Which of the simple musical forms is the smallest. The most common forms of music

, melodic formulas, etc.), harmony, meter and rhythm, structure and texture, verbal text (poetic, prayerful, prose), timbres and clusters, etc .; 3) musical-theoretical academic discipline and the branch of musicology concerned with the study of form.

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Musical form on the example of pieces from " children's album" P. Tchaikovsky

Series of meetings "Be in music!" - Musical forms

Motive. Phrase. Sentence.

Musical Form: Variations

Fragment of a music lesson. The game "Catch the question" when repeating the theme "Musical form"

Subtitles

Form and content

When considering the form in its most generalized sense (the second meaning of the term according to the MES), the musical form cannot be distinguished from the specifically musical content. When the object of consideration (formal construction) “blurs” in this way, then the analysis of the form essentially turns into a “holistic analysis” of everything. Yu.N. Kholopov, in Germany - the author of a popular textbook on form Clemens Kühn: “When the “doctrine of forms” is rebaptized into an “analysis of composition”, then, although historically and lexically the features of a given individual composition are fully rewarded, the doctrine of forms as a discipline is largely is abolished."

The opposition of form and content is an obligatory aspect of musicology in Russia during the Soviet period. The so-called "Marxist theory of art", which postulated the primacy of content over form, served as the methodological basis for considering this opposition in the USSR. In the vulgar sociological interpretation of this postulate, form as such could not be the subject of science and the musical composition itself. Composers and music theorists who showed “excessive” attention to form in their work were declared “formalists” by the ideologists of the Marxist theory of art (with inevitable socio-political consequences).

Form and genre, form and style

Musical form - a debatable topic scientific research. Teachings about musical form in Russia, in Germany, in the USA, in France and other regions of the world differ greatly from each other both in methodology and in specific terminology. The relative agreement of scientists from different schools belonging to the European tradition (including Russian ones) is noted only in analyzes of the music of the classical-romantic era (XVIII-XIX centuries), partly also in relation to baroque music. A more complex situation is with the forms of ancient and traditional (cult and secular, Western and Eastern traditions) music, where the musical form is practically inseparable from the genre (sequence, madrigal, motet, responsories, stichera, mugham, etc.).

The musical form is also considered in connection with the concept of musical style, in the range of scientific research, as in L. Stein's book “Structure and Style. The study and analysis of musical forms ", to statements in popular books about music "for dummies": "Hip-hop, gospel, heavy metal, country and reggae are the same" forms "as are minuets, fugues, sonatas and rondos" .

The structure of the work

The work consists of individual musical phrases- small integral musical fragments. Musical phrases are combined into periods. Periods that sound similar are combined into parts. Fragments (phrases, periods, parts) of a musical work are indicated by Latin letters: A, B, C, etc. Different combinations of fragments form different musical forms. So, a common form in classical music - ABA (song form), means that the original part A disappears when it is replaced by part B, and is repeated at the end of the work.

There is also more complex structuring: motive(the smallest element of musical form; one accent 1-2 bars), phrase(usually has 2 accents; 2-4 bars), sentence(the smallest part of a melody completed by some kind of cadence; 4-8 bars), period(completed musical thought; 8-16 bars; 2 sentences).

Different ways of developing and comparing the elements of a melody led to the formation of various types musical forms:

One piece form (A)

She is also called ballad form or airom [ ] . Most primitive form. The melody can be repeated with minor changes (form AA 1 A 2 ...). Examples: ditties.

Two-part form (AB)

It consists of two contrasting fragments - an argument and a counterargument (for example, the play "The Organ Grinder Sings" from P. I. Tchaikovsky's "Children's Album"). However, if the fragments are not contrasting, that is, the second fragment is built on the material of the first, then the two-part form turns into a variation of the one-part form. However, such works (for example, the play "Remembrance" from R. Schumann's "Album for Youth") are sometimes referred to as two-part.

Three-part form (ABA)

She is also called song or ternary. There are 2 types of three-part form - simple and complex; in simple, each section is a period, the middle one can be a short transition; in complex - each section is, as a rule, a two-part or simple three-part form.

concentric shape

The concentric shape consists of three or more parts, repeating after the central one in reverse order, for example: A B C B A

Classic forms

Sonata

Sonata form is a form in which the exposition (1 movement) contains two contrasting themes in different keys ( main party and side), which are repeated in the reprise (part 3) in a different tonal ratio - tonally approaching (most often, both are in the key of the main theme). The middle section (part 2) is in a typical case "Development", that is, a tonally unstable part, where the development of previous intonations takes place. Sonata form stands out from all other forms: the only form that has not been developed in dance and vocal genres.

Rondo

The freedom inherent in sonata form expands in the rondo. Its form is an ABACADAEAF construction... That is, completely different fragments, keys and sizes are connected by the initial theme A.

Rondo sonata

A mixed form that has features of rondo and sonata form. The form consists of three main sections, in which the extreme sections (both or one of them) are built according to the rondo principle, and the middle one is a development borrowed from the sonata form.

