The wandering plot, as the name implies, moves from culture to culture, undergoing minor contextual changes. By tracing how the same plot is transformed, one can understand a lot about the mentality of a particular people in a particular era.
Wandering plots and their origins
Migration theory, or the theory of wandering plots, appeared in the second half of the 19th century. It is believed that the founder of it is the German T. Benfey, translator and critic of the Panchatantra (1859), who showed how plots from Indian folklore spread throughout the world. Due to its association with Indian folklore, it is sometimes referred to as "Indianism". Among the supporters of the migration theory one can name A.N. Veselovsky, V.F. Miller, F. I. Buslavev, A. Clauston, A d'Ancona, M. Landau, and others. The essence of this theory is that the similarity of folklore different peoples explained by a single source. Benfey proved that India is the birthplace of fairy tales, and they got to Europe through Byzantium and Africa. Interesting way Indian fairy tales to Russia and Eastern Europe - through Siam, China, Tibet and Mongolia. The forerunner of the migration theory was the mythological theory; now the migration theory is morally obsolete, and it has been replaced by comparative literature.
M. K. Chiurlionis. "Fairytale castle". 1909
Stories about Cinderella, the Caucasian prisoner, Don Juan, etc. can serve as a striking example of a wandering plot. Thus, we can say that the plays of the folk puppet theater - performances about Petrushka, Punchy and Judy, Pierrot - are also an example of a wandering plot.
In general, it is obvious that the original stories were invented in antiquity, and since then human nature has not changed very much. Literary critics lively argue about the number of these plots. Borges, for example, in the short story "Four Cycles" identifies four motives: the fall of the city, return, search and suicide of god. Christopher Bocker believes that there are 7 plots: adventure, elevation, round trip, tragedy, comedy, resurrection, victory over the monster.
Robert Tobias has 20 stories, including search, revenge, mystery. J. Polti went the furthest, identifying 36 plots, for example, “the victim of immense joy”, “the victim of someone”, “the struggle against God”, “achievement”.
One way or another, but these motifs are found in the literature of any era and any culture, whether in the Homeric epic, whether in the Bible, whether in folk tales. Consider fairy tales, because they exist in almost every culture. The heroes of fairy tales are archetypal characters. The term "archetype" introduced by G.K. Jung, means “forms and patterns that are collective in nature and are found almost all over the earth as constituent elements of myths and at the same time are autochthonous individual products of unconscious origin. Archetypal motifs originate from archetypal images in the human mind, which are transmitted not only through tradition and migration, but also through heredity. This hypothesis is necessary, since even the most complex archetypal patterns can be spontaneously reproduced without any tradition. The prototype or archetype is the formulated result of the vast technical experience of an innumerable series of ancestors. Note that a folk tale is an example of spontaneous reproduction.
Fairy tales grew out of rituals, told about the rules of life in society, introduced children to the dangers that may be encountered on the path of life. Hence the commonality of the plots, and the archetypal character of the characters. Veselovsky writes about it this way: “This legend, as far as it concerns the elements of style and rhythm, imagery and schematism of the simplest poetic forms, once served as a natural expression of the collective psyche and the living conditions corresponding to it at the beginning of human society. The one-dimensionality of this psyche and these conditions explains the one-dimensionality of their poetic expression among peoples who have never come into contact with each other. Thus, a number of formulas and schemes developed, many of which were retained in later circulation if they met the conditions of a new application, just as other words of the primitive dictionary expanded their real meaning to express abstract concepts.
Hero's Journey
Travel is a necessary element of becoming a hero and initiation. Often the journey begins with "go there, I don't know where, bring that, I don't know what." One of the possible decodings of this phrase is to go to the realm of the dead and meet a magical assistant there. Even if we discard the magical connotations, the journey is a plot-forming element. It is built with respect to several stable points: the father's house - the thirtieth kingdom - the father's house. In the 20th century, the structure becomes fundamentally more complicated: the hero can alternate points, pass through the same points several times. However, this does not cancel the initiation.
Take Beauty and the Beast, for example. We know it in the version of Charles Perrault, but in fact a similar plot appeared in antiquity. The first Beauty and the Beast - Cupid and Psyche at Apuleius.
In 1740, an edition of the fairy tale by Madame Villeneuve appears, and in its version the plot is much more complicated: the evil sorceress enchants the Beast when he rejects her attempts to seduce him, and Belle, the daughter of the king, becomes a foundling in the family of a merchant by order of the same evil fairy. 17 years later, in 1757, Madame Beaumont publishes her version of the tale, greatly simplifying the plot, and it is this version that is translated into English. In Russia, this tale is known under the name "The Scarlet Flower", and its plot is close to the version of Madame Beaumont, although it was written down from the words of the housekeeper. Beauty travels from her home to the Beast's castle, then back home, and back to the Beast - a non-linearity that is more characteristic of later fairy tales. During this journey, she matures, learning to see the essence behind the shell.
W. Goble. Illustration for the fairy tale "Beauty and the Beast". 1913
The refraction of this motif in the 1991 cartoon and the latest film adaptation with Emma Watson and Dan Stevenson is interesting. In addition to the sensational line with Gaston and his friend, there are much more significant differences in the film. In the spirit of the times, Beauty is already the mistress of the house, a mature personality. She herself rushes to help her father, she herself decides to save him (in the original fairy tales, the father asked his daughters for help, but only the youngest was called). The role of the evil sisters is assigned to the townspeople, who mock Beauty and her aloofness. The path of the Beauty runs through the forest with wild wolves, which refer to mortal danger. Nevertheless, the townspeople and people pose a much greater danger, since you can protect yourself from wolves with the help of dexterity or brute force, but practically nothing will save you from betrayal and anger of the crowd (except love, of course).
Often the journey begins with "go there, I don't know where, bring that, I don't know what." One of the possible decodings of this phrase is to go to the realm of the dead and meet a magical assistant there.
