Changes in public life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in the development literature. It was literature, like no other sphere of culture, that most fully and vividly reflected the contradictions of social life, all those new trends and phenomena that characterize the development of all culture in
There was, in the words of Academician D.S. Likhachev, "a significant social expansion of literature." The written word began to serve the social lower classes, whose interests and moods were given the opportunity to be reflected not only in folklore, but also in written literature. This formed and developed in it a democratic, secular direction, i.e. led to the "secularization" of literature.
The gap between folklore and writing was being bridged. It is to the XVII century. include the first records of works of oral folk art - historical songs, epics, proverbs, conspiracies. Oral folk art, with its anti-feudal and anti-church motives, was the basis for the development of a democratic trend in literature, it had a noticeable impact on written literature both ideologically and artistically.
The influence of folk art on literature was expressed in the rapprochement literary language with a living folk language, in the emergence of new genres, and above all - democratic satire, in enriching the arsenal of artistic means.
An important step in the development of literature, indicating a break with medieval traditions and canons, was transition from historical literary heroes to fictional to the creation of generalized literary images. The heroes of literary works were not outstanding historical figures, but representatives of the democratic strata of the population, simple people from the townspeople and peasants, from the lower strata of the nobility. As for all culture, the literature of this time is characterized by the discovery of the value of the human personality, the diversity, complexity and inconsistency of human characters. Not the exploits of the "pleasers of God", but the life and deeds of ordinary people began to attract more and more attention of the reader.
Traditional forms could not accommodate new content without undergoing significant deformation. This also applies to such a stable genre. medieval literature like a life that gradually turns into biographical story. An example is the "Tale of Uliania Osorina", written by the Murom nobleman Druzhina Osorina, the son of Uliania. This is the first biography of a noblewoman in Russian literature. The author creates the image of an energetic and intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary wife and mistress. And although the story still uses the stereotypes of the hagiographic genre, in general, it is dominated by everyday narrative elements.
An outstanding monument of Russian literature was autobiographical story one of the leaders and ideologists of the Old Believers, Archpriest Avvakum "Life". Avvakum the writer differs sharply from Avvakum the apologist for the Old Believers. This work is conservative in its basic idea, but deeply innovative in its art form, unique in individual manner letters. A passionate defender of antiquity, a fierce opponent of everything new, who spoke out against realistic tendencies in painting, against secular education and the dissemination of scientific knowledge, Avvakum literary activity showed extraordinary innovation, abandoning the conventions and traditions of medieval writing. Turning to the traditional genre of life, he destroyed its ossified forms, becoming the founder of a new genre - autobiography-confession. He boldly introduced folk vernacular into the literary language. realistic image the ups and downs of his own life, Russian life, figurative language, passionate denunciation of social injustice, the arbitrariness of the authorities and church orders - all this made Avvakum's work one of the most striking and significant monuments of Russian democratic literature.
in the literature of the 17th century. the emergence and development of a new genre - democratic satire, reflecting the mood of the masses and denouncing the injustice of the social system. The anti-feudal orientation brought satire closer to oral folk art, from where it drew plots and artistic and visual means. In turn, many satirical stories became the property of folklore.
Various aspects of the life of the feudal-serf society, important state institutions were subjected to merciless denunciation. So, in "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court" and "The Tale of Yersh Yershovich" the orders of the feudal court were denounced with its chicanery, red tape, corrupt judges and biased decisions. In "The Service to the Tavern", written in the form of a parody of the church service, the state system of drinking the people through the "kings of the tavern" is exposed. The parodic "The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man" is distinguished by social sharpness, in which, with caustic irony, the hard life of the urban poor is told. In "The Tale of Thomas and Yerema" noble children incapable of any work are ridiculed.
The object of satire was often the church, which testified to the fall of its authority mainly due to the unseemly behavior of churchmen. The hypocrisy and greed of the clergy are scourged in "The Tale of the Hen and the Fox" and "The Tale of Priest Sava and His Great Glory". The monastic order and customs are ridiculed in the "Kalyazin petition". In it, in the form of a petition to the Bishop of Tver, the complaints of the monks accustomed to dissolute life to the "dashing" archimandrite, who decided to demand compliance with the strict monastic charter, are stated. The Tale of the Hawk Moth is especially poignant, in which it is wittily proved that the hawk hawk has no less rights to the "kingdom of heaven" than the "saints", and the "saints" turn out to be no less sinners than the hawker. There is already a skeptical attitude towards the official cult of saints.