Variations

One of the oldest musical forms (known since the 13th century). Consists of a theme and at least two modified reproductions. A single variation of a theme, for example, a varied reprise in sonata form, does not allow it to be classified as a variation form.

Fugue

Notes

1. Kholopov Yu.N. Musical form // Musical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990, p.581.
2. In this sense, there can be no distinction between musical form and specifically musical content. Cit. by: Form // Harvard Dictionary of Music. 4th ed. Cambridge, Mass., 2003, p.329.
3. See, for example, his articles “Theoretical Musicology as a Humanitarian Science. Problem analysis music” and “What to do with musical forms Tchaikovsky?” .
4. Kuhn C. Formenlehre der Musik. Kassel, 1987; 10th edition ibid. in 2015.
5. Und wenn "Formenlehre" verschiedentlich zu "Werkanalyse" umgetauft wurde, kann zwar dem sprachlich und historisch Besonderen des Einzelwerkes Genüge getan werden, aber Formen-"Lehre" als Disziplin hebt sich weitestgehend auf. Cit. on:

The musical form is the structure of the whole work, its structure.

There are external and internal signs of division of the muses. works, signs of form.

External - this is the genre of the work: instrumental music or vocal, miniature or large work, lyrical or dance. The genre will already determine the possible range of forms. Information about the genre in the title of the work, in nuances, tempos, meter, in music. warehouse, invoice. The external signs of division are musical text: signs of reduction in musical writing, reprises, the appearance of a new nuance, a change in tempo or a return to the previous one - all these are signs of a new section. To outward signs include a change in meter, key signs, a change in texture.

Internal signs in the musical material itself. For a successful analysis of the form, a harmonic analysis is necessary (all the forms presented below are forms of the classical homophonic-harmonic style, structures in the formation of which harmony dominates). It is necessary to pay attention to the texture, it is necessary to solfegge and hear melodic lines together with harmony, to identify music functions. material, presentation types and methods of its development, repetitions of topics and thematic material, to distinguish between "relief" (exposition of topics) and "background" material.

In the music musical material can be perceived (according to Tyulin) in three qualities, - material functions:

basic material preparatory final

(show, exposition)

Sposobin suggested 6 functions musical material in a work detailing the previous ones:

summary reprise introduction middle link conclusion

Topics

The individuality of the material, that is, its function, depends on the characteristics of the muses. language, i.e. on the type of presentation(according to Method). There are 5 of them:

expositional introductory, middle, connecting final

type of presentation types of presentation type of presentation

Structural design, Middle type of presentation; Multiple

isolation; harmonic and extended cadence is possible

tonal stability, semi-authentic cadence; available

texture unity. modulation transition; T organ

possible D organ point. item, MTS -

Perhaps 2 - 3 cycles of invoices - summation.

noah training, - Structural informality,

maybe open or open; harmonic

a closed sentence, multiple and tonal instability, fluidity;

cue thesis. possible D organ point.

In complex forms, it is possible development(as a type of presentation).

large construction of the middle - Its features: - thematic isolation,

different type of presentation. - sequential development,

polyphonic means.

In the process of analyzing works of complex forms, it is convenient to designate the sequence of sections on the draft with letters: capital letters (A, B, C, etc.) are the main sections, capital letters are subsections. If necessary, more specifically: C - middle, R - development, CB - link, A1, A2 - varied repetition, Intro., Conclusion, Coda, etc. Sometimes it is necessary to additionally mark the structure of the presentation of topics, tonal plans, the number of measures, thematic material in the scheme. It helps to make generalizations.

Reminder for beginners.

To determine the boundary of the theme (completion of the thought), sometimes it is enough to find the final cadence: D7 - T (on a strong time, in the melodic position of the prima).

Simple SINGLE-PART - this is a work form , which is based on one musical theme.

The most typical structure of a one-part form (music themes) is the period different types: extended, often, with additions, complex periods, sometimes free constructions.

Works in the one-movement form often have introductions and conclusions, as in all other forms. In complex forms - codes.

Scope: instrumental and vocal-choral miniatures, preludes, songs, romances, plays of the pedagogical repertoire.

Variety - developed one-part the form.

SIMPLE TWO-PIECE- the form of the work, based on the presentation of the theme and the response to it by the muses. material.

first part second part

theme reciprocal music.mat.

thesis confirmation of the thesis

According to the thematic material, the second part happens:

Based on the material of Part I ( a - a1 ),

On the updated material ( a - b),

- reprise two-part ("with inclusion", according to Tyulin ), when in the second part an unstable middle type of material (“inclusion”) is introduced, after which the second or first sentence of the first part is repeated. ( reprise):

first part second part

Topic , period

a b c b

1 sentenceIIsuggestion unst. (or a)

middle

material

In the two-part form, repetitions of sections are possible, written out by the composer or indicated: A B;

Memo. Repetitions (with a reprise sign or written out) do not change the form.

The repeated structure in the second part is not typical for the two-part form. Perhaps this is a varied stanza (vocal form) in instrumental music.

