not only the criminal himself, but his whole family, constantly expected his death from the children of the murdered, who demanded blood for blood.

Economic activity

Despite the fact that Herodotus called the Slavs nomads, the Slavs still did not lead a nomadic, but a sedentary lifestyle. “The settlement of the Slavs must be understood in the sense that their main capital did not consist in herds and herds, but in the land, and the economy was based on the exploitation of the land. But this settled way of life was fragile, because, having exhausted arable land in one place, the Slavs easily left their home and looked for another. Thus, the settlements of the Slavs initially had a very mobile character ... The areas in which the Slavs had to live and plow were forested, therefore, forest exploitation arose next to agriculture, forestry, beekeeping and industrial hunting were developed. Wax, honey and skins were from time immemorial trade items for which Russia was famous.

Ibn Rusta writes: “And they do not have vineyards and arable fields. And they have something like barrels made of wood, in which there are beehives and honey ... and up to 10 jugs of honey are extracted from one barrel. And they are a people who herd pigs, as we herd sheep ... most of their crops are millet ... They have few draft animals. The controversial statement of the Arab traveler about the absence of arable land, since the merchants arriving in the Slavic lands exchanged their goods, among other things, for cattle and bread.

In food, the Slavs were content with simple products: “In the 6th century, the Slavs ate millet, buckwheat and milk; and then they learned to cook various tasty dishes, sparing nothing for the cheerful treat of friends, and in this case proving their hospitality with a plentiful meal ... Honey was their favorite drink: it is likely that they first made it from the honey of forest, wild bees; and finally they themselves bred them. Ibn Rusta says the same thing: “Their intoxicating drink is made of honey.”

Thus, being engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, the Slavs “had everything necessary for a person; they were not afraid of hunger or the cruelties of winter: the fields and animals gave them food and clothing.

Trade in the Slavic lands also took place. The custom of hospitality and the ban on killing foreigners guaranteed security, and merchants brought goods and exchanged them for "cattle, linen, skins, bread and various military booty." Karamzin notes that the Slavs did not know money circulation, and trade consisted only in exchange. Slavs took gold only as a commodity.

Given the unstable stay in one place and participation in military campaigns, our ancestors were somewhat careless about building dwellings. “The Slavic cities themselves were nothing more than a collection of huts surrounded by a fence or an earthen rampart. There were temples of idols…”

Solovyov writes: “Foreign writers say that the Slavs lived in crappy huts, located at a great distance from each other, and often changed their place of residence. Such fragility and frequent change of dwellings was a consequence of the continuous danger that threatened the Slavs both from their own tribal strife and from the invasions of alien peoples. That is why the Slavs led the way of life that Mauritius speaks of: “They have inaccessible dwellings in forests, near rivers, swamps and lakes; in their houses they arrange many exits in case of danger; they hide the necessary things under the ground, having nothing superfluous outside, but living like robbers.

culture

Like any people, the Slavs “had some idea of ​​the arts… They carved images of a man, birds, animals on wood and painted them with different colors that did not change from sunlight and were not washed off by rain. In the ancient graves ... there were many clay urns, very well made, with the image of lions, bears, eagles, and varnished; also spears, knives, swords, daggers, skillfully crafted, with a silver frame and notch. “A monument to the stone-cutting art of the ancient Slavs remained large, smoothly-worked slabs, on which images of hands, heels, hooves, etc. were hollowed out.”

Music occupied a strong place in the life of the Slavs. Ibn Rusta notes: “They have all sorts of lutes, harps and pipes. Their pipes are two cubits long, and the lute is seven-stringed. Music, obviously, accompanied the Slav in all matters throughout his life. There is evidence that they even took instruments on military campaigns, and in one of them they were so carried away by singing that they were seized by the enemy without any resistance. Special mention should be made of the dance: “... it consists in waving your arms, spinning in one place, squatting, stamping your feet, in a strong muscle tension, and corresponds to the character of strong, active, tireless people.”

Karamzin believes that folk games, “wrestling, fisticuffs, running, have also remained a monument to their ancient amusements, representing to us the image of war and strength.”

Speaking about the language of the ancient Slavs, he also writes: “The Greeks in the sixth century found it very rude. Expressing the first thoughts and needs of uneducated people, born in a harsh climate, it had to seem wild in comparison with the Greek language ... Having no monuments of this primitive Slavic language, we can judge it only by the latest, of which our Bible and others are considered the most ancient church books translated in the 9th century. Until 863, the Slavs did not have a written language. It is believed that the runes with which idols and temples were painted do not have any linguistic basis.

social organization

The Slavs did not have any ruler for a long time. Each family lived separately, and the power in it belonged to men. “The owner dominated the house: the father over the children, the husband over the wife, the brother over the sisters; everyone built a special hut for himself, at some distance from the others, in order to live calmer and safer. Forest, stream, field, made up his area, where the weak and unarmed were afraid to enter. Each family was a small, independent Republic; but common ancient customs served between them as a kind of civil connection. On important occasions, members of the same tribe came together to consult on the good of the people, respecting the sentence of the elders ... together, also, undertaking military campaigns, they elected Leaders, although ... and often disobeyed them in the battles themselves. Having done a common deed and returning home, everyone again considered himself great and the head in his hut.