The changes that took place in the consciousness, morality and life of people, the struggle between "old" and "new", which permeated all spheres of personal and public life, were clearly reflected in household story. In that turning point, when "the old customs were pissed off", became relevant topic relationship between old and young generations "fathers and children". O tragic fate young man, who tried to break with the old forms of family and everyday life, with Domostroy morality, is described in The Tale of Woe-Misfortune. The main conflict of the story is the clash of two worldviews: the older generation, who stood guard over traditional social and family morality, the old way of life, and younger generation, striving for independence, prone to initiative and personal activity. The author shows the doom of the hero, who cannot oppose anything to the traditional way of life, consecrated for centuries, except for the desire to live according to his own will. As a result, he collapses and goes to a monastery. This reflected the Russian reality of the XVIII century, when the old was still much stronger than the new and attempts to live differently ended tragically. The plot of the story echoes the gospel parable of the prodigal son. However, the hero of the story, unlike the "prodigal son", does not show remorse, but returns to parental home with his old way of life, he prefers self-imprisonment in a monastery, the last and forced refuge.
The same theme of the conflict between the older and younger generations is revealed in "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn". Caught by commercial affairs away from his parental home, Savva Grudtsyn indulges in debauchery, begins to lead wild life and sells his soul to the devil. Fleeing from his father's wrath, he flees the city, falls into the hands of soldiers, and with the help of the devil performs miraculous feats during the Smolensk War. Finally with the help miraculous icon he is freed from the power of the devil, goes to a monastery and dies there. The story is notable for its entertaining intrigue and lively colloquial language. It expressively describes the real pictures of Russian life of that time: township life, the customs of the merchants, the events of the Russian-Polish war of 1632-1634, the life of a soldier. A wide historical and everyday background, a large number of characters, an image of the fate of an ordinary person, a story about his love, experiences, spiritual struggle - all this allows modern researchers to consider this work one of the first Russian novels.
At the end of the 17th century, The Tale of Frol Skobeev appeared. Its distinctive feature is the absence of religious didactics. The noble nobleman Frol Skobeev, a swindler and adventurer, does not disdain any means to achieve his own well-being, there is nothing sacred for him, he does not even remember the old Testament morality of his fathers. This already has a spirit. new era. Energy, mind, worldly practicality - these are the qualities that lead the hero to achieve his goal. The story reflected the beginning in the second half of the XVII century. the process of the decline of the old nobility and the rise of a new, energetic nobility.
New in the literature was the appearance syllabic versification, based on the ordering of the number of syllables in a verse:
equal number of syllables per line, pause in the middle of the line and feminine rhyme, i.e. stress on penultimate syllable last word. The founder of Russian syllabic versification was Simeon of Polotsk. His poems are combined into two large collections - "Rhymologion" and "Multicolored Vertograd". A significant part of them are panegyric poems dedicated to members of the royal family, as well as written on the occasion of various events in court life. S. Polotsky also wrote satirical poems. The main thing in his work is the substantiation of the idea of an enlightened monarchy. In 1680, S. Polotsky translated into verse the psalter - "Rhyming Psalter", which was a great success with readers. book for a long time used as tutorial. S. Polotsky's work was continued by his students Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin.
became popular translated fiction, its character changed: more and more attention was attracted by works with an entertaining plot - a chivalric novel, a burgher everyday and picaresque short story, an adventure story, humorous stories and jokes. This literature was subjected to considerable revision, sometimes filled with purely Russian content and strongly influenced by Russian folklore. Some works, turning into oral tale became the property of folklore.
Among these works was The Tale of Bova the King, which went back to the French chivalric romance and attracted readers with an adventurous plot close to a fairy tale. Other chivalric novels were also translated: "The story of the brave knight Peter of the Golden Keys and the beautiful princess of Neapolitan Magilena" - from a French chivalric courtly novel. XV century; from the Czech Republic came "The Tale of Vasily Zlatovlas"; "The Tale of Otto the Roman Caesar" and others were translated from Polish. The central theme of all these works was the theme of earthly love, constancy and fidelity.
The "Tale of Yeruslan Lazarevich", which came from the East and goes back to Firdousi's poem "Shah-name", became very popular. The "Story of the Seven Wise Men", which came from Poland, goes back to an ancient Indian legend; it consists of 15 small short stories united by a single plot frame. Collections of moralizing stories "Roman Acts" and "Great Mirror", a collection of anecdotes and sayings of ancient philosophers "Apothegmata" were translated from Polish. The repertoire of translated literature testified to the changing interests and tastes of the Russian reader.
2. Artistic discoveries of Russian literature of the 17th century
The main trend is the transition from the medieval type of literature to the new
changing the genre system
Tale (historical, household, military)
The Emergence of the Novel (The Life of Avvukum)
The emergence of poetry (syllabic verses of Polotsky)
Dramaturgy (school, court theater)
The appearance of a large number of satirical works influenced by folklore
The influence of business writing genres on literature >>>
division of literature into fiction and business
The division of literature into official (elite) and unofficial (mass, interacting with folklore)
New type of hero
Until the 17th century hero - a person who has a certain official status
17th century - a person of a different status (merchant's son, anonymous fellow, etc.). A distinctive feature of such a hero is activity >>> the fate of the heroes is in their hands. Geographic coverage is expanding.