Scope: preludes, instrumental and choral miniatures, program pieces, dances, songs, romances.

Varieties of two-part:

- developed two-part;

- old two-part;

- complex(compound) two-part, when each part is in simple two-part or three-part form.

- double two-part (variably repeated):

: A B A1 B1 (schematically - A B)

Simple THREE-PART is the form

Part I of which is a presentation of the topic,

Part II (middle) - music. material contrasting thematically or according to the type of presentation to the topic,

Part III (reprise) - repetition of the original theme:

first part middle reprise

The average for thematic material can be

On the material of the topic: A - A1 - A;

On new material: A - B - A;

Development: A - R - A;

Bundle type: A - SV - A.

(Three different topics, -A–B–C,- do not form a tripartite form. It may be a compound form, it may be a varied vocal stanza into an instrument. music.)

Reprise happens accurate (static; its original version is Da Capo al Fine, i.e. from beginning to end) and modified (dynamic), - from a few sounds to a significant one.

Possible repetitions written out by the composer or indicated:

A B A etc.

The last option with written out by a varied repeat Parts II and III, - A - B - A1 - B1 - A2, - called three-five-part(Way) or double tripartite form.

A three-part form with active thematic development can be called a developed three-part form.

Scope: preludes, nocturnes, dances, marches, program pieces, choirs, songs, romances, arias.

Complex THREE-PART- a form, each part of which is a simple two-part, three-part, etc. form.

Complex from the word addition, the sum of simple ones.

first part middle part reprise

etc. 2h. 3 types: accurate(static),

etc. 3 hours (option - Da Capo, "from the beginning")

3-5 hours or modified(dynamic),

etc. often abbreviated

Trio(trio) or magore, minore. Episode- late Composite cf. part, i.e.

The earliest type cf. parts. Ha-type cf. parts: with con- consisting of 2x-3x lock-

Characteristic for the lively genre painter of the 18th century. Characteristic constructions (music.

howl of music. The trio is distinguished by a closed term for moderate themes) that do not form

the shape of the form (ex. 2 hours, 3 hours) and or slow music - form. Characteristic for

emphasized contrast: genre, ki. Usually it is 2-3 waltzes.

modal, tonal, tempo, open-loop constructions

textured. eniya, harmonically

The name "Trio" originated in unstable, fluid.

17th century, when in orchestral production. 3 hours

dance forms. music, the middle part, unlike the rest, was performed

only three, usually woodwinds.

Application area.

The form is closed, stable, and is used in production. various genres: marches, polonaises, waltzes, nocturnes; in sonata-symphonic cycles in the middle movements: in minuets, scherzos, in slow movements.

RONDO - a form where the main theme (refrain) is performed at least 3 times, and between its performances, musical material of a different content (episodes).

episodes

A - B - A - C - A, etc. A The term "rondo" has 2 meanings:

1. Rondo is a genre of lively song and dance music. Fr. rondeau- a circle,

Refrain round dance; refrain- refrain.

2. Rondo - form. Works in the form of a rondo more often correspond to the rondo genre. But the rondo form is also found in slow music.

Ancient rondo (couplet).

17th - 18th centuries .Rondo Daken, Rameau, Couperin.

The number of parts from 5 or more.

The refrain is usually in a period structure.

Single dark: A - A1 - A - A2 - A, etc. BUT; (episodes based on the material of the refrain);

Dual Dark: A - B - A - B1, etc. A. (episodes based on independent material).

Classic rondo.

XVIII century. The main type is a five-part rondo. Characterized by an exacerbation of the contrast between refrain and episodes. The refrain is usually in pr. 2h or pr.3h form.

According to the thematic material and the type of presentation in the episodes, there are a variety of variants of the rondo:

A B A C A - with two different episodes;

A B A B1 A - episodes on one thematic. material;

A B A R A - development in the second episode;

A A1 A B A or A B A A1 A - an episode based on the material of the refrain.

The code may be separate, may be combined with the last refrain.

RondoXIX– XXcentury. Structural complexity is typical. The refrain may vary, the keys may change in its repetitions. The contrast between the refrain and the episodes is often sharpened. The latter can be isolated in form: pr.2x, 3h..

A characteristic feature of the rondo of the XIX-XX centuries. - the use of the form in close connection with the program indicated by the title or implied: Introduction and rondo-capriccioso of Saint-Saens, Schumann's Arabesque, Prokofiev's "Juliet the Girl" and others.

Application area. Rondo is widely used. as a form of works (instrumental, vocal-choral), as part of a cyclic composition (sonatas, symphonies), as a form of the opera stage.

VARIATIONS (theme with variations) (variation form) are presentations of the theme and several repetitions of it in a modified form.

Variation theme...

A A1 A2 A3 etc.

Variations onbassoostinato(ostinato, unchanged bass), XVI-XVII centuries, are variations built on the repetition of the theme in the bass. The theme can be a construction of 4 - 8 measures, closed (period or sentence) or open, invading cadence turning into a variation. The number of variations in the cycle is from several to several dozen). Bach. Chaconne d- mall for violin solo; "Crucifixus" from the Mass h- mall.