Only a few centuries later, the so-called aristocratic government appeared, not elective, received for any merit, but inherited from father to son. Initially, having no courts and laws, in case of disagreement, the tribesmen turned to their famous fellow citizens, since their celebrity was based on the exploits and wealth obtained by the war. And a man who succeeded in military affairs was worth a lot in the eyes of his compatriots. “Finally, custom has become for some the right to rule, and for others the duty to obey. If the son of the Hero, glorious and rich, had the great properties of his father, then he even more asserted the power of his kind.

This power was signified among the Slavs by the names of Boyar, Voyevoda, Prince, Pan, Zhupan, King or King.

Boyar - "comes from the battle, and at the beginning it could signify a warrior of excellent courage, and then turned into national dignity"

Voevoda - so “before some military commanders were called; but as they were able to appropriate dominance over their fellow citizens in peacetime, this name already signified in general the ruler and ruler ... "

Prince - "was born almost from a horse ... In the Slavic lands, horses were the most precious property: among the Pomeranians in the Middle Ages, 30 horses were great wealth, and every owner of a horse was called the Prince."

Pan means "wealthy owner".

Zhupan - "... the ancient word Zhupa meant a village, and their rulers were Zhupans, or Elders."

Religious performances

The Slavs were pagans. They deified the forces of nature and worshiped them. The most ancient deities were Rod and Rozhanitsy. Rod is the god of the universe, living in heaven and giving life to all living things. Later - this is the nickname of Perun as a representative of the creative, fertile forces of nature. Rozhanitsy - the goddess of the Slavs, the female giving birth, giving life to all living things: man, flora and fauna. Later they were personified - they received proper names, in particular, Makosh. The Slavs also worshiped the White God, or Belobog, “Who, in their opinion, the high heavens, adorned with radiant luminaries, serve as a worthy temple, and Who cares only about the heavenly, having chosen other, lower gods, his children, to rule the earth. It seems that they called him mainly the White God, and did not build temples for him, imagining that mortals cannot have communication with him and must relate in their needs to secondary gods ... ".

As in any other religion, there should have been an antipode of good - evil. “The Slavs… attributed evil to a being to a special, eternal enemy of people; they called him Chernobog, tried to propitiate him with sacrifices, and in the assemblies of the people they drank from a cup dedicated to him and the good gods. “Having a face filled with rage, he held a spear in his hand, ready to defeat or more - to inflict all sorts of evils. Not only horses and prisoners were sacrificed to this terrible spirit, but also people specially provided for this purpose. And as all national disasters were attributed to him, in such cases they prayed to him to avert evil. Chernobog lives in hell. Chernobog and Belobog are always fighting, they cannot defeat each other, they replace each other day and night - the personification of these deities.

The Belobog takes care of the Universe, and the “younger gods” manage human affairs. We list the most revered Slavs.

Svarog is the supreme ruler of the universe, the ancestor of all other bright gods, or, as the Slavs called him, the great, old god, the great god, in relation to whom all other gods were represented as his children.

Perun - originally - the son of Svarog-heaven, fire-lightning. Lightning was his weapon, rainbow his bow, clouds his clothes or beard, thunder a far-sounding word, winds and storms his breath, rains his fertilizing seed. This is the most important of the younger gods of the Slavs. "His idol ... was wooden, with a silver head and a golden mustache." Later, in the popular mind, it disintegrated into gods - actually Perun, Svarozhich, the Sea King and Stribog.

Stribog - the god of thunderstorms, appearing in storms and whirlwinds, the supreme king of the winds. They portrayed him blowing his horns.

Sea King (Water, Miracle Yudo) - the lord of all waters on earth; The raining Perun turns into the ruler of the seas, rivers, springs ... The Sea King rules over all the fish and animals that are found in the seas.

Khors is the deity of the sun and the solar disk. Khors is dedicated to two very large pagan holidays in the year - the days of the summer and winter solstices.

Evenbog (Dazhbog, Dazhbog, Dashuba) is the sun, the son of Svarog. “Like an ever-clean shone, dazzling in its radiance, awakening earthly life, the sun was revered as a good, merciful deity, its name became synonymous with happiness. The sun is the creator of crops, the giver of food, and therefore the patron of all the poor and orphans. At the same time, the sun is also the punisher of all evil.