The journey reveals in her strength and adventurism, which until this moment she did not really need. In addition, the film added the motive of traveling to Paris, where Beauty was born. This is a landmark journey for both, as it reveals to Belle the secret of her childhood, and to the Beast - the very essence of Beauty. Paris is visually very different from the rest of the film precisely in order to emphasize the mystery, mystery and even secrecy of the moment.
Plot travel
But, as it was said at the very beginning, not only the characters travel, but the plots themselves. Of the most popular, of course, Faust is remembered. This plot appears for the first time in Germany under the title "The Story of Doctor Faust, the famous sorcerer and warlock" (1587). At the same time, the “Tragic History of Dr. Faust” by K. Marlo appeared, and already in the 19th century Goethe wrote about Faust. In Russian literature, Faustian motifs appear in Dostoevsky, which is not surprising. In modern literature, Ackroyd writes about Faust in his novel The House of Doctor Dee. Also, R. Sheckley and R. Zelazny write a trilogy about the demon Azzi, the second part of the trilogy is called “Kol with Faust you are not lucky” (“ If at Faust You Don" t success"). Interestingly, the early Fausts sell their souls for Absolute Knowledge, disillusioned with everything else, while the later ones demonstrate a thirst for life unusual for postmodernism.
In "Kol with Faust" the forces of Light and Darkness compete for the right to control human souls for the next 1000 years.
F. Reber. The scene of Walpurgis Night from the tragedy by I.-V. Goethe Faust. 1910
The unfortunate demon is trying to attract Faust himself to his side, not knowing that instead of him the bandit Mac Tref came into his hand, who, to the best of his understanding, portrays the great sorcerer.
But the real Faust, of course, is not happy that some impostor has taken his place, and he is also included in the competition. In the end, everything ends with the Great Court, in which Faust talks with Ilith - the one who is destined to take the place of Margarita. The novel ends with the promise of a new journey:
"I want to start all over again," Ylith said. new life"Beyond Good and Evil" I thought of you, Faust. For better or worse, you always go your own way. I wanted to ask you if you need an assistant?
Faust looked at Ylith with interest. She was beautiful and smart. And she smiled at him. He took a deep breath and squared his shoulders. He felt like Faust again.
"Yes," he said. "We'll both start over." We have a long way to go. Sit down, my dear. Slow down a bit. It seems to me that the time has come to say: “Stop, a wonderful moment!”.
In Ackroyd, the action of the novel unfolds in two time layers: modernity and the 16th century. Typologically, Dr. Dee is close to Faust: an unusually educated and outstanding scientist, a genius ahead of his time. But there is also a direct connection with Faust in the book. Dee travels to Witterburg, which is consonant with Wittenberg, where he is shown the forest in which either Faust died, or the devil carried him away to fulfill the terms of the contract. And again, the forest acts as a locus of travel, dark, mysterious, almost mystical power, forever changing the character.
In addition, the Faustian theme runs like a red thread through Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita. It all starts with Woland's visit to Moscow, in his hands he has a cane with a dog's head, and, as we know, it was the dog that embodied the evil spirit in early stories about Faust and Mephistopheles. The master recalls the opera "Faust" to emphasize the connection between the two works.
In conclusion, I would like to say that travel is important not only for the characters, but also for the plots themselves. Literature cannot stand still, it is constantly evolving, and travel, as you know, is one of the most powerful incentives for development. ■
Maria Dubkova
Wandering plots are stable complexes of motives that form the basis of an oral or written work, passing from one country to another and changing their artistic appearance depending on the new environment of their existence. Plot this work, sometimes even its plot, is so stable that it remains almost unchanged all the way; its variants, which arise depending on the existence of the plot in different countries, make it possible to determine, by comparing them, the entire history of S. b. (The use of the terms "plot" and "plot" in relation to the S. b. is fixed in literary criticism by A. Veselovsky and is retained in this article in the same meanings).
These are S. b. stories and parables from the collections "Panchatantra" ("Kalila and Dimna"), "The Acts of Rome", "A Thousand and One Nights", Aesop's fables, individual fairy tales, legends, traditions, etc. For millennia, they have not lost their unity of structure, acquiring , however, on its way more and more new options. Differences in the socio-economic system, language, nationality, way of life, culture, and religion characteristic of individual countries leave their mark on a given social system, but do not change it entirely.
An example of a predominantly book transmission of S. b. can serve as plots in the collection "Panchatantra"; they are transferred, as has been established, from the East to the West and, overcoming centuries and spaces, reach our days. So arr. even with a written transmission, the circle of mutual influences, existence and distribution of S. b. can be almost endless. Examples of oral transmission of S. b. we see in the short story (fablio) and fairy tale.
Especially typical examples of the existence of S. b. gives a fairy tale. Such is eg. a Russian fairy tale about the Shemyakin Court, whose homeland (according to research) is the East, namely India, and whose parallels can be seen in the Tibetan legend, in the fairy tale about the Cairo merchant, in modern Persian fairy tales, in Italian short stories by Giovaniya Serkambi, in English poems about the water carrier Busotto, etc. S. b. and in fables, but written transmission predominates here.
Usually S. b. cataloged in two ways. Some researchers base their catalog on a particularly popular collection of fairy tales (The Tales of the Brothers Grimm) or short stories (The Decameron), picking up parallels to it. Others distribute S. b. on certain thematic headings, highlighting for example. the following types of S. b.: heroic, narrating ch. arr. about the glorious deeds of heroes, knights, bogatyrs, etc.; like this, for example. S. b. "fight between father and son", etc.; mythological or magical fairy tales, which are based on legends about snakes, magical birds, a miracle girl, self-assembly tablecloth, etc. characters and objects fairy tales; like this, for example. S. b. in fairy tales and epics about the Serpent Gorynych and hidden death, etc.; fabulously everyday, telling about everyday phenomena, reflected in a fairy tale; these are S. b. about the stepmother and stepdaughter, about the kidnapping of wives and girls as an echo of the custom of "kidnapping", etc.; novelistic-household (satiric-household); these are S. b. in a number of jokes about fools, in short stories about treacherous wives and widows, in fairy tales about a priest and a peasant, etc. Of course, both methods of classifying S. b. equally conditional.