Variations on basso ostinato are mostly a genre passacaglia or chaconnes. Both – ancient, slow triple mournful dances - processions.

Their differences are indefinite. It is believed that the passacaglia is characterized by a monophonic theme starting from the third beat of the measure, and for the chaconne - the theme of chord-harmonic warehouse.

Later, variations on basso ostinato and passacaglia became synonymous, a genre of philosophical reflection on life, which explains the revival of interest in them among composers of the 20th century. Shostakovich. Symp. No. 8, part III; Violin Concerto, part III.

In cycles of variations of all types, as a rule, there is second form ,- more often, it is tripartite (less often, rondo): The first variations are usually close to the theme (first section). Intense variation in the following variations, the culminating phase is the middle section. The last few variations usually return to the sound of the original theme (reprise).

Strict variations. They can be called classical (XIX century). Can be called textured(texture is the main method of variation). Strict variations are called ornamental: all kinds of singing, melismatics melodically and rhythmically decorate, transform the leading voice, but the theme always “shines through”, is recognized.

The topic is usually in eg 2h or 3h form. Its structure in variations, cadences, harmony are preserved. Mozart. Dream. No. 11, part 1.

A kind of strict double variations. They are based on the presentation of two topics (usually contrasting genres) with their subsequent alternate variation.

Beth. Symph. No. 5, part II.

Free variations.(XIX century) They can be conditionally called genre: active variation (change in texture, tempo, tonality) often transforms each variation into a genre-individual play, turning variations into a suite cycle. Schumann. "Symphonic Etudes".

Variationssopranoostinato, (Glinka), - on a constant theme in soprano. The accompaniment varies (texture, harmony). The nature of the variation is often directly dependent on the content of the poetic text. Glinka. "Persian Choir"

VOCAL forms

Forms of vocal and choral music

The specificity of vocal forms is due to the synthetic nature of the genre: the interaction of music and poetry with distinctive principles of shaping.

Main - couplet form and strophic. Their essence is invariably repeating musical material in different words (ie with a changing poetic text).

Couplet - the form is typically song. Its main feature is the presencesingsong andchorus.

Verse I Verse II

A - B A - B, etc.

Chorus- this is a musical thought, thesis (in a poetic text, its function is informative). Function chorus- confirmation of the musical and poetic thought of the sing-along, - summary. In choruses with unchanged text (which is most typical), its function is to affirm the general idea of ​​the work.

A couplet usually combines 1-2 stanzas of a poetic text.

A stanza in poetry is several lines (verses) (from 2 or more), united by a system of rhymes. In a 4-line foot, for example, there may be an adjacent rhyme (pair) - aa bb, cross - ab ab, encompassing (belted) - abba.

According to the structure of the verse (the ratio of the verse and the chorus) can be different.

The structure of the chorus can be The role of the chorus in this case can be

to be closed sentence. take repeating the last phrase, sometimes - complete repetition of the chant in chorus, or

eyeliner ("Chapaev-hero walked in the Urals").

The chant may be in structure chorus - repetition of the second sentence.

period, the chorus can be complement phrase as if the third sentence, forming a complex period (“Why did I recognize you, my dear”).

Whole couplet may be in simple two-part form, where Ih. - sing-along, IIh. - chorus, and even in a complex two-part (Dunaevsky. March of Enthusiasts.).

Finally, the verse and chorus can be on independent music. material, i.e. two different themes that do not form a form (“Song of the Motherland” by Dunaevsky).

"Song of the Motherland" is an example of a verse with a chorus in first place, which is no exception.

There are two refrains in a verse, more precisely, a refrain to a refrain; sometimes it is used as an instrumental act out (Alyabyev. "Nightingale", Glinka. "Venetian Night").

Couplet-variation form, - with a change (variation) of music. material in a verse (from several sounds to significant.).

strophic form, when there is no division into a chorus and a chorus in a repeating musical material:

I stanza II stanza III stanza

A A A etc. In a musical stanza, as in a verse, there are one, two (sometimes more) poetic stanzas. The form of the stanza can be one-part, two-part.

Varied stanza, - with changes in the musical material in the stanzas (from several sounds - A - A1 - A2, etc., to a significant update - A - B - C, etc.).

Other terminology in folklore.

Repetitive music. material in folk song(anyway ) are called(as is customary among folk singers) couplet. The volume of the verse (and with it the structure, i.e. the form of the entire song) is determined by the poetic text. The couplet can be based on stanza(strophic structure), there may be one poetic line(line structure). A couplet may contain (be based on) even one phrase(phrase structure): Spring is red.// What did you bring us? // Mo-lo-du - shech - kam - // By di-cho - noch - ku…//. The couplet may have chorus. The chorus is called refrain, if it is an invariably repeating lexical construction: “Oh wound on Yvan”, “Ay lyuli-lyuli”, etc. According to its location, the refrain can be terminal(at the end of the verse) initial, framing. "Folk Musical Creativity" ed.