Samargl (Semargl) - the god of fire, the god of fiery sacrifices, an intermediary between people and heavenly gods, a sacred winged dog that guarded seeds and crops. As if the personification of armed good. He has the ability to heal, for he brought the shoot of the tree of life from heaven to earth.

Mokosh (Mokosh, Makosha, Makesha) - one of the main goddesses Eastern Slavs, wife of Perun. Her name is composed of two parts: "ma" - mother and "kosh" - purse, basket, koshara. Mokosh is the mother of filled cats, the mother of a good harvest. This is not the goddess of fertility, but the goddess of the results of the economic year, the goddess of the harvest, the giver of blessings. Harvest every year determines the fate, so she was also revered as the goddess of fate. A mandatory attribute in her image is a cornucopia. patronized household, sheared sheep, spun, punished the negligent. She was portrayed as a woman with a large head and long arms, spinning at night in a hut.

Lado - "the god of fun, love, harmony and all prosperity ... those who entered into a marriage union sacrificed to him, zealously singing his name"

Kupala - the god of earthly fruits, the fruitful deity of summer

Kolyada - "the god of celebrations and peace." The baby sun, in Slavic mythology, is the embodiment of the New Year cycle.

“Among the good gods, Svyatovid was famous more than others. He predicted the future and helped in the war. His idol was larger than the height of a man, adorned with short clothes made of different wood; had four heads, two breasts, skillfully combed beards and cropped hair; he stood with his feet in the ground, and in one hand he held a horn of wine, and in the other a bow; next to the idol hung a bridle, a saddle, his sword with a silver scabbard and handle.

Volos is “the god-cloaker who covers the sky with rain clouds, ... drives out cloudy herds to heavenly pastures ... For the sake of the dependence in which earthly crops are from heavenly milk spilled by flocks of rain clouds, Volos ... is given the meaning of a god helping the labors of the farmer."

All the gods were depicted as idols - wooden, as a rule, sculptures, while the idols were considered "not the image, but the body of the gods." There were no temples dedicated to these gods. At least, no information about them has been preserved. Perhaps, if we recall the absence of a permanent and strong dwelling among the Slavs, the idols moved along with the settlements of the Slavs, and there could be no temples as such at all. There were also no priests, “there were only sorcerers or sorcerers. The sorcerer is a sage who knows the future, a fortuneteller, a healer, closer than a mortal to the mysterious forces of nature - to a deity ...; the priest is the chosen one of God, the representative on earth of his interests; the knowledge and power of the priest come directly from God."

In addition to the gods, there were also household deities, or undead, or spirits; creatures without flesh and soul, everything that does not live by a person, but has his appearance.

Leshii - "as if they live in the darkness of forests, are equal to trees and grass, terrify wanderers, go around them and lead them astray."

Mermaids are water maidens; the souls of the dead: children who died unbaptized, or drowned or drowned girls. Mermaids are representatives of the realm of death, darkness and cold. Among the Western Slavs, mermaids are cheerful, playful and fascinating creatures, singing songs with delightful and alluring voices; in Great Russia they are evil and vengeful creatures, disheveled and unkempt: pale-faced, with green eyes and the same hair, always naked and always ready to lure you in only to tickle to death and drown without any special guilt.

1) Brownie-domozhil - a representative of the hearth, according to the original meaning, there is the god Agni, identical to Perun the Thunderer. Like the embodiment of fire blazing on hearth, the brownie was honored as the founder and lord of the clan. This is a small old man, all covered with warm, shaggy hair. He only cares about his house.

2) Domovoy-yard - got his name at the place of usual residence, and by the nature of relations with homeowners, he is ranked among the evil spirits, and all the stories about him come down to the torment of those domestic animals that he does not love. Outwardly, it looks like a homemaker. He is always friendly only with a goat and a dog, he dislikes other animals, and the birds do not obey him. Especially does not tolerate white cats, white dogs and gray horses - a knowledgeable owner tries not to keep such living creatures. Gifts are brought to him on iron forks in the manger.

Kikimori is a yard spirit that is considered evil and harmful to poultry. The usual place of settlement is chicken coops, those corners of barns where chickens perch. Stones, the so-called "chicken gods", are hung in chicken coops so that kikimors do not crush chickens. The occupation of kikimor is direct - to pluck feathers from chickens and point a “spinner” at them (when they circle like mad and fall dumbfounded). Kikimors shake and burn the tow left by the spinning wheels without the blessing of the cross. Kikimor is represented as ugly dwarfs or babies, whose head is the size of a thimble, and their body is as thin as a straw. They are endowed with the ability to be invisible, run fast and vigilantly see into distant spaces; roam without clothes and shoes, never grow old and love to knock, rattle, whistle and hiss.