Resolution of the problem of the origin and development of S. b. associated with the history of folklore in general.
In the 40s of the XIX century. the dominant mythological school sought to explain the coincidence in the plots of the epic, myths, fairy tales by the preservation of the common heritage of “kindred” peoples in them. However, the presence among "unrelated" peoples of many variants of the same plot, the undoubted historically attested facts of the transfer of plots from one country to another, led to the fact that the arguments of mythologists about the heredity of S. b. no longer convincing. The existence and existence of S. b. began to explain by borrowing stories from the East, mainly from India. This is how the borrowing school arose (Benfey and others), which justly criticized the constructions of the "mythologists". The anthropological school (Taylor), in turn, opposes the one-sidedness of the borrowing school, pointing out that the coincidence of plots is observed in the folklore of peoples who historically did not have communication, and can be explained by the polygenesis of S. b. with the same level cultural development the respective peoples. From the 70s. interest in S. b. begins to increase, and by the 90s. the school of borrowing occupies a leading position. Learning everything possible options fairy tales, stories, etc., the school of borrowing (especially among Finnish scholars) tries to apply to folklore the methods of reconstruction developed by comparative historical linguistics. The main goal of the study is to find the "protoform" (fundamental principle) of the plot. Schematism and excessive study plot schemes, the search for formulas and ignoring the plot itself, the specific situation of its existence, with an abundance of materials, turns scientific work Finnish school into technical reference indexes, into catalogs of formulas devoid of real historical content.
Soviet folklore, of course, does not deny historical fact transfer of individual S. b. from one country to another. But, meeting with the similarity of plots in the folklore of different peoples, it takes into account not only the possibility of borrowing, but also the possibility of coincidence of such plots as a result of direct folk art that developed in similar political, socio-economic and cultural conditions of each country. At the same time, she seeks to reveal the creative processing of those S. b., the fact of the historical transfer of which is not in doubt.
Bibliography
II. Savchenko S. V., Russian folk tale (History of collecting and studying), Kyiv, 1914
Buslaev F., Passing novels and stories in the author's book: My leisure, part 2, M., 1886
Veselovsky A. N., Slavic legends about Solomon and Kitovras and Western legends about Morolf and Merlin, St. Petersburg, 1872
Him, Research in the field of Russian spiritual verse, VI-X, St. Petersburg, 1883 (Notes of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, vol. XLV, St. Petersburg, 1883)
His own, Poetics, vol. II, no. I. Poetics of plots (1897-1906), Sobr. sochin. B. Series I, vol. II, no. I, St. Petersburg, 1913
Propp V., Morphology of a fairy tale, L., 1928
Panchatantra, Selected Stories, M., 1930
Sumtsov N.F., Research in the field of anecdotal literature. Jokes about fools, Kharkov, 1898
Shor R.O., Folk jokes about fools in Indian didactic literature, Sat. " artistic folklore", vol. IV-V, M., 1929
Benfey T., Vorwortzum "Pantschatantra", Lpz., 1859
Clouston W. A., Popular tales and fictions, their migrations and transformations, 2 vls., Edinburg, L., 1887
Paris G., Les contes orientaux dans la littérature française du moyen âge, P., 1875
Cosquin, E., Contes populaires de Lorraine, comparés..., 2 vls., P., 1886
Aarne A., Verzeichnis der Märchentypen, Helsinki, 1910
Grimm J. u. W., Anmerkungen zu den Kinder und Hausmärchen, Neu bearb. v. J. Bolte u. G. Polivka, 4 Bde, 1913-1930
Landau M., Die Quellen des Decameron, 2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1884 journal. Finland. Academy of Sciences "F. F. Communications ”, which contains numerous monographs on individual S. b. See also "The Tale", "Fablio", "A Thousand and One Nights".
In the 50-70s. 19th century another scientific direction arose - the theory of borrowing (the theory of migrations; the theory of wandering plots). Its proponents have pointed to the striking similarity of many folklore works among the peoples of the West and the East (including unrelated ones), which was explained by direct or indirect borrowing, distribution from one or more centers. Representatives of the borrowing school raised the question of cultural and historical ties between peoples, attracted extensive multilingual material. This was facilitated by the study of the countries of the Middle East by Europeans, and in Russia by the development of Turkic and Mongolian studies.
Borrowing theory has had a particularly strong influence on the study of fairy tales. Its founder, the German orientalist T. Benfey, published in 1859 a collection of Indian tales and parables Panchatantra (Pentateuch). In a long preface, Ben-fey noted the close similarity of fairy tales in world folklore and, using the example of the fate of the Panchatantra collection, revealed a picture of the cultural influence of the East on the European West.
The Panchatantra collection was created in India in the 3rd-4th centuries. AD, his lists have come down to us not earlier than the 5th century. This book was compiled by the brahmin (sage) Vishnusharman to "awaken the mind" of the three sons of King Amarashakti. He used the plots of folk tales and divided the book into five sections: "Disconnection of friends", "Acquisition of friends", "About ravens and owls", "Loss of what was obtained", "Reckless actions".
The first translations of the Panchatantra were made in the 6th century. into Persian and Syriac. In the 8th century The Arabic poet Abdallah revised the Persian translation into a book called Kalila and Dimna. In the XII-XIII centuries. numerous translations of "Kalila and Dimna" (into Spanish, Latin, Hebrew) opened the way for the collection to Europe. Thus, the Latin translation entitled "Instruction of Human Life" was translated into German, Italian, French and other languages. The Greek version of "Kalila and Dimna" was called "Stephanit and Ikhnilat". Slavic translations were made from Greek, which in the XII century. came to Russia.
Echoes of "Kalila and Dimna" penetrated into Europe in another way, through the Persians and the Turks. In the XVI century. the Turkish version of this book was translated into French under the title "Gumayun-name" ("Royal Book"). In 1762, it was translated from French into Russian under the title: "The political and moralizing fables of Pilnaya, the Indian philosopher."
To our time, there are over 200 versions of the Panchatantra translated into more than 60 languages. They were found in Malaya, Indonesia, Siam and other countries.