A.F. Kamaeva and T.Yu. Kamaeva. M., 2005. With. 29-35.

The term “linear form” is also used in professional academic music (A.P. Milka. St. Petersburg). The line principle of shaping distinguishes the choral works of Ippolitov-Ivanov “Peasant Feast”, “About the White Swan”. In the tool music - “A man plays the harmonica” by Tchaikovsky (Children's album.)

through form - a form of vocal music, the deployment of musical material in which is completely subordinated to the development of the content (plot) of a poetic work (usually complex compositionally). (Schubert. Ballad "Forest King")

In vocal-choral music, forms of instrumental music are also widely used.

And vice versa. Vocal forms are widely used in instrumental music, primarily in works of lyrical genres related to vocal ones. An example of this and a form with a chorus (Chopin. Waltz cis- mall; Mozart. Dream. No. 11, III part). Vocal principles of shaping are a stylistic feature of music (instrumental, in particular) of the 19th century.

Vocal music, we repeat, is a synthetic genre, a genre of interaction between music and poetry. Concerning,

when analyzing a vocal work, it is necessary to pay attention to some distinctive features of the language of vocal and choral music

(Based on the materials of the brochure by I. Lavrentyeva “Vocal forms in the course of the analysis of musical works.” M., 1978, pp. 6-37).

I. The nature of reading a poetic text.

Music (composer) can:

- Emphasize and deepen the dominant mood of the poem.

- To sharpen the contrast, sometimes barely outlined in the text.

Dargomyzhsky. "Titular Advisor".

- Reveal emotional and psychological overtones (hidden meaning).

Chaikovsky. "The cloud slept." The emphasized contrast of Lermontov's poetic text is leveled out by Tchaikovsky by the homogeneity of texture and even the repetition of muses. material in the 1st and 2nd stanzas. As a result, the restrained sound of the choir reveals the philosophical subtext of the poem - prayerfulness.

- Introduce picturesque and pictorial moments, “finish” the content.

Glinka. "Party song".

Rakhmaninov. "Spring Waters"

- Use the technique of "generalization through the genre."

Glinka. "Venetian Night". The genre of barcarolle, designated by Pushkin in the title of the poem, received a real sound in music.

- May be inadequate. individual reading of the text.

Cui. "Everything fell asleep." The pessimistic ending of Ratgauz's poem - “but without love, nature is dead; there is no happiness in it.” (features of doom, gloom - a stylistic feature of the poet's work) the composer "reads" in joyful, enthusiastic tones as a hymn of love.

II. T melody type:

recitative,

recitative-declamatory type,

recitation,

declamatory-ariose type or

cantilena?

This series reveals a pattern of gradual transition

from dominance of speech to intonation generalization,

from the closest expression to the dominance of purely musical

intonation of speech principles of development of melody,

which is also important for the performance interpretation of the work.

Topic: What is a musical form

A musical work, like a work of any other art, is a unity of content and form.

The form - (lat. forma - appearance, outline)

a system of musical means used to embody the content of a work

structure, scheme of a musical work

Content plays the leading role in the unity of content and form. When the content of works of art changes, then the musical means that serve to embody the content also change, that is, the change in musical form usually lags behind the change in content. The new content initially uses, as far as possible, the old means, the old form, adapting them to its needs, its tasks, and then changes and transforms the means, the form.

The composer in the process of creativity inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, plan, scheme, which serves him as the basis for the manifestations of creative imagination and skill.

Almost every music we have heard has a form.

4 main principles of musical form:

repetition

variation

contrast

development

Basic musical forms and their schemes :

period - usually consists of 2 sentences

2-part form A-B

3-part form A-B-A

couplet form A-A-A-A-A, etc.

rondo A-B-A-C-A

variations A–A1–A2–A3–A4–A5, etc.

Period - this is the simplest form that came from dance music, reflects the physiological characteristics of human perception.
The 2nd sentence is the answer to the first, unfinished musical structure.

More complex forms result from alteration or expansion of basic structures.

Schemes using letters (A, B, C) are strophic forms, where each letter is a stanza.

The principle of development, which appeared in music later than the 3 first principles, differs from the strophic structures described above in that the thematic material is treated not only as a structural unit suitable for repetition and variation: elements that change and interact with each other and with other themes (the sonata form and the fugue form demonstrate this principle especially clearly).

In these forms it is no longer possible to confine oneself to just letters, their schemes are much more complicated. They already border on mathematical formulas.

In general, music is close to mathematics, it is not only an art, but also an exact science, rather abstract, like mathematics.

The first music theorists were also eminent mathematicians, such as Pythagoras.

When combining musical fragments, each of which is written according to its own structural model, into a larger whole, a so-called. cyclic form (opera, oratorio, sonata, quartet, symphony, suite, concerto, etc.). In this case, each fragment is called a "part" and has its own designation of the tempo and character of the performance.