Strengthening links with Western literature>>> emergence of Western stories
The appearance of a picaresque novel (Frol Skobeev)
The transition of genres from one to another
XVIIcentury - the century of transition from medieval literature to the literature of the New Age
The 17th century is the century of preparation for radical changes in Russian literature. The restructuring of literature as a whole begins. The number of genres is enormously expanding due to the introduction into literature of forms of business writing, which are given purely literary functions, due to folklore, due to the experience of translated literature. The plot, entertainment, pictoriality, thematic coverage is increasing. And all this is accomplished mainly as a result of the enormous growth of the social experience of literature, the enrichment of social themes, and the expansion of the social circle of readers and writers.
Of particular importance in this restructuring of literature belongs to changes in reality. The events of the Time of Troubles in many ways shocked and changed the ideas of the Russian people about the course of historical events as supposedly controlled by the will of princes and sovereigns. At the end of the XVI century. the dynasty of Moscow sovereigns ceased to exist, the peasant war began, and with it the Polish-Swedish intervention. The intervention of the people in the historical destinies of the country was expressed during this period with extraordinary force. The people declared themselves not only by uprisings, but also by participating in the discussion of future contenders for the throne.
The social expansion of literature affected both its readers and its authors. From the middle of the XVII century. democratic literature emerges. This is the literature of the exploited class. Literature thus begins to differentiate.
In the 17th century - new impetus towards mass literature These are works of a democratic character. They are so massive that historians literature XIX and the beginning of the 20th century. recognized them as unworthy of study - a kind of "fence literature".
The change of foreign influences that took place in Russian literature of the 17th century is also characteristic of this period of transition to the type of literature of the new time. It has usually been noted that the original the focus of Russian literature on the literature of the Byzantine circle is replaced in the 17th century.Western European orientation. But it is not so much this focus on Western countries that is important, but the focus on certain types literature.
In the 17th century a whole layer of works independent of official writing appeared, for which the term “democratic satire” was assigned in literary criticism (“The Tale of Yersh Yershovich”, “The Tale of Priest Sava”, “Kalyazinsky Petition”, “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man”, etc. ). These works are written both in prose, often rhythmized, and in verse (rhyming phrases). They are closely related to folklore and in their own way artistic specificity, and by way of being. Monuments attributed to democratic satire are mostly anonymous. Their texts are mobile, variable, that is, they have many options. Their stories are known for the most part both in writing and in oral tradition.
"The Tale of Ersh Ershovich". Democratic satire is filled with the spirit of social protest. Many of the works of this circle directly denounce the feudal order and the church. "The Tale of Yersh Yershovich", which arose in the first decades of the 17th century, tells about the lawsuit between Yersh and Leshch and Golovl. Leshch and Golovl, “residents of Lake Rostov”, complain to the court about “Ruff against Ershov’s son, for a bristle, for a snitch, for a thief for a robber, for a sneak for a deceiver ... for a badly unkind person.” In the form of a parody of the “judgment case”, it tells about the tricks and lewdness of Ruff, the “age-old deceiver” and “guided thief”. In the end, the judges recognize that Bream is right "with comrades" and give them Ruff's head. But even here Ruff managed to avoid punishment. From the second half of the 16th century, that is, during the formation of the local system, the violence of landowners against peasants became the norm. It is this situation, when the “son of the boyars” deceives and takes land from the peasants by deceit and violence, that is reflected in the “Tale of Yersh Yershovich”. It also reflects the impunity of rapists, who are not afraid of even a guilty verdict.
The development of the historical and everyday story inXVIIcentury (The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, The Tale of Savva Grudnyets, The Tale of Frol Skobeev).
"The Tale of Woe-Misfortune".
The poetic "The Tale of Woe and Misfortune, how Grief-Misfortune brought the hammer to the monastic rank" was preserved in a single list. "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" stands outside the traditional genre systems. It arose at the intersection of folklore and book traditions. His nutrient medium were folk songs about Gore and book "repentant" verses. Some of his motifs are borrowed from the Apocrypha. Like epics, "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is composed in tonic verse without rhymes. Based on all these sources, an unknown author created an outstanding work that adequately completed the seven-century development ancient Russian literature.