In addition, the Slavs in Russia "also prayed to trees, especially hollow ones, tying their branches with balustrades or boards." Karamzin also notes that "the Slavs also adored banners, and thought that in wartime they were holier than all idols."

Religious ceremonies include feast and burning at the stake of the deceased and his widow. “The Russian Slavs performed a funeral feast over the dead: they showed their strength in various military games, burned the corpse on a large fire, and enclosing the ashes in an urn, placed it on a pillar in the vicinity of the roads. This rite ... expresses the warlike spirit of the people who celebrated death so as not to be afraid of it in battles, and surrounded the roads with sad urns in order to accustom their eyes and thoughts to these signs of human perishability. But the Slavs of Kyiv and Volyn from ancient times buried the dead, some used to, along with the corpse, bury ladders woven from belts into the ground; the relatives of the dead man wounded their faces, and slaughtered his beloved horse on the grave.” Ibn Rusta says: “When the deceased is burned, they indulge in noisy fun, expressing joy over the mercy shown to him by God”

Goals: continue acquaintance with the works of ancient Russian literature; improve the skills of analyzing the read text and building historical and literary connections; help to feel the moral, aesthetic impact of cultural heritage on the spiritual life of a person. Equipment: texts of the chronicles "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh", reproductions of paintings by V. Vasnetsov, M. Vrubel, a. Bubnova, P. Korina. DURING THE CLASSES I.

Organizational stage II. Actualization of basic knowledge Listening to 2-3 messages: “Literature of Kievan Rus as a medieval art of the word”, “The significance of the introduction of Christianity in Russia for the development of education, literature and art” (see. Homework previous lesson).

III. Setting goals and objectives of the lesson. Motivation for learning activities 1.

staging problematic issue“Remember the familiar…” (in groups) Teacher. In grades 7-8, you read excerpts from works of ancient Russian literature (name which ones), as well as some epics and fairy tales. Even in the primary grades, obviously, you know the works of painters on the theme of Russian history - the paintings of V. Vasnetsov "Bogatyrs", M. Vrubel "Mikula Selyaninovich", P. Korin "Alexander Nevsky", a.

Bubnov "Morning on the Kulikovo field". Perhaps you have heard, at least in fragments, the opera by N. Rimsky-Korsakov "The Snow Maiden". What do you think - on the basis of what you have read, seen and heard - the people of Ancient Russia, their ideals and aspirations? 2. presentation of the results of creative work by representatives of groups IV. Work on the topic of the lesson 1. Teacher's message (In the course of the message, students make theses.) - In the XI-XII centuries, the works of ancient Greek, Roman, Byzantine authors were translated in Kyiv. These were books on history, geography, natural science, as well as stories, novels, collections of legends and fairy tales. In the same period, original works were created. Many literary monuments of Ancient Russia are associated with religion (church sermons, "lives of the saints"). Outstanding historical work there was a chronicle created in the cities of Ancient Russia and, above all, in Kyiv. The chroniclers not only recorded what they themselves witnessed, but also sought to recreate big picture the past of the Russian land. To this end, they used the Byzantine historical chronicles, as well as folk legends, epics. Grandiose in terms of the coverage of historical events, the chronicle, called "The Tale of Temporal (that is, Past) Years." Over the course of several decades, it was created by many authors. At the beginning of the XII century, all the records were brought together by the chronicler Nestor. The chronicle tells about the emergence of the Old Russian state (“where did the Russian land come from”) and the first princes (“who is the first prince in Kyiv”). Monk chronicler Nestor and his successors were educated people of their time, not alien to "worldly" interests. The breadth of mental outlook and patriotism allowed the authors of The Tale of Bygone Years to correctly judge the true needs of the country. With a feeling of deep bitterness, they told about the troubles of the homeland, suffering from princely strife, urging the princes to unite to fight the steppe nomads who ruined Russia. Chronicle texts were often distinguished by high artistry: picturesque sketches, lyrical excitement. AT chronicle stories interesting stories were reproduced, historical or legendary, fabulous; heroes were abundantly introduced into the narrative, filled with vivid comparisons, wise sayings. In addition to the chronicle, military historical stories were distributed in Russia, telling about the heroic struggle of the Russian people with foreigners; "walking" - stories about inquisitive travelers; sermons and teachings, the authors of which said what a person should be like; messages - passionate journalistic writings, often accusatory; "words" devoted to important issues of public life; "lives" - stories about exemplary ("saints"), according to the ideas of that time, people. Since the 13th century, the number of hermits has been growing in the country - people breaking with their surroundings, leaving for desert places, mountains, forests, so that, abandoning wealth and bodily joys, devote yourself to prayers and curb your whims and passions. Gradually, entire communities of hermits were created, forest monasteries arose. such a monastery, called the Trinity Monastery, was founded near Moscow by Sergius of Radonezh. Many forest elders were distinguished by diligence, modesty, a sense of mutual respect, and in a difficult time for their homeland they did everything to raise and rally the people to fight against an external enemy. Those most famous for their deeds of self-sacrifice and faith, the church ranked among the saints. Contemporaries and descendants told about them in their lives, which served as the main type of reading in the Middle Ages. The hagiographies miraculously intertwined descriptions of the facts of reality with legends and fantasies. It is precisely such a work that is the life of the famous religious figure Sergius of Radonezh, compiled by Epiphanius the Wise (Epiphanius himself spent more than thirty years in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery). Zaitsev Boris Konstantinovich - author of short stories, novellas, novels, essays, plays, translations, works on religious themes. His historical essay "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" was written on the basis of ancient sources - legends, traditions, as well as the life compiled by Epiphanius the Wise. We will get acquainted with excerpts from this essay, since the text of Epiphanius the Wise is difficult for an unprepared reader. 2. Commented reading of excerpts from the historical essay by B. Zaitsev “St. Sergius of Radonezh” 3. work with the chronicle text “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum” A) Message from the teacher