India was declared a country of fairy tales, and the theory of borrowing gained numerous followers, including in Russia. However, Russian science went to this theory quite independently.
Even V. G. Belinsky in 1841, dividing Russian fairy tales into two types (heroic and satirical), emphasized: “The first ones often catch the eye with their foreign origin; they came to us both from the East and from the West.<...>In fairy tales of Western origin, a knightly character is noticeable, in fairy tales oriental origin— fantastic."
Regardless of Benfey, the formation of the borrowing school in Russia was initiated by the work of A. N. Pypin "Essay literary history Pypin for the first time specifically showed the extensive connections of Russian verbal culture, mainly written, with the East and West. He was interested in the interaction of art with the spiritual life of society as a whole, the researcher called his method "socio-historical".
The concept of T. Benfey had a direct impact on an extensive article by the critic V. V. Stasov entitled "The Origin of Russian Epics". It was written with journalistic enthusiasm. Stasov argued that the plots of Russian epics and even the images of heroes were borrowed, they came from the East. The author questioned the degree of originality of the Russian national culture generally. This was necessary for him as a Western liberal in the fight against the Slavophiles.
A sharp discussion arose, in which many scientists joined: F. I. Buslaev, O. F. Miller, P. A. Bessonov, V. F. Miller, A. N. Veselovsky. Stasov's speech revealed all the weak points of the new theory. It was found that "in pure form"It cannot exist, because it must take into account the national and specific historical context.
It was in this direction that the prominent Russian philologist A. N. Veselovsky developed the theory of migrations. He emphasized that the condition for borrowing is the typological universalism of world cultural development. Veselovsky enriched the migration theory. He formulated a position on the so-called "counter currents", which arise due to the similarity of the "foundations" of literary or folklore works. different ethnic groups: "Explaining the similarity of myths, fairy tales, epic stories among different peoples, researchers usually diverge in two opposite directions: the similarity is either explained from the general foundations to which similar legends are supposedly erected, or by the hypothesis that one of them borrowed its content from the other.
In essence, none of these theories is applicable separately, and they are conceivable only together, because borrowing presupposes in the perceiver not an empty place, but counter currents, a similar direction of thinking, analogous images of fantasy. The theory of "borrowing" thus evokes the theory of "foundations" and vice versa...
Veselovsky revealed a picture of the cultural ties of Russian oral poetry and written literature with the countries of the East and West. He wrote several major works about this: "Slavic legends about Solomon and Kitovras and Western legends about Morolf and Merlin" (1872), "Experiments on the history of the development of the Christian legend" (1875-1877), "Investigations in the field of Russian spiritual poetry" ( 1879-1891), "From the history of the novel and the story" (1886-1888), etc.
He believed that the cultural contacts of peoples contributed to social progress and the development of artistic forms reflecting it: "If one of the folk-cultural spheres that came into conflict outstripped the other in understanding life and setting ideals and developed a new schematism of poetic expression on a level with them, it acts on a more backward environment is contagious: along with the ideal content, the plot that expressed it is assimilated.
Veselovsky's methodology was based on the comparative analysis that had long dominated science. However, the method used by the mythological school was felt by Veselovsky as insufficient. The scientist opposed the method according to which it was required to explain the vital phenomenon primarily from the real time in which this phenomenon exists. Veselovsky's thought about the everyday foundations of poetry is important: "... A good historian of literature should be at the same time a historian of everyday life. Tell me how the people lived, and I will tell you how they wrote ..."
In 1899, the idea of Veselovsky's main theoretical work, Historical Poetics, arose. By historical poetics, the scientist meant "the history of social thought in figuratively poetic experience and forms expressing it"; "the evolution of poetic consciousness and its forms". Chaotic picture world history literature had to come to a coherent generalizing scheme, which would reflect the objective processes of development of content and form. In Veselovsky's interpretation, the literary process for the first time appeared as a natural-historical one.
The idea of "Historical Poetics" was not, and could not be fully realized. The scientist wrote three chapters in which he explored the problem of the origin of poetry and its genera, the poetics of plots and the origin of figurative means that create a poetic style. "Three Chapters from Historical Poetics" is a valuable contribution to the theory of folklore.
The theory of borrowing found many followers in Russia (G. N. Potanin, A. I. Kirpichnikov, M. G. Khalansky, to some extent F. I. Buslaev, V. F. Miller, and others).
In Western European science, this theory sometimes received a formalistic development. Such is the historical-geographical method, which was developed by Finnish scientists J. Kron, K. Kron and A. Aarne. The study of folklore works was accompanied by chronological diagrams and geographic Maps with the migration routes of these works marked on them. This method was not accepted in Russian folkloristics, however, the cataloging of fairy tale plots, developed by the Finnish school, gained international application (including in Russia). According to its principles, a Russian, and then an East Slavic index was compiled.
"Index of fairy-tale types" was compiled by A. Aarne (published in 1910). Aarne put the tales of European peoples as the basis for systematization. In the "Index" they are divided into the following groups:
I. Tales about animals.
II. Actually fairy tales, which include:
A. Fairy tales,
B. Legendary tales,
C. Novelistic tales,
D. Tales of a stupid devil (giant).
Within these groups, fairy tales are combined into nests, according to the thematic principle. Every fairy tale holistic story, and in some cases - a characteristic episode) has a serial number. At the same time, gaps were left for the introduction of new plots.
In 1928, the American folklorist S. Thompson, together with Aarne, based on the previous one, created a multinational composite Index of Fairy Plots, which was repeatedly reprinted with additions and clarifications; it entered world folkloristics as the Aarne-Thompson index (abbreviated: AT). In 1929, N.P. Andreev translated the Aarne index into Russian with adaptation to Russian materials (additions were made according to Russian folklore collections). In 1979, the "Comparative Index of Plots" of East Slavic fairy tales (abbreviated: SUS) prepared by the group of authors was published. It is based on the international principles of the Aarne-Thompson index.