In the history of music, there have been many curiosities regarding form.

At first, only talented people composed music, it was their vocation, often their life. And in the XVII - XVIII centuries, every person "from society" had to be able to compose a piece of music, poetry, write down a musical verse dedicated to her in the album of the owner of the salon. Ways have emerged that allow anyone to compose music.

One of them is the method proposed in 1751 by the Englishman W. Hayes. The method is described in the treatise "The Art of Composing Music by an Exclusively New Method Suitable for the Most Wretched Talents". It consists in the fact that you need to take a brush (you can use a toothbrush), dip it in an inkwell and, running your finger over the bristles, sprinkle ink on a sheet of music paper. The resulting blots should indicate the position of the notes on the musical ruler. The duration of the note was determined by the size of the blot. It remains to add barlines, calms, etc. Their location was determined, for example, by cards randomly drawn from the deck.

This method, like many similar ones, failed - it is too primitive.

Other methods have also emerged. For example, in the 18th century, widespread musical game with dice. It was used not only by amateurs, but also by such serious musicians as F.E. Bach, I. Haydn, F. Handel and others. In 1793 was published attributed to Mozart "Manual how to use two dice to compose waltzes in any quantity, without having the slightest idea about music and composition."

But in fact, all these experiments with form only proved the fact that in music form without content is dead. The greatness and beauty of music lies in the relationship between its content and form.

The most prominent Soviet musical scientist B. V. Asafiev wrote the book “Musical Form as a Process”. He described 2 sides of the form: procedural and crystalline.

Often the musical form also has a specific purpose.

For example, etude - piece of music, designed to improve the skill of the performer, often to use a certain technical technique of the game. F.Chopin "invented" a new etude - a work that has a certain artistic value. Then came the studies of Schumann, Liszt, Rachmaninov, Scriabin.

Prelude - has long been an introductory piece to a piece of music. For the first time, preludes gained independence in the works of J.S. Bach and Chopin.

Especially fully canonized sonata form developed by the middle of the 17th century. In sonata form, both independent works - proper sonatas, symphonies, quartets, concertos, oratorios, etc., and separate parts of works can be written. Typical for a classical sonata is a three-movement cycle with a slow middle and fast extreme parts. The leading place in the cycle is occupied by the first movement, written almost always in sonata form. The second part contrasts with the first due to the slow pace, lyrical, contemplative character. It also commonly uses complex three-part or sonata form. The fast finale is very close to the first movement, the most typical form for the finale being sonatas or rondo sonatas.

L. Beethoven's rules for constructing works of sonata form became even more stringent. Beethoven's sonatas are usually four-movement, the sequence of movements in them: sonata Allegro, slow lyrical movement, minuet or scherzo, and, finally, the finale.

By “form” in music is meant the organization of the musical whole, the ways in which the musical material develops, as well as the genre designations that the authors give to their works. The composer in the process of creativity inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, a kind of plan, scheme, which serves him as the basis for the manifestations of creative imagination and skill.

The concept of form in music has many meanings. Some prefer to use this term only in relation to the structure of the work. Others attribute it to different genre designations, which can a) indicate the general nature of the music (for example, nocturne); b) suggest a special technique of composition (for example, motet or fugue); c) be based on a rhythmic pattern or tempo (minuet); d) include non-musical meanings or terms (for example, a symphonic poem); e) indicate the manner of performance (concert) or the number of performers (quartet); f) be associated with a specific historical era and its tastes (waltz), as well as with national color (polonaise). In reality, despite the abundance of such definitions, there are only a few fundamental formal structures, and if the composer stops at one or another genre designation, this does not mean that he is tied to any particular structural type.

The main compositional schemes or plans in music are based on three principles: repetition, variation and contrast, and are manifested in it through the interaction of rhythm, melody, harmony, timbre and texture.

Forms based on repetition, variation and contrast are characteristic of both vocal and instrumental genres. For vocal works a strophic form is often characteristic, within which different poetic stanzas correspond to the same melody and the element of contrast is introduced only by the poetic text: this is why the strophic form in its pure form is not found in instrumental genres. Both vocal and instrumental compositions are characterized by a form with a repeating section - a refrain. Sometimes the strophic form is modified by the introduction of one or more contrasting stanzas, in which case it approaches the so-called. composite composition.

The main strophic structures are as follows:

Couplet formAAAAA, etc.

Two-part formAB

Three-part formABA

Form with refrain (rondo) ABACA

Variation form AA 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5, etc.

More complex forms arise as a result of changing or expanding the basic structures (for example, the rondo is often written according to the model: ABACABA). There are works based on the principle of continuous continuation: such is the “endless melody” in Wagner's musical dramas here it is impossible to draw a clear line between sections. The German term durchkomponiert (“based on through development”) is attached to such forms. This type of organization is characteristic of works associated with a word or focused on a literary program, often on a specific literary work.