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The founder and later abbot of the Trinity-Sergius monastery is revered in Russia as the greatest ascetic and defender of the Russian land from enemies. What kind of lifetime miracles is Saint Sergius of Radonezh known for? 1. Power over demons. It is believed that during the solitary asceticism that preceded the founding of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Father Sergius, with prayer and the cross, drove away demons testing him from himself. 2. Signs about the future. Saint Sergius of Radonezh was given a heavenly sign that his monastery would never be impoverished. 3. The successor and year of the abbess of the Trinity-Sergius monastery roams in Russia as the greatest ascetics and defenders of the Russian land in the mountains. What kind of living miracles did St. Sergius of Radonezh see? 1. Power over bisami. It is respected that the hour of self-sacrifice asceticism, which blew the footsteps of the Trinity-Sergievsk monastery, Father Sergius, with a prayer and a cross, foresaw in his own mind, what to try. 2. Banner about future. St. Sergius of Radonezh was given a heavenly banner about those who did not harm the monastery of Yogo. Since ancient times, Russia celebrates the Nativity of Christ. Unlike Christmas Eve, Christmas was celebrated cheerfully and noisily. Christmas in Russia has always been the most joyful and anticipated holiday. With the first morning bell, on this day, all people in Russia went to the festive service in the church. Then there were merry festivities. Young people arranged skiing or sleigh rides. Christmas in Russia has always been accompanied by laughter, fun and songs. In the morning, housewives began to prepare treats for Kasha - this was the main hot dish in Ancient Russia. The porridge was seasoned vegetable oil. They also ate meat that was fried or stewed. There were no soups in Ancient Russia, they appeared only at the end of the seventeenth century, it was brought by foreigners from Europe. In summer, a popular dish was tyurya - the grandmother of the current okroshka. Vegetables such as turnips, carrots, onions and peas are widely used. What is interesting is that in those days vegetables were already harvested for future use - 1. The year of the saint’s birth is unknown, but the Church celebrates October 7 as a day St. Sergius Radonezh, because he: A) was born on this day; B) took tonsure in a monastery; B) has died. 2. What was the name of Sergius before he was tonsured? A) Bartholomew B) Yeremey; B) Ptolemy. 3. Sergius of Radonezh in the woods of the Moscow region in the middle of the XIV century founded a monastery (men's Orthodox monastery), which later received the name: A) Alexander Nevsky Lavra; B) Kiev-Pechersk Lavra; C) Trinity-Sergius Lavra. 4. Before the Battle of Kulikovo with the Tatars, Sergius of Radonezh blessed Dmitry Donskoy,

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Introduction

Russian literature is nearly a thousand years old. This is one of the oldest literatures in Europe. Its beginning dates back to the second half of the 10th century. Of this great millennium, more than seven hundred years belong to the period that is customarily called "ancient Russian literature."

Literature arose suddenly. The leap into the realm of literature took place simultaneously with the appearance of Christianity and the church in Russia, and was prepared by the entire previous cultural development of the Russian people.

The artistic value of ancient Russian literature has not yet been truly determined.

Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries developed in peculiar conditions. She was handwritten. Printing, which appeared in Moscow in the middle of the 16th century, very little changed the nature and methods of dissemination of literary works. In general, and in the 17th century, literary works continued, as before, to be distributed by correspondence.

Some of the ancient literary writings been read and copied over several centuries. Others quickly disappeared, but parts that scribes liked were included in other works, since the sense of copyright had not yet developed enough to protect the author's text from changes or borrowings from other works.