Two themes are connected in the story - the theme of the fate of a person in general and the theme of the fate of a Russian person of the "rebellious age", a nameless young man. The author of The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, according to the medieval manner of putting any particular event in the perspective of world history, began the story with a story about the fall of Adam and Eve, who ate the forbidden fruit from the “tree of the knowledge of good and evil.” But the story contains not a canonical legend, but a version of the Apocrypha, which is somewhat at odds with the Orthodox tradition. In The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, these apocryphal motifs are, as it were, the foundation of the plot. The story of the nameless Russian fellow is like an echo of distant events. Parents give their child the same instructions that God, the "parent" of the first man, taught Adam. The idea of similarity, as we shall see, is further reflected in the plot of The Tale of Woe-Misfortune.
But what the young man is destined to experience is no longer placed in direct artistic connection with biblical events. The good man chooses his own destiny.
In the Middle Ages, the individual was absorbed by the clan, corporation, estate. The behavior of the characters of medieval literature is entirely subordinated to etiquette, and in accordance with this, fate depends either on the precepts of the clan, or on the corporate (princely, monastic, etc.) code. Only in the 17th century, in the era of the restructuring of medieval culture, the idea of individual destiny is affirmed, the idea of a person choosing his own life path. "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is a decisive step in this direction. Well done chooses the "evil part", the evil share, the evil fate. This dashing untalented fate is personified in the story in the image of Grief. Woe-Misfortune - an evil spirit, a tempter and a double of a young man. This fateful companion is inevitable, the hero cannot get out of his power, because he himself chose the "evil part".
At the end of the story, the hero shuts himself up in the walls of the monastery, “and Grief remains at the holy gates, no one will be tied to Molotets again!”
Leaving home, the good fellow in a foreign land got back on his feet, got rich and looked after the bride. This means that the “crime of wine” did not lead him to irrevocable collapse.
As long as he was faithful to his bride, as long as he thought about the “human birth”, about “beloved children”, Grief was powerless. It “spelled out”, appeared to the young man in a dream in the guise of the Archangel Gabriel and persuaded him to leave his bride. Thus was the final fall of the hero. He received an individual destiny because he rejected the generic destiny. He is a renegade, an outcast, a "walking man". The hero of the "Tale" is a bifurcated person, often suffering from his own fall. "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is dramatic. One of her remarkable features is sympathy for the fallen hero. Although the author condemns the sins of the young man, although the author is entirely for loyalty to the ancestral principle, for loyalty to the ideals of Domostroy, he is still not content with the role of accuser. The author believes that a person is worthy of sympathy simply because he is a person, even fallen and mired in sin. Such is the humanistic conception of The Tale of Woe-Misfortune. This is an innovative concept, since empathy for a sinful person was not possible before in literature.
The writings of Archpriest Avvakum and his role as an innovative writer.
In the XVII century. in art, the individual beginning asserts itself more and more weightily. Literature turns into an arena for the struggle of ideas, and the writer becomes a personality- with his unique creative style, unique to him.
Most clearly, the individual beginning manifested itself in the work of Archpriest Avvakum (1621-1682). This famous leader of the Old Believers became a writer already in adulthood. Until the age of forty-five, he rarely took up the pen, from time to time. All famous works were written in Pustozersk. Here he was imprisoned for the last fifteen years of his life and "for the great blasphemy against the royal house" he was put on fire.
In his younger years, Avvakum was not going to devote himself to literary creativity. He chose another field - the field of combating the abuses of church and state, the field of oral preaching, live and direct communication with people.
Avvakum never changed his beliefs. In spirit and temperament, he was a fighter, polemicist, accuser.
In Pustozersk he had no listeners, and he had no other choice but to take up the pen.
Avvakum in Pustozersk wrote many petitions, letters, epistles, as well as such extensive works as the "Book of Conversations", which includes 10 discussions on various doctrinal topics; as the "Book of Interpretations" - it includes Habakkuk's interpretations of the psalms and other biblical texts; as "The Book of Reproofs, or the Eternal Gospel", containing Avvakum's theological controversy with his "prisoner" deacon Fyodor. In Pustozersk, Avvakum also created his monumental autobiography, his remarkable Life (1672), which he revised several times.
Both in origin and in ideology Habakkuk belonged to the social classes. A long and bitter life experience convinced Avvakum that life in Rus' was hard for the common people. The idea of equality is one of Habakkuk's favorite ideas. Democracy pervades the ideology and aesthetics of Habakkuk. In all his works, and above all in the Life, Avvakum reveals an amazing talent as a stylist. He speaks "Russian natural language" with some special freedom and flexibility. One of the reasons for this is that Avvakum feels himself not writing, but speaking. He calls his style of presentation "clattering" and "grunting".
Avvakum's conversation is deeply emotional. For the first time in ancient Russian literature, the author writes a lot about his experiences, about how he "worries", "weeps", "sighs", "mourns". For the first time a Russian writer dares to compare himself with the first Christian writers - the apostles. In creating his Life, Avvakum to a certain extent used the hagiographic canon.