Zueva T.V., Kirdan B.P. Russian folklore - M., 2002
motive(lat. moveo - to move) - a stable formal-content component of the text, capable of being repeated within the work of one writer, as well as in the context of world literature as a whole. Motives can be repeated. The motive is a stable semiotic unit of the text and has a historically universal set of meanings. Comedy is characterized by the motive “quid pro quo” (“who is about what”), for the epic - the motive of wandering, for the ballad - a fantastic motive (the phenomenon of the living dead).
Motive more than other components art form correlates with the thoughts and feelings of the author. According to Gasparov, "motive is a semantic stain." In psychology, a motive is an impulse to act, in literary theory it is a recurring element of the plot. Some researchers attribute the motif to the elements of the plot. This type of motive is called narrative. But some detail can be repeated in the motive. Such a motive is called lyrical. Narrative motifs are based on some event, they are deployed in time and space and suggest the presence of actants. In lyrical motifs, it is not the process of action that is actualized, but its significance for the consciousness that perceives this event. But both types of motive are characterized by repetition.
The most important feature of the motif is its ability to be half-realized in the text, its mystery, incompleteness. The scope of the motive is made up of works marked with invisible italics. Attention to the structure of the motive allows a deeper and more interesting consideration of the content. artistic text. One and the same motive sounds differently for different authors.
Researchers talk about the dual nature of the motive, meaning that the motive exists as an invariant (contains a stable core that is repeated in many texts) and as an individuality (each author has his own motive in terms of embodiment, individual increment of meaning). Repeating in literature, the motif is capable of acquiring philosophical fullness.
Motive like literary concept brought A.N. Veselovsky in 1906 in his work "The Poetics of Plots". Under the motive, he assumed the simplest formula that answers the questions that nature poses to man, and fixes especially vivid impressions of reality. The motive was defined by Veselovsky as the simplest narrative unit. Veselovsky considered figurativeness, single-memberedness, schematicity as signs of a motive. Motives, in his opinion, cannot be decomposed into constituent elements. The combination of motifs forms the plot. Thus, the primitive consciousness produced motifs that formed plots. The motif is the oldest, primitive form of artistic consciousness.
Veselovsky tried to identify the main motives and trace their combination into plots. Comparative scientists tried to check the correlation of plot schemes. At the same time, this similarity turned out to be very conditional, because only formal elements were taken into account. Veselovsky's merit lies in the fact that he put forward the idea of "wandering plots", i.e. plots wandering in time and space among different peoples. This can be explained not only by the unity of everyday and psychological conditions of different peoples, but also by borrowings. In the literature of the 19th century, the motive of the self-elimination of the husband from the life of his wife was widespread. In Russia, the hero returned under his own name, staging own death. The backbone of the motive was repeated, which determined the typological similarity of works of world literature.
10. Detail. Portrait. Landscape.
The smallest unit objective world traditionally called an artistic detail. "Detail"(fr. detail) - a small component of something; detail, particular also detail. The principal thing is the attribution of the detail to the meta-verbal, objective world of the work: “The figurative form of the cast work contains three sides: the system of details of subject representation. system of compositional techniques and verbal (speech) structure. Artistic details mainly include substantive details: landscape, portrait. Poetic devices, paths and figures stylists are usually not classified as thin. details. Detailing is not decoration, but the essence of the image. After all, the writer is not able to recreate the subject in all its features, and it is the detail, their totality, that “replaces” the whole in the text, evoking in the reader the associations the author needs. The degree of detail of the invention, in particular the external world, can be motivated in the text by the “place from which the narration is being conducted”, otherwise the spatial and / or temporal point of view of the narrator (narrator, character, lyrical subject). Detailing, like a “close-up” in a movie, needs a background – a “long shot”. In literary criticism short message about any events, the total designation of objects is often called generalization. The alternation of detail and generalization is involved in creating the rhythm of the image. The classification of details repeats the structure of the objective world - events, actions of characters, their portraits, psychological and speech characteristics, landscape, interior, etc. At the same time, in this work, some type (s) of details may be absent, which emphasizes the conventionality of its world. In the literary description of style, related details are often combined. Such a typology was proposed by A.B. Esin, who singled out 3 groups: plot details, descriptive, psychological. the predominance of one type or another gives rise to the corresponding sv-in, or dominant, style: "plot" ("Taras Bulba" Gogol), "descriptive" (Dead Souls), "psychologism" (Crime and Punishment); the named saints "may not exclude each other within the same production." Just as the word lives full life in a text, a statement, a detail reveals its meanings in a series, sequence, roll call of details. In the analysis, a fragment of the text is considered, in which there are correspondences and/or oppositions of details. Portrait dynamics: gesture, mime and pantomime elements, skin color changes, trembling, as well as paralinguistic elements, such as: laughter, crying, speech rate, speech pauses, etc. All these signs of non-verbal communication that people can use purposefully, widely represented in thin literature; in particular, they act as details of the character's dynamic portrait. Details can be given in opposition, but on the contrary, they can form an ensemble, creating a unified and holistic impression in the aggregate. E.S. Dobin proposed a typology of details based on the criterion: singularity / set, and used different terms to designate the selected types: “Detail affects the set. The detail tends to be singular. It replaces a number of details." Detail can be expressed using synecdoche, hyperbole. The visibility of the detail, to some extent contrasting with the general background, is facilitated by compositional techniques: repetitions, “ close-up”, “montage”, retardation, etc. Repeating and acquiring additional meanings, the detail becomes a motive, often grows into a symbol. In Dostoevsky's The Idiot, the reader may at first find it strange that Myshkin is able to imitate handwriting. However, when reading the entire novel, it becomes clear that Myshkin's main talent is understanding different characters, different styles of behavior, and the reproduction of writing styles is a hint of this. Symbolic detail can be placed in the title of the work: “Gooseberry” by A.P. Chekhov, “Light Breath” by Bunin.