None of the works of ancient Russia - translated or original - stands apart. All of them complement each other in the picture of the world they create. We often talk about the internal laws of the development of literary images in the works of new literature and that the actions of heroes are determined by their characters. Each hero of the new literature reacts in his own way to the influences of the outside world. That's why actions actors may even be "unexpected" for the authors, as if dictated to the authors by the actors themselves.

There is a similar conditionality in ancient literature. The hero behaves as he is supposed to behave, but he is not supposed to follow the laws of a natural character, but according to the laws of that category of heroes to which the hero belongs in feudal society. For example, the ideal commander should be pious and should pray before going on a campaign. And in the "Life of Alexander Nevsky" it is described how Alexander enters the temple of Sophia and prays with tears to God for granting him victory. The ideal commander must defeat a numerous enemy with a few forces, and God helps him.

The writers of Ancient Russia had a very definite attitude towards the image of a person. The main thing is not external beauty, the beauty of the face and body, but the beauty of the soul.

In the views of the ancient Russians, only the Lord God was the bearer of absolute, ideal beauty. Man is His creation, God's creature. The beauty of a person depends on how fully the Divine principle was expressed in him, that is, his ability to desire to follow the commandments of the Lord, to work on the improvement of his soul.

The more a person worked on it, the more he, as it were, lit up from the inside. inner light which God sent him as his Grace. The rich spiritual life of any person could work a miracle: to make an ugly person beautiful. This requires a righteous, pious way of life (especially through prayer, repentance, fasting). This means that the Spiritual sphere was perceived, first of all, aesthetically; saw the highest beauty in her. She did not need physical beauty.

The ideal of man in ancient Russia was considered primarily by the holy ascetics, in whom they saw direct mediators between sinful man and the divine sphere. Every era had its heroes. On the example of several works, let us consider how the theme of man and his deeds developed in ancient Russian literature. But first, let's consider the periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature.1. Periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature

Works of literature of Ancient Russia are always attached to a specific historical event, to a specific historical figure. These are stories about battles (about victories and defeats), about princely crimes, about going to the holy land and just about real people: most often about saints and princes-commanders. There are stories about icons and about the construction of churches, about miracles that are believed in, about phenomena that supposedly happened. But not new works on clearly fictional plots.

Literature accompanies Russian reality, Russian history in a huge stream, follows it on its heels. Fearing lies, writers base their works on documents, which they consider to be all previous writing.

The literature of Ancient Russia is evidence of life. That is why history itself, to a certain extent, establishes the periodization of literature.

The literature of the 11th - the first third of the 13th century can be regarded as a single literature of Kievan Rus. This is the age of one ancient Russian state. The century of the first Russian lives - Boris and Gleb and the first monument of Russian chronicle writing that has come down to us - "The Tale of Bygone Years".

Then comes a relatively short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, when stories are written about the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops into Russia, about the battle on Kalka, "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" and "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". Literature is compressed to one theme, but this theme manifests itself with unusual intensity, and the features of the monumental-historical style acquire a tragic imprint and lyrical elation of high patriotic feeling.

The next period, the end of the 14th century, the first half of the 15th century is the century of the Pre-Renaissance, coinciding with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land in the years immediately preceding and following the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. This is a period of expressive-emotional style and a patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of revival of chronicle writing and historical narrative.

The victory won by the Russians over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field made a huge impression not only on contemporaries. This explains the fact that a number of literary monuments are dedicated to the Mamaev battle: "Zadonshchina", "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle", etc.

In the second half of the 15th century, new phenomena were discovered in Russian literature: monuments of translated literature became widespread, journalism developed.

Since the middle of the 16th century, the official stream has been increasingly affecting literature. The 17th century is the century of transition to the literature of modern times. This is the age of the development of the individual principle in everything: in the very type of the writer and his work, the age of the development of individual tastes and styles, professional writing and a sense of copyright ownership.

Such is the periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature. There is no need to consider all the monuments that existed in Ancient Russia. On the example of several works, let us consider how the theme of man and his deeds developed in ancient Russian literature.

Man in the literature of ancient Russia

One of the first, most important genres of emerging Russian literature was the chronicle genre. The oldest actually extant chronicle- This is "The Tale of Bygone Years", created presumably around 1113. It is here that we first learn about the people of Ancient Russia.

Kyiv scribes argued that the history of Russia is similar to the history of other Christian states. There were also Christian ascetics here, who tried by personal example to induce the people to accept new faith: Princess Olga was baptized in Constantinople and urged her son Svyatoslav to also become a Christian. There were in Russia their martyrs and their saints, for example, Boris and Gleb, who were killed on the orders of their brother Svyatopolk, but did not violate the Christian precepts of brotherly love and obedience to the elder.