And yet Avvakum resolutely reforms the hagiographic scheme. He - for the first time in Russian literature - unites the author and the hero of the hagiographic narrative in one person. From the traditional point of view, this is unacceptable, for glorifying oneself is sinful pride. The symbolic layer of the "Life" is also individual: Avvakum attaches a symbolic meaning to such "mortal", insignificant household items, which medieval hagiography generally did not, as a rule, note.
The symbolic interpretation of everyday realities is extremely important in the system of ideological and artistic principles"Life". Avvakum fiercely fought Nikon's reform. As soon as Orthodoxy collapses, it means that Ancient Rus'. Therefore, he so lovingly, so vividly describes Russian life, especially family life.
Avvakum's "Life" is not only a sermon, but also a confession. Sincerity is one of the most striking features of this work. This is not only a writer's position, it is the position of a sufferer, a "living dead" who has committed suicide and for whom death is a welcome deliverance.
Syllabic poetry and creativity of Simeon Polotsky.
The creator of regular syllabic poetry in Moscow was the Byelorussian Simeon Polotsky. (Syllabic -division principle verse on the rhythmic units equal in number syllables, not the number of stresses and their location).
In Moscow, Simeon Polotsky continued the work of a teacher begun at home. He raised the sovereign's children, opened a Latin school not far from the Kremlin. Simeon of Polotsk also established another position - the position of a court poet, hitherto unknown in Russia. Any event in royal family- marriages, name days, births of children - gave Simeon Polotsky a reason to compose poems "in case". By the end of his life, the poet collected these poems into a huge “Rhymologion, or Verse” (this collection came in a draft autograph and was published only in extracts).
The legacy of Simeon of Polotsk is very great. It is estimated that he left at least fifty thousand lines of poetry.
In addition to the Rhymologion, this is the Rhyming Psalter (a poetic transcription of the Psalter, printed in 1680) and the colossal collection Vertograd (garden) multicolored (1678) remaining in manuscripts - a kind of poetic encyclopedia in which poems are located in alphabetically. There are 1155 titles in Vertograd, and under one title a whole cycle is often placed - from two to twelve poems.
"Multicolored Vertograd" is a poetic encyclopedia in which Simeon of Polotsk wanted to give the reader the widest body of knowledge - primarily on history, ancient and medieval Western European. Here mythological plots and historical anecdotes about Caesar and Augustus, Alexander the Great, Diogenes, Justinian and Charlemagne coexist. "Vertograd" gives information about fictional and exotic animals - a phoenix bird, a crying crocodile, an ostrich, about precious stones, and so on. Here we will also find an exposition of cosmogonic views, excursions into the field of Christian symbolism.
This "museum of rarities" reflects several fundamental baroque motifs - first of all, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "diversity" of the world, the variability of existence, as well as the craving for sensationalism inherent in baroque. However, the peculiarity of the "museum of rarities" is that it is a museum of literature.
The word was perceived as a tool for transforming the world, as a means of creating a new European culture. Therefore, the educational plans of Simeon of Polotsk were primarily the plans of a humanitarian.
Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent faith in the power of the word, in the power of conviction, strives to literary works promote certain ideas, achieving specific actionable goals.
"The Tale of 1606" - journalistic work, created by a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The story actively supports the policy of the boyar tsar Vasily Shuisky, tries to present him as a popular choice, emphasizing the unity of Shuisky with the people.
Subsequently, "The Tale of 1606" was revised into "Another Legend". Defending the positions of the boyars, the author portrays him as the savior of the Russian state from adversaries.
This group of works is opposed by stories that reflect the interests of the nobility and the townspeople's trade and craft strata of the population.
"A NEW STORY ABOUT THE GLORIOUS RUSSIAN KINGDOM…"
She sharply denounced the treacherous policy of the boyar government, which, instead of being a "land holder" native land, turned into a domestic enemy, and the boyars themselves into "earth-eaters", "crooks".
characteristic feature The story is its democracy, a new interpretation of the image of the people - this "great ... waterless sea."
the people in the story do not yet act as an effective force.
The general pathetic tone of presentation is combined in the "New Tale" with numerous psychological characteristics. For the first time in literature, there is a desire to discover and show the contradictions between the thoughts and actions of a person. In this growing attention to the disclosure of a person’s thoughts that determine his behavior, lies literary significance"New story".
"LAMENT OF THE CAPTURE AND FINAL RUIN OF THE MOSCOW STATE".
". The author seeks to find out the reasons that led to the "fall of high Russia", using the form of an instructive short "conversation". In an abstract generalized form, he speaks of the responsibility of the rulers for what happened "over the highest Russia." However, this work does not call to the struggle, but only grieves, convinces to seek consolation in prayer and hope in God's help.
"CHRONICLE BOOK" ATTRIBUTED TO KATYREV-ROSTOVSKY.
reflected the official-government point of view on the recent past.