Portrait character - a description of his appearance: face, figure, clothing, visible properties of behavior: gestures, facial expressions, gait, demeanor. The reader gets an idea about the character from the description of his thoughts, feelings, actions, from speech characteristics, so that a portrait description may be absent. The correspondence between external and internal m / y observed in life allows writers to use the appearance of a character when creating it as a generalized image. A character can become the embodiment of any one property of human nature (Italian "comedy of masks"). Thanks to the correspondence between m / y external and internal, glorification, satirization of a character through his portrait turned out to be possible. So, Don Quixote, who combines both the comic and the heroic, is thin and tall, and his squire is fat and squat. The requirement for conformity is at the same time the requirement for the integrity of the character's image. Appearance the lit-th character “is not described. but is created and subject to choice”, and “some details may be absent, while others are brought to the fore”. The place and role of the portrait in the work, as well as the methods of its creation, vary depending on the genre, genre of literature. In drama, the author restricts himself to indicating the age of the characters and common characteristics sv-in behavior given in remarks; everything else he has to leave to the care of the actors and the director. The playwright can understand his task somewhat more broadly: Gogol, for example, preceded the comedy The Inspector General with detailed descriptions actors, as well as an accurate description of the poses of the actors in the final - “silent” - scene. In lyrics, the poetically generalized impression of the lyrical subject is important. The lyrics make the most of the technique of replacing the description of the appearance with the impression of it. Such a replacement is often accompanied by the use of the epithets “beautiful”, “charming”, “charming”, “captivating”, “incomparable”, etc. Wed-in verbally-thin-noy depict-ti. The material for comparisons and metaphors is the colorful abundance of the natural world - plants, animals, precious things. stones, heavenly bodies. A slender camp is compared with cypress, poplar, birch, willow, etc. Drag. stones are used to convey the brilliance and color of eyes, lips, hair: lips - pomegranate, skin - marble, etc. The choice of material for comparisons is determined by the character of the expressed experiences. In the poetry of Dante, Petrarch, the spiritual essence of love is shown, which is emphasized by the epithets "unearthly", "heavenly", "divine". Baudelaire sings of the "exotic fragrance" of love. The hierarchy of the canonical genres of literature corresponds to the principles of portraiture. The appearance of the characters of high genres is idealized, low (fables, comedies, etc.), on the contrary, indicates various kinds of bodily imperfections. In the invention of comic characters, the grotesque prevails. For metaphors and comparisons with the natural world, not a rose and a lily are used, but a radish, a pumpkin, a cucumber; not an eagle, but a gander, not a doe, but a bear, etc. In products epic kind the features of the appearance and the way the character behaves are associated with his character, with the special " inner world"product with its characteristic spatio-temporal relations, psychology, system of moral assessments. The character of the early epic genres - heroic songs, legends - is an example of a direct correspondence between m / y in character and appearance. A direct description of the appearance is not given, it can be judged by the actions of the character. The hero's opponent, on the other hand, is outwardly described. In the creation of a portrait of a character, the leading trend until the end of the 18th century. remained the predominance of the general over the individual. The conditional form of the portrait prevailed with its characteristic static description, picturesqueness and verbosity. A characteristic feature of a conditional description of appearance is the enumeration of emotions that the characters evoke in those around them or the narrator (delight, admiration, etc.). The portrait is given against the backdrop of nature; in the literature of sentimentalism, this is a flowering meadow or field, the bank of a river or a pond. Romantics will prefer forests, mountains, rough seas, exotic nature. The ruddy freshness of the face will be replaced by the pallor of the forehead. In the literature of realism of the 19th century. there was a transition from a static image to a dynamic one. At the same time, during this period, 2 main types of portraits are distinguished: expositional portraits tending to be static and dynamic, turning into plasticity of action. Exposition - a detailed enumeration of the details of the face, figure, clothing, individual gestures, etc. will take on appearance; is given from the narrator, interested in the characteristic appearance of the representatives of any social community: petty officials, petty bourgeois, merchants, cab drivers, etc. A more complex modification of the exposition portrait is a psychological one, where appearance features predominate, testifying to the holy character and inner world (portrait of Pechorin in "A Hero of Our Time"). Dynamic - we find in the works of L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, where the individually unique in the characters noticeably prevails over the socially typical and where their involvement in the dynamic process of life is important. A detailed enumeration of facial features gives way to a brief, expressive detail that occurs in the course of the story. Sometimes the portrait is given as an impression of other characters from the hero (portrait of Nastasya Filippovna in the perception of Myshkin). An important component of appearance is a suit. Clothing can be everyday or festive, "to face" or "from someone else's shoulder." Khlestakov's "capital" dress has a magical effect on the townsfolk.
Landscape(French pays - country, locality) - one of the components of the world of literary production, the image of an open space. landscape functions: 1. Designation of the place and time of action ("The Old Man and the Sea" by Hemingway); 2. Plot motivation (natural, meteorological processes can direct the course of events in one direction or another. So, in Pushkin's story "The Snowstorm", nature interferes in the plans of the heroes and connects Marya Gavrilovna not with Vladimir, but with Burmin); 3. Form of psychologism (Landscape helps to reveal internal state heroes. prepares the reader for changes in their lives. The landscape, given through the perception of the hero, is a sign of his mental state at the moment of action, but it can also speak of his character). 4. Landscape as a form of the presence of the author (Methods of transmission copyright: *the point of view of the author and the hero merge, *the landscape given by the eyes of the author and at the same time the psyche of the heroes close to him is "closed" for characters - carriers of a worldview alien to the author (Bazarov)). The landscape expresses national identity (Lermontov "Motherland"). In works with philosophical problems through images of nature (albeit episodic), through attitudes towards it, the main ideas are often expressed. Landscape in the birth of literature. The least represented in the drama, hence the increase in the symbolist load of the landscape. In the epic performs a variety of functions. In the lyrics, the landscape is emphatically expressive, often symbolic: psychological parallelism, personifications, metaphors, and other tropes are widely used. Depending on the subject, or the texture of the description, landscapes are distinguished between rural and urban, or urban (“Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris"Hugo), steppe ("Taras Bulba" by Gogol), sea ("Moby Dick" by Melville). forest (“Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev), mountain (Dante, J.-J. Rousseau), northern and southern, exotic (“Pallada” Frigate by Goncharov). Various types of landscape are semiotized in the casting process. This becomes the subject of study of historical poetics.