Two lives were written on the plot of the martyrdom of Boris and Gleb. The author of one of them "Reading about the life and destruction of Boris and Gleb" is the chronicler Nestor. The creation of the church cult of Boris and Gleb pursued two goals. Firstly, the canonization of the first Russian saints raised the church authority of Russia. Secondly, he affirmed the state idea, according to which all Russian princes are brothers, and at the same time emphasized the obligation to "subjugate" the younger princes to the elder ones.

"Reading" Nestor, indeed, contains all the elements of the canonical life: it begins with an extensive introduction, with an explanation of the reasons why the author decides to start working on the life, with summary world history from Adam to the baptism of Russia. In the actual hagiographic part, Nestor tells about the childhood years of Boris and Gleb, about the piety that distinguished the brothers even in childhood and youth; in the story of their death, the hagiographic element is even stronger: they are preparing to accept death as a solemn and intended suffering from birth. In "Reading", in accordance with the requirements of the genre, there is also a story about the miracles that take place after the death of the saints, about the miraculous "finding" of their relics, about the healing of the sick at their tomb.

Thus, Saints Boris and Gleb entered Russian literature as people who honored Christian precepts.

Another work of the hagiographic genre can be considered "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky", written, as D.S. Likhachev, Metropolitan Kirill between 1263 - 1280.

The characteristics of Alexander Nevsky in the work are diverse. In accordance with hagiographic canons, his "church virtues" are emphasized. And at the same time, Alexander, majestic and beautiful in appearance. Courageous and invincible commander. In his military actions, Alexander is swift, selfless and merciless. Having received the news of the arrival of the Swedes on the Neva. Alexander "burned his heart", "with a small retinue" he rushes to the enemy. The swiftness of Alexander, his military prowess is characteristic of all episodes that talk about the military exploits of the prince. Here he appears as an epic hero.

For the author, Alexander is not only a hero-commander and a wise statesman, but also a man before the military prowess and statesmanship of which he bows. For the enemies of the Russian land, the prince is terrible and merciless. This is the ideal of a wise prince - a ruler and commander. Until the 16th century, The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky was a kind of standard for depicting Russian princes when describing their military exploits.

It is impossible not to tell about another outstanding personality of ancient Russia. Vladimir Monomakh is a prominent statesman, firmly guarding the interests of the Russian land, a man of great intelligence and literary talent. He won devoted love for himself and great respect from his contemporaries and posterity.

Under the year 1096 in the "Tale of Bygone Years" according to the Laurentian list is placed the "Instruction" of Vladimir Monomakh, combined with his letter to Prince Oleg of Chernigov. "Instruction" addressed by Monomakh to his children and continued by his autobiography. In his "Instruction" Vladimir Monomakh appears as a wise man with great life experience, a noble, humane-minded person, always thinking about the good of his state, calling for the protection of the weak from the strong and those in power. At the same time, this prince is energetic, enterprising, endowed with military prowess, spending his whole life in tireless work and in dangerous military campaigns. When ambassadors from his brothers come to him with a proposal to expel the Rostislavichs from their inheritance and take away their parish, he refuses to do this, because he does not want to break the oath of the cross. He advises to take an oath only if the swearer can keep it, but, having sworn, one must keep the promise so as not to destroy one's soul.

Monomakh is especially persistent in advising to protect all the destitute and calls for descent even in relation to criminals. The old must be revered as a father, and the young as brothers.

Monomakh calls his children to an active life, to constant work, and convinces them never to be in laziness and not indulge in depravity. You can’t rely on anyone, you yourself need to enter into everything and supervise everything, so that no trouble happens.

Listing many of his "paths" and "catches" (campaigns and hunts), Monomakh means by personal example to teach his children and all those who read his "grammar", which was written not only for the children of the prince.

Vladimir Monomakh condemns civil strife, seeks to mitigate feudal exploitation, which reached cruel forms in the 11th century, and to establish firm and unified power in Russia.

Monomakh does not seek to compose a complete biography in his "Instruction", but conveyed only a chain of examples from his own life, which he considered instructive. In this ability to choose from one's life what is not of personal, but of civic interest, lies the originality of Monomakh's autobiography.

Monomakh's review appears in the "Instruction" as if against his will, which achieves a special artistic persuasiveness. Subsequently, Vladimir Monomakh was idealized by the Russian chronicle.

For posterity, "Instruction" was a kind of reference book in moral education.

The 17th century entered Russian literature as "rebellious". Riots and rebellions reflected the irreconcilable social contradictions of pre-Petrine Russia. This was also the culture of the 17th century, which lost that external unity, that relative solidity that was characteristic of the Middle Ages. Fiction remains anonymous. rose specific gravity copyright works. The literature of the lower classes of society appeared. These lower ranks - the poor clergy, clerks, literate peasantry - spoke in an independent and free language of parody and satire.

Among the translated and original short stories are stories and legends.