The principle of development, which originated in music much later than the principle of repetition, is especially typical of purely instrumental compositions. It differs from the strophic structures described above in that the thematic material is treated not only as a structural unit suitable for repetition and variation: elements are distinguished in it that change and interact with each other and with other themes (this principle is especially clearly demonstrated by the sonata form).

When combining musical fragments, each of which is written according to its own structural model, into a larger whole, a so-called. cyclic form (opera, oratorio, sonata, quartet, symphony, suite, concerto, etc.). In this case, each fragment is called a "part" and has its own designation of the tempo and character of the performance.

Form in music is an evolving, dynamic phenomenon. In the past, new forms have arisen as responses to liturgical needs, or to changes in the life of society, or to the invention of new instruments and new ways of playing them, and so on. We can safely say that the new functions of music, new conditions of social life, new composing and performing techniques, new inventions (for example, electronic instruments) will lead to the emergence of new forms (in the sense of genre designations) and new methods of composition. see also OPERA; BALLAD OPERA; OPERETTA; INVENTION; FUGA; ORATORIO; CONCERT; MARCH.

Music Encyclopedia, tt. 15. M., 19731982
Kruntyaeva T., Molokova N. Dictionary of foreign musical terms. M. St. Petersburg, 1996
Buluchevsky Yu., Fomin V. Brief musical vocabulary . SPb M., 1998
Brief Musical Dictionary-Reference. M., 1998
Music encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1998

Find " MUSICAL FORM" on the

Greek morpn, lat. forma - appearance, image, outlines, appearance, beauty; German Form, French form, ital. form, eng. shape, shape

I. The meaning of the term. Etymology
II. Form and content. General principles of shaping
III. Musical forms before 1600
IV. Polyphonic musical forms
V. Homophonic musical forms of modern times
VI. Musical forms of the 20th century
VII. Teachings about musical forms

I. The meaning of the term. Etymology. The term "F. m." applied in several ways. values: 1) composition type; def. compositional plan (more precisely, "form-scheme", according to B.V. Asafiev) muses. works ("form of composition", according to P. I. Tchaikovsky; for example, rundo, fugue, motet, ballata; partly approaches the concept of genre, that is, the type of music); 2) music. the embodiment of content (a holistic organization of melodic motifs, harmony, meter, polyphonic fabric, timbres, and other elements of music). In addition to these two main meanings of the term "F. m." (musical and aesthetic-philosophical) there are others; 3) individually unique sound image of muses. a piece (a specific sound realization of its intention inherent only in this work; something that distinguishes, for example, one sonata form from all others; in contrast to the form-type, it is achieved by a thematic basis that is not repeated in other works and its individual development; outside of scientific abstractions, in live music there is only individual F. m.); 4) aesthetic. order in music compositions ("harmony" of its parts and components), providing aesthetic. the dignity of the music. compositions (the value aspect of its integral structure; "forme means beauty ...", according to M. I. Glinka); the positive value quality of the concept of F. m. is found in the opposition: "form" - "formlessness" ("deformation" - a distortion of the form; what has no form is aesthetically flawed, ugly); 5) one of the three main. sections of applied music-theoretical. science (along with harmony and counterpoint), the subject of which is the study of F. m. Sometimes music. form is also called: the structure of the muses. prod. (its structure), smaller than all products, relatively complete fragments of music. compositions - parts of the form or components of music. op., as well as their appearance as a whole, structure (for example, modal formations, cadences, developments - "form of a sentence", a period as a "form"; "random harmonious forms" - P. I. Tchaikovsky; "some form, let's say, a type of cadenza" - G. A. Laroche; "On certain forms of modern music" - V. V. Stasov). Etymologically, Latin forma - lexical tracing paper from Greek morgn, including, except for the main. meanings "appearance", the idea of ​​a "beautiful" appearance (in Euripides eris morpas; - a dispute between goddesses about a beautiful appearance). Lat. the word forma - appearance, figure, image, appearance, appearance, beauty (for example, in Cicero forma muliebris - female beauty). Related words: formose - slender, graceful, beautiful; formosulos - pretty; rum. frumos and Portuguese. formoso - beautiful, beautiful (in Ovid "formosum anni tempus" - "beautiful season", i.e. e. spring). (See Stolovich L. N., 1966.)

II. Form and content. General principles of shaping. The concept of "form" can be a correlate in decomp. in pairs: form and matter, form and material (in relation to music, in one interpretation, the material is its physical side, the form is the relationship between the sounding elements, as well as everything that is built from them; in another interpretation, the material is the components of the composition - melodic, harmonic formations, timbre finds, etc., and form - the harmonious order of what is built from this material), form and content, form and formlessness. Main terminology matters. a pair of form - content (as a general philosophical category, the concept of "content" was introduced by G. V. F. Hegel, who interpreted it in the context of the interdependence of matter and form, and the content as a category includes both, in a removed form. Hegel , 1971, pp. 83-84). In the Marxist theory of art, form (including F. m.) is considered in this pair of categories, where the content is understood as a reflection of reality.