A characteristic feature of the "Chronicle Book" is the desire of its author to introduce into the historical narrative landscape sketches, which serve as a contrasting or harmonizing background to ongoing events.
For the first time there is a desire to portray internal contradictions nature and reveal the causes by which these contradictions are generated. The straightforward characteristics of a person are beginning to be replaced by a deeper depiction of the contradictory properties of the human soul.
All this testifies to the intensification of the process of "secularization" of culture and literature, i.e. its gradual liberation from the tutelage of the church, religious ideology.
The process of "secularization" of ancient Russian literature was reflected in the transformation of such a stable genre as hagiography. Its canons are destroyed by the invasion of everyday realities, folklore legends from the 15th century, as evidenced by the lives of John of Novgorod, Mikhail Klopsky. the process of destruction of canonical hagiographic genres. Pious ascetic monk - central hero life is replaced by a secular hero, who begins to be portrayed in a real everyday environment. Genres historical narrative (historical tale, legend) in the 17th century. undergo significant changes. Their content and form are subject to democratization. Historical facts gradually replaced by artistic fiction,
All big role an entertaining plot, motives and images of oral folk art begin to play in the narrative.
"TALE ABOUT THE AZOV SIEGE SEAT OF THE DON COSSACKS".
A distinctive feature of the story is its hero. This is not an outstanding historical personality of the ruler of the state, the commander, but a small team, a handful of brave and courageous daredevils-Cossacks who have accomplished heroic deed not for the sake of personal glory, not out of self-interest, but in the name of their homeland - the Muscovite state, which "is great and spacious, shines brightly in the midst of all other states and hordes of Busormansikhs, Persian and Hellenic, like the sun in the sky."
The process of awakening the consciousness of the individual is reflected in what appeared in the second half of the 17th century. new genre - everyday story.
His appearance is associated with a new type of hero.
The everyday story vividly reflects the changes that have taken place in the consciousness, morality and life of people, that struggle between "old" and "new" of the transitional era, which permeated all spheres of personal and social life.
In literature to replace historical personality a fictional hero arrives, in whose character the traits of an entire generation of the transitional era are typified.
"THE TALE ABOUT KARP SUTULOV". This story is a link between the genre of everyday and satirical story. In this work, satire begins to occupy a predominant place.
One of the most remarkable phenomena in the literature of the second half of the 17th century is the design and development of satire as an independent literary genre, which is due to the specifics of the social life of that time.
Historical novels
Tale of the Beginning of Moscow
Having lost historicism, genres historical literature in the 17th century acquires new qualities: they develop fiction, entertaining, the influence of the genres of oral folk art is increasing, and history itself becomes an independent form of ideology, gradually turning into a science.
The hero was close and understandable to the Russian reader, who saw in him a reflection of his ideal of a person.
Due to the changes that have taken place in the life, way of life and consciousness of people, the nature of translated literature is changing. Works of predominantly secular content are translated. However, translators still do not aim to convey the original with maximum accuracy, but adapt it to the tastes and needs of their time, sometimes filling it with purely Russian content, using the achievements and discoveries in the depiction of human character made by the original literature.
Literature is undergoing a process of desecularization. The church until this period played the role of censorship. In the 17th century, literature was finally divided into ecclesiastical and secular. Secular literature begins to take shape. The process of democratization of literature. The type of literature itself is changing. Heroes become simple, their fate is complex and twofold. Heroes mainly from the merchant class
Russian literature on the verge of the XVI-XVII centuries. was faced with the need to subordinate literature to the personal principle, to develop personal creativity and a stable author's text of works. She was faced with the need to free the entire system literary genres from their subordination to "business" tasks and the creation general forms literature with Western European.
Heroes begin to violate the old testamentary norms developed in Russian life of the previous centuries. The new heroes of literature are not carriers of any new ideas. The point is the new attitude of authors and readers towards them. Literature itself as a whole begins to be created under the influence of the personal principle. Literature includes the author's principle, the author's personal point of view, ideas about copyright and the inviolability of the text of the author's work, individualization of style and much more.
Events of "Trouble" early XVII in. mixed up the social status of the people. Both well-born and unborn people began to play a significant role, if only they had the ability politicians. Therefore, the official position of the author did not have the same significance as before. At the same time, each author began to strive for self-identification, sometimes self-justification, and began to write from his own purely personal point of view.
In the 17th century a type of writer appeared who was aware of the significance of what he writes and does, the extraordinary nature of his position and his civic duty. Self-consciousness of the writer in the 17th century. stands at the level of the new time. The growth of the author's self-awareness was only one of the symptoms of awareness in literature of the value human personality. Man increasingly acted as a complex moral attitude a being associated with other people, with the circumstances that led him to this or that act, with the everyday environment.
The position of the heroes is for the most part declining, corresponding in part to the position of the new reader who came in the 17th century. The hero does not rise above the reader morally either.
Democratic Literature with its satire and parody is to some extent indicative of the entire era as a whole.
Completely changing genre system literature. Some genres have gone, such as chronicle, life (from secular literature). Fantastic and everyday genres, for example, a household story (the birth of a Russian novel). An autobiography appears for the first time.
12. Russian story of the 17th century. Ideological and artistic originality of "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"
In the second half of the XVII century. the genre of the story took a leading position in the system of literary genres. If a old Russian tradition denoted by this word any "narrative", that which, in principle, is told, the story as a new literary genre filled with qualitatively different content. Its subject is the individual fate of a person, his choice of his life path, awareness of his personal place in life. The question of the author's attitude to the events described is no longer as unambiguous as before: the author's voice clearly gives way to the plot as such, and the reader is left to draw his own conclusion from this plot.
"The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"
Part 1: (legendary introduction). An excursion into the distant past. Apocryphal plot: Eve was seduced by grapes in paradise.
Part 2: (main) A story about the life of a young man. His name is not called. Well done - folklore motif. History claims the status of a parable. It has an instructive, generalized character.
The fate of the hero who is ready to start an independent life is described. Parents give him instructions for independent living. Councils household, vital. No religious overtones. The good fellow turned out to be too small and stupid, he did not listen to advice and left his parents. First, he gets into a tavern, they take off his “last trousers”. The hero is ashamed to return home and makes other mistakes.
He goes into distant countries, there accidentally wanders into some city, finds a certain courtyard where there is a feast. The owners like that the young man behaves “according to the written teaching”, that is, the way his parents taught him. He is invited to the table, treated. But the good fellow is twisted, and then he admits in front of everyone that he disobeyed his parents, and asks for advice on how to live on a foreign side. Good people advise the young man to live according to traditional laws, that is, they repeat and supplement the instructions of his father and mother.
And indeed, the first time the young man is doing well. He begins to "live skillfully", makes a fortune, finds good bride. The matter goes to the wedding, but here the hero makes a mistake: he boasts of what he has achieved in front of the guests. “The word commendable has always rotted,” the author notes. At this moment, the young man is overheard by Woe-Misfortune and decides to kill him. Since then, Woe-Misfortune has been an indispensable companion of the young man. It persuades him to drink away his property in a tavern, referring to the fact that “they won’t kick out the naked, barefoot from paradise either.” The good fellow obeys Grief-Misfortune, drinks away all the money and only after that he catches himself and tries to get rid of his companion - Grief-Misfortune. An attempt to jump into the river was unsuccessful. Grief-Misfortune already lies in wait for the young man on the shore and forces him to completely submit to himself.
Thanks to meeting with kind people in the fate of the young man, a turn is again planned: they took pity on him, listened to his story, fed and warmed the carriers across the river. They also ferry him across the river and advise him to go to his parents for a blessing. But as soon as the fellow is left alone, Woe-Misfortune again begins to pursue him. Trying to get rid of Grief, the fellow turns into a falcon, Grief turns into a gyrfalcon; well done - into a dove, Grief - into a hawk; well done - in gray wolf, Woe - in a pack of hounds; well done - in a feather grass, Grief - in a braid; well done - into the fish, Grief follows him with a net. The good fellow again turns into a man, but Woe-Misfortune does not lag behind, teaching the young man to kill, rob, so that the young man "for that they hanged, or put him in the water with a stone." Finally, the “Tale” ends with the fact that the young man goes to get a haircut at the monastery, where Grief-Misfortune no longer has a road, and it remains outside the gates.
Hero - typical representative literature of the 17th century: weak, ordinary, weak-willed, spineless. There is no clear inner core. Neither positive nor negative. Complicated, ambiguous.
Literature becomes more realistic. There is an imitation of a folklore situation. 2 times are conjugated - the distant past and the present. Both before and now people are disobedient. The introduction writes off the sins from the hero, because. Man is originally born a sinner. Subtle philosophical level.
The monastery, unlike folklore, plays the role of a shelter, that is, the image of the monastery changes.
"The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is not a story. Origins - folk songs about grief.
13. Russian story of the 17th century. Ideological and artistic originality of "The Tale of Savva Grutsyn"
A household story is a work, the basis of which is not a historical plot, but the life of a hero based on everyday events.
"The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn" - a work created by unknown author in the 60s. 17th century The work reflects the historical events of the first half of the century and many everyday features of that time.
The combination in the "Tale" of the romantic theme with detailed descriptions life and customs Rus' XVII in. gave grounds to a number of researchers to see in this work the experience of creating the first Russian novel.