"The Tale of Karp Sutulov" has come down to us in a single, moreover, now lost list (the collection, which included the story, was divided into separate notebooks; some of them have not survived). The Russian merchant Karp Sutulov, going on a trading trip, punishes his wife Tatyana, if necessary, to ask for money from his friend, Afanasy Berdov, also a merchant. In response to Tatyana's request, the unworthy friend of her husband covets her love. Tatyana goes for advice to the priest, who turns out to be no better than Afanasy Berdov, then to the bishop. But even in this archpastor, who gave a dinner of chastity, a sinful passion flared up. Tatyana feigningly decides to give in, and all three of them make appointments at her home. The first is Afanasy Berdov. When the priest knocks on the gate, Tatyana tells Athanasius that her husband has returned, and hides the first guest in a chest. In the same way, she gets rid of the priest and the bishop - in the latter case, the maid who was persuaded by her turns out to be the culprit of the commotion. The case ends with the fact that the disgraced seekers are taken from the chests in the voivodship yard.

This is a typical fairy tale short story with slow action, with repeated repetitions, with a folklore three-part construction - and an unexpected, entertaining ending: after the disgrace of the harassers, the division of money between the "strict" governor and the "pious" Tatyana follows. The Russian flavor of the novella is only superficial layering. The Sutulovs and Berdovs really belong to eminent merchant families of pre-Petrine Russia. Tatyana's husband goes "to buy his own to the Lithuanian land" - the usual merchant route for Russia in the 17th century to Vilna. The action takes place in the voivodeship courtyard - this is also a Russian reality. However, all these realities do not affect the plot structure. Names and Russian circumstances are the scenes of the action, they can be easily eliminated and replaced, and we get a "universal" passing plot, not necessarily connected with the Russian urban life of the 17th century. According to the plot, "The Tale of Karp Sutulov" is a typical picaresque novel in the spirit of Boccaccio.

How do I imagine myself the people of ancient Russia? It seemed like a simple question. What if you think about it? What could a Russian person look like several centuries ago? What was he thinking? Where did you live? How did you dress? The answer to these questions can be given to us by historians who have long been studying the life of the ancient peoples who inhabited wild Russia. And yet, what did the Slavs look like? My imagination draws a birch forest, a slender girl with a long blond braid and in a white sundress stands at the edge. Or here is another picture. Village on the bank of the river, the smoke slowly creeps out of the clay pipes and rushes up to the white clouds. An old man sits on the porch of one of the houses, his hair has long since become white as snow, and his hands are rough from hard work. The old man weaves a fishing net. From time to time he raises his eyes and directs his gaze to the water surface. At the gate, people meet hunters who have returned with prey, they are all tall and slender, fair-haired and with blue eyes. Why do all Russians have blond hair? Probably because the word "Rus" is associated with the word "blond". The first Russians were fair-haired, so they were called that, and the place where they lived was called Rus. Russia is boundless fields, wide rivers and beautiful birch forests. Russia is freedom. Have you ever gone out into the field to listen to the rustle of the wind in the grass, to see the horizon line…. Only then can you feel all the greatness of our Motherland. After all, you can take geographical map and find out that our country is really big, but only in the field you can understand this: wherever you look, everywhere there is only grass, swaying in the wind, and the endless blue sky, which, far away, at the very line of the horizon, touches the ground. On this earth could only live strong people with blond hair and blue eyes like the sky. All other peoples: Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Tatars, seem to me small and hunched and terrible. By the way, the authors of cartoons about Russian heroes also draw them like this. Just imagine, an army of Polovtsians is going to Russia. Wheat fields and peaceful villages are burning. The prince with his retinue hurries to meet the enemy. Battle. Rusich, in a coat of mail sparkling in the rays of the sun, is covered with a scarlet shield in the form of a raindrop (or tear) from a hail of arrows, and with his sword he smashes the enemies of the Russian land. Remember how many wars our land has experienced. More than one scarlet river spilled so that peace would finally be established in Russia. And even then, for how long? Polovtsy, Pechenegs, knights of the Teutonic Order, Tatars, Swedes, fascists with machine guns…. But how many enemies trampled our land? But none of them managed to conquer Russia. And all why? Yes, because a Russian person loves his freedom. It's in our blood. Because our ancestors did not live in small apartments in big cities. They lived in nature and saw its beauty. Every day, every hour, every second they felt the delight that a modern city dweller experiences when he finds himself for the first time in an endless field or in a forest, when there are no cars, no huge houses or other benefits of civilization nearby. Only then does a person understand that everything that was in his life before that was not important, and in the world there is only the sky, the wind playing in the grass or foliage of trees, the cries of birds and white clouds floating above our heads in the blue sky . And when we understand this, we will be able to understand those people who proudly called themselves Rusichs and whom no other people could defeat.

P.S. You read school essay which I wrote for my younger brother.