The content of the music - ext. the spiritual aspect of the work; what the music expresses. Center. music concepts. content - music. idea (sensually embodied musical thought), muz. image (a holistically expressed character that opens directly to the musical feeling, like a “picture”, an image, as well as a musical depiction of feelings and mental states). The content of the claim is imbued with a desire for the lofty, the great (“A real artist ... must strive and burn for the broadest great goals,” a letter from P. I. Tchaikovsky to A. I. Alferaki dated August 1, 1891). The most important aspect of music content - beauty, beauty, aesthetic. ideal, callistic component of music as an aesthetic. phenomena. In Marxist aesthetics, beauty is interpreted from the standpoint of societies. human practice as aesthetic. the ideal is a sensually contemplated image of the universal realization of human freedom (Stolovich L. N., 1956; Goldentricht S., 1967, p. 362; also Borev Yu. B., 1975, p. 47-61). In addition, the composition of the muses. content may include non-musical images, as well as certain genres of music. works include off-music. elements - text images in wok. music (almost all genres, including opera), stage. actions embodied in the theater. music. For the completeness of art. the development of both sides is necessary for a work - both an ideologically rich sensually impressive, exciting content, and an ideally developed art. forms. The lack of one or the other adversely affects the aesthetic. the merits of the work.

Form in music (in the aesthetic and philosophical sense) is the sound realization of content with the help of a system of sound elements, means, relationships, i.e., how (and by what) the content of music is expressed. More precisely, F. m. (in this sense) is stylistic. and a genre-determined complex of music elements (for example, for a hymn - designed for the mass perception of celebrations. simplicity and lapidarity of a melody-song intended to be performed by a choir with the support of an orchestra), defin. their combination and interaction (chosen character of rhythmic movement, tonal-harmonious fabrics, dynamics of shaping, etc.), holistic organization, defined. music technique. compositions (the most important purpose of technology is the establishment of "coherence", perfection, beauty in musical composition). Everything will be expressed. the means of music, covered by the generalizing concepts of "style" and "technique", are projected onto a holistic phenomenon - a specific muse. composition, on F. m.

Form and content exist in an inseparable unity. There is not even the smallest detail of the muses. content, which would not necessarily be expressed by one or another combination of expresses. means (for example, the subtlest, inexpressible words express the shades of the sound of a chord, depending on the specific location of its tones or on the timbres chosen for each of them). And vice versa, there is no such, even the most "abstract" technical. method, which would not serve as an expression of c.-l, from the components of the content (for example, the effect of successive extension of the canon interval in each variation, not directly perceived by the ear in each variation, the number of which is divisible by three without a remainder, in the "Goldberg Variations" J. S. Bach not only organizes the variational cycle as a whole, but also enters into the idea of ​​the inner spiritual aspect of the work). The inseparability of form and content in music can be clearly seen when comparing arrangements of the same melody by different composers (cf., for example, "Persian Choir" from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" by Glinka and I. Strauss's march written on the same melody-theme) or in variations (for example, I. Brahms's B-dur piano variations, the theme of which belongs to G. F. Handel, and Brahms' music sounds in the first variation). At the same time, in the unity of form and content, content is the leading, dynamically mobile factor; he has a decisive role in this unity. When implementing the new content, a partial discrepancy between form and content may arise, when the new content cannot fully develop within the framework of the old form (such a contradiction is formed, for example, during the mechanical use of baroque rhythmic techniques and polyphonic forms to develop a 12-tone melodic thematism in contemporary music). The contradiction is resolved by bringing the form in line with the new content, while defining. elements of the old form die off. The unity of F. m. and content makes possible the mutual projection of one onto the other in the mind of a musician; however, such a frequently occurring transfer of the properties of content to form (or vice versa), associated with the ability of the perceiver to “read” figurative content in a combination of elements of form and think it in terms of F. m., does not mean the identity of form and content.

Muses. art, like other types of art, is a reflection of reality in all its structural layers, conditioned by evolution. stages of its development from elementary lower forms to higher ones. Since music is a unity of content and form, reality is reflected both by its content and its form. In the musical-beautiful as the "truth" of music, aesthetic-value attributes and inorganic are combined. world (measure, proportionality, proportionality, symmetry of parts, in general, the connection and harmony of relations; the cosmological concept of reflection of reality by music is the oldest, going from the Pythagoreans and Plato through Boethius, J. Tsarlino, I. Kepler and M. Mersenne to the present; see. Kayser H., 1938, 1943, 1950; Losev A. F., 1963-80; Losev, Shestakov V. P., 1965), and the world of living beings ("breath" and warmth of living intonation, the concept of imitating the life cycle of muses. development in the form of the origin of musical thought, its growth, rise, reaching the peak and completion, respectively, the interpretation of musical time as the time of the "life cycle" of the musical "organism"; the idea of ​​content as an image and form as a living, integral organism), and specifically human - historical. and social - the spiritual world (implication of the associative-spiritual subtext that animates sound structures, orientation to the ethical and aesthetic ideal, the embodiment of human spiritual freedom, historical and social determinism