11. The problem of the author.
Lecture!
AT archaic culture there was no author, there was no such need. There was collective creativity. This continued until medieval literature. Intention was not realized. Therefore, the fate of authorship and fiction run in parallel. The artist begins to gradually realize his responsibility for what he writes, realizes his possibilities. The Romantics were the first to clearly label literary work as professional. "I" comes first. The place of the author in archaic collective creativity was occupied by the narrator, storyteller, bard, etc. At the same time, the author has been understood for centuries as an authority, as a divine authority, a mediator between God and people. These are Aesop's Fables, David's Psalms, etc. These are the authorities. These works are not taken out of context. These may not be the works of David, Aesop, Solomon, but were attributed to them.
How is the author understood in modern literary criticism? Firstly, this is a biographical person with a whole range of qualities. Secondly, he is a writer. Thirdly, the author is the highest semantic authority of the work (author's position). The author is sometimes understood as the ideal of the poet, as the designation of an integral individual world. The author's in this sense is synonymous with the original (a certain stylistic manner). Fifthly, the image of the author is the image in the work of himself in the most general form.
The problem of the author's image. The term itself was coined V.V. Vinogradov. Analyzing the work, the researcher inevitably comes to the image of the author. Accordingly, the poetics of a particular writer is the image of this writer. Vinogradov understood the image of the author as a multi-valued stylistic characteristic individual work and all fiction. The image of the author was conceived by Vinogradov in terms of stylistic individuality. The image of the author is a concentrated embodiment of the essence of the work. For example, the novel "War and Peace" was written in an impersonal narrative, but we perfectly feel the image of the author.
MM. Bakhtin was against this category, because he distinguished between the creative nature (the author) and the created nature (the work). The image of the author, in his understanding, is allowed as a game, a special device.
The image of the author is an idea and a device. This is the narrative instance that is located between the author-creator and the artistic world. The image of the author in school practice is I. It is included in the system of characters (“Eugene Onegin”).
Spheres of manifestation of the author's consciousness. The sphere of the unintentional is made up of 3 layers: the collective unconscious (K. Jung), the individual unconscious (morbid complexes that are forced out of consciousness, something whose influence cannot be exaggerated and limited in analysis! Freud), writer's psychoideology (writer's ideas, his system of ethical and aesthetic values, beliefs). Intentional is the author's concept, direct work on the text.
The concept of the death of the author in postmodernism is indicated in the article by Roland Barthes "Death of the Author". He believes that in contemporary literature the author as such does not exist, and in general the author as the creator of the work is absent. The author is the father of the text, but the work is independent of its father. There is no father's power over the work. The father is dead, the text is alive. Instead of the author, there is the figure of a scribe, who, in turn, makes up a cocktail of quotes, words, and the author's pathos (the highest semantic substance) is understood as an imaginary, ideological violence. Only the reader owns the text. This concept is not new, it is close to the ideas of A.A. Potebni. Potebnya's psychological school for the first time in literary criticism actualized the role of the reader. “You can judge a writer according to the laws he has worked out for himself” - Pushkin A.S. The author cannot be removed from the text. Reader's perception is secondary.
12. Subjective organization of the epic work.
The author of the term and concept B.A. To about rman. The subjective organization is the correlation of the work of the subjects of speech and the subjects of consciousness. The subjects of speech are those who speak. And the subjects of consciousness are those whose consciousnesses are expressed. They may or may not match. The non-coincidence of the subjects of speech and the subjects of consciousness - improperly - direct speech. For example, “Lady with a dog” “these words are so ordinary, for some reason Gurov was outraged. What wild manners, what faces! What stupid nights etc. Depending on the type and type of the subject of speech are: a) the degree of breadth, b) the depth of comprehension of the world, c) the nature of its aesthetic assessment
Narrative types: Personal (there is a personified narrator), Impersonal (the narrator is outside the artistic world)
Personal P. 2 types: *P. on behalf of the lyric hero (form of use) * P. on behalf of the hero-narrator
*P. on behalf of the lir.hero created. atmospheres. confidant-ti, sincere-ti, allows maxim. plunging into the world of personality by self-disclosure of the hero. /but his knowledge of the world is not objective.
* P. on behalf of the narrator preserved. atmospheres. trust, strengthening the objectivization of the transmission of events.
Personal P. creates the illusion of identifying the hero with the author. L.P. looks like a monologue on the outside, but it's a hidden dialogue A-Ch
Impersonal P. - a way to achieve maxims. objectifying the image. Novel P. - created impressed., as if life tells itself. the absence of a direct word from the narrator.
Main types: narration in the first person (I) and third person (OH). Depending on what type is chosen by the narrator, there are the following points: the breadth and scale of the development of the world and reality. Depth of exploration of this reality. the nature of its aesthetic evaluation, time and space. With 1 person: probably, Maria Alekseevna thought that ... There is no way to move around and you can do it hypothetically. Limited by your life experience. The first person is an intimate, emotional narrative.
First person narration- personal, subjective, etc. first-person narration is divided into: 1. autobiographical narration (from the lyrical hero, narration in the form of a confession). For example, childhood, adolescence and youth. These works are interesting because I, the narrator, are not equal to the biographical author. It's easier when they have different names. 2) the hero is the narrator. In this case, the atmosphere of intimacy is preserved. But here the hero - the narrator does not speak about himself, but about other heroes. This is where the objectivity of the story gets stronger. The process of the mental life of the heroes is a mystery for the hero - the narrator. (Maxim Maksimich and Pechorin). Solzhenitsyn's story Matrenin yard". (autobiographical narrative). The second case is difficult, but advantageous - a double portrait is created. The subjective sphere of the work is expanded by epigraphs. Often they contain the author's position in order to understand the meaning of the work. Sometimes the second type of narration includes works written from the perspective of animals. (“Dreams of Chang”, “Faithful Ruslan”). The culture of impersonal storytelling was formed in European culture So slow. Classical works are written in the first person. The intermediate stage was epistolary novel- several first persons. This is due to the fact that prose, as a form of rhythmic organization of artistic speech, tried to find its place and pushed poetry aside. Until the 19th century. At the same time, the development of the genre of the novel took place. Before the epistolary form, there were to be impersonal - you need to move away from the author's emotionality and subjectivity. Ultimate objectivity - is achieved when judgments, etc. are avoided. (Maupassant and Flaubert "Madame Bovary", Dostoevsky and Chekhov). The life and representation of a person becomes more complicated, and therefore impersonality becomes more complicated. The author does not have the right to give a clear assessment (complex subjective organization). The form is meaningful. Hence a lot of research. Complex modernist works. There are no two identical works from the point of view of subjective organization. Maybe the story is YOU. In the form of an appeal. Bunin "Numbers", "Unknown friend" in the form of letters. Yuri Kazakov "Candle", "In a dream you cried bitterly." The story of Anatoly Kim "Twin". Nabokov's "Grip" (we are an additional characteristic of his vulgarity). Analysis of the subjective organization is the key to understanding the work. For some it is irreplaceable.