The Tale tells how the merchant's son Savva from the really existing rich merchant family of the Grudtsyn-Usovs, being on trading business in the city of Orel (on the Kama River, near Solikamskaya), was seduced by the wife of the merchant Bazhen II. Having abandoned the sinful occupation on the day of the holy Ascension, Savva aroused the wrath of his mistress, and she, having drunk the young man with a love love potion, persuaded her husband to refuse him from the house. Suffering from unquenched passion, Savva thinks that he is ready to serve the devil in order to return the former love affair, and the demon in the guise of a young man immediately appears. Savva gives him his "handwriting", in which he renounces Christ (although, due to illiteracy, he wrote under the dictation of a demon "without compiling", that is, without reading what was written as a coherent text). In the future, the demon acts in a role close to the "magic helper" of a folk tale, helping the hero not only achieve the love of Bazhen II's wife, but also commit military exploits during the siege of Smolensk by Russian troops. Returning to Moscow, Savva fell seriously ill and decided to confess. The demons that appeared are trying to prevent him from doing this and show Savva his "God-marked letter". And after confession, the demons continue to torment the hero until the Mother of God appears to him, along with John the Theologian and Peter the Metropolitan, who indicate the path of salvation: like the hero of the Tale of Woe-Misfortune, who became dependent on a hostile force, Savva completes his path in the monastery.
Russian literature was still represented by journalistic writings devoted to acute political problems. Time of Troubles increased interest in the question of the nature of power in political system. The ambiguity of the events of this time led to the fact that writers begin to think about the inconsistency of the human character. If before the heroes of the books were either absolutely good or absolutely evil, now writers discover free will in a person, show his ability to change himself depending on the circumstances. This is how the heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 appear before us: Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. Chronograph edition 1620
As academician D.S. Likhachev noted, this manifested a tendency to reveal a person’s character: the heroes of literature are not only holy ascetics and princes, as before, but also ordinary people, merchants, peasants, poor nobles who acted in easily recognizable situations.
The Spread of Literacy in the 17th Century attracted new sections of the population of provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople into the circle of readers. The change in the social composition of the reading public put forward new demands on literature. For such readers special interest it evokes entertaining reading, the need for which was satisfied by translated chivalric novels and original adventurous stories. Muscovites, poor men's suit(townspeople, serfs)
To late XVII in. Russian reading public knew up to a dozen works that came to Russia from abroad. Among them, the most popular were "The Tale of Bova Korolevich" and "The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys". These works on Russian soil, while retaining the features of a chivalric romance, became so close to the fairy tale that they turned into folklore. New features of literary and real life were clearly manifested in everyday stories, the heroes of which strove to live according to their own will, rejecting the precepts of antiquity. Such is the hero of "The Tale of Woe - Misfortune" and especially "The Tale of Frols Skobssvs" a typical picaresque novel that describes the vicissitudes of life of an impoverished nobleman who, by hook or by crook, seeks to penetrate the top of society. Anonymous ancient Russian poetic work of the 17th century, preserved in a single list of the 18th century. and having literary background
In the 17th century a new literary genre arose - democratic satire, closely connected with folk art and folk culture of laughter. It was created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy, dissatisfied with the oppression of the feudal lords, the state and the church. In particular, numerous parodies appeared, for example, on legal proceedings (“The Tale of the Shsmyakin Court”, “The Tale of Ersh Ershovich”), on hagiographic works("The word about the hawk"). The Tale of Ersh Ershovich. Illustration from the collection of D. Rovinsky.
The birth of versification has become a bright feature literary life. Before that, Russia knew poetry only in folk art- in epics, but epics were not rhymed verse. Rhymed poetry arose under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, which is characterized by an equal number of syllables in a line, a pause in the middle of a line, and an end rhyme under a single strictly obligatory stress.
Simeon Polotsky became its founder. He was educated at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and was the court poet of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, composed recitations and monologues, which became models new poetry and included in the collection "Rifmagion". He saw his task in creating the Novorossiysk literature, and in many respects he fulfilled this mission. His works are distinguished by ornamentality, splendor, changeability of being. Polotsky has a craving for sensationalism, a desire to surprise, to amaze the reader both in the form of presentation and in the unusual, exotic nature of the information reported. Such is the Multicolored Vertograd, a kind of encyclopedia, which contains several thousand rhymed texts containing data gleaned from various fields of knowledge, history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with mythologized ideas of the author. Reconstruction of a portrait from the collection of Platon Beketov
Author's prose first appears also in the 17th century; an example of it are the writings of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov. He left about 90 texts written at the end of his life in exile. Among them is the famous "Life" - an emotional and eloquent confession, striking in its sincerity and courage. In his book, for the first time, the author and the hero of the work are combined, which would previously be considered a manifestation of pride. Icon of Archpriest Avvakum