Narratology (narrator, narrator) is a field of Western literary criticism that addresses the subjective organization. The narrator is for the story (impersonal narration), the narrator is the primary narration. The story can be included in the narration. Author, intermediate - the image of the author (for example, Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin", "Dead Souls" by Gogol) - narrator - storyteller. The expansion and deepening of the subjective sphere in the 20th century occurs with the complication of the subjective and spatio-temporal organization. The same is in lyrics.
13. Non-author's word in the work.
The text of a literary work is generated by the creative will of the writer: it is created and completed by it. At the same time, individual links of the speech tissue can be in a very complex, even conflicting relationship to the author's consciousness. First of all: the text is not always maintained in one, actually the author's speech manner. AT literary works(especially widely - in the artistic prose of eras close to us; often in the poetry of 12 A. Blok) heteroglossia is imprinted, i.e. various manners (methods, forms) of thinking and speaking are recreated. At the same time, artistically significant (along with the direct author's word) is the non-author's word, called by literary critics (following M. M. Bakhtin) someone else's word. Khalizev Unauthorized word. Literature in Literature. Bakhtin distinguishes between three types of words: 1) "a direct, directly directed word to its object, as an expression of the speaker's last semantic instance"; 2) outside the consciousness of the speaker "objective word (the word of the depicted person)"; 3) belonging simultaneously to two subjects, differently perceived and experienced by them "two-voiced word".
Tales after the third
Studying the course of literary criticism in the Far East state university, I got acquainted with the theory of "wandering plots", according to which, all the stories told in literature were invented a long time ago, and simply "wander" from one generation to another, from one country to another, from one author to the next. Moreover, not always the latter can be accused of plagiarism. Let's call him "in good faith."
I first heard about this case in the distant 80s of the last century. In one of the youth newspapers of Primorye I read interesting story, which, apparently, has become the same "vagrant plot", acquiring additional details, more often with a local bias, and the narrators swear and swear that this happened to them or their friends.
Well, it's my turn to retell it in my interpretation.
On a dirt road leading through the hills towards the seaside town of Arsenyev, an elderly wife was driving in a battered Zhiguli car. We drove like an old man, not exceeding 40 kilometers per hour. And it was especially impossible to accelerate on that road: timber trucks transporting wood intended for export to Japan filled a fair gauge, and at that time there were no jeeps, except for UAZs, even in Primorye.
Going around the next closed turn, the driver suddenly braked sharply, so much so that his dozed off wife almost “pecked” her head into the windshield.
- What are you, old, crazy? the wife grumbled, but looking at her husband, who had turned as pale as death, she turned her gaze to the road.
And there, blocking the roadway across, lay a huge, almost human girth, 5-meter log. About a dozen angry men in torn clothes crowded around him.
The old men, without saying a word, closed themselves from the inside, but the "robbers" did not even look at the approaching car. After sitting in the “Zhigulenka” for about fifteen minutes and without waiting for active action, the old man opened the door and got out of the car. On not strong legs, he approached the crowd and asked what had happened. The men, nervously sipping a smoke, kept silent at first and only then told what had happened.
Employees of one of the design institutes decided to spend the weekend in nature and, as they say, with health benefits. Moreover, that year turned out to be fruitful for pine nuts.
Arriving at the place, they stretched their legs, which were stiff after a long sitting in cars, and rushed up to the top of a tall hill. With difficulty, they climbed to a decent height, looked around. There was a cedar, and almost at the very slope there was such a handsome cedar that, as they say, you could drop your hat even looking at its top. It was literally littered with large cones.
For a successful start, they drained a couple of white ones, had a bite, and then thought: who will climb a tree? No ropes were taken, only sacks. There were no branches below, and there were no hunters to climb the resinous trunk. And then one of the companions saw a hefty log lying nearby: apparently, one of their predecessors solved the issue radically, simply cutting down the tree they liked.
The idea to use the find as a battering ram arose at once from several designers flushed with alcohol: “Why ... We’ll hit them harder on the tree, the bumps will crumble!”
Having overcome the gravity of the earth after a hearty meal, the companions divided into two groups of approximately equal strength and, groaning, heaved the heavy colossus onto their shoulders, standing on both sides. The head of the department, who took on the role of helmsman, who was in the first pair, commanded: “Well, with God!” and they, picking up speed, rushed towards the cedar.
When only a few steps remained to the goal, the “helmsman” stepped on a large cone lying on the ground, and the whole procession, accelerating by inertia for a decisive blow, slightly changed direction in front of the tree. In short, they missed and, increasing their speed, they ran down a steep slope. Those behind yelled: “Throw the log!”, to which the “foreman”, choking from running and fear, growled: “I will throw it to you! Peremelet, your mother!
Having overcome at least three hundred meters, the whole group, leaving behind a decent clearing of crushed bushes, ran out onto the road, and only here they were able to stop. They no longer remembered how they threw off the hated log. Clothes hung in tatters for everyone. The hops have also vanished from the heads of the hapless cones. In their hearts, everyone experienced a just perfect descent ... Nobody wanted to climb up again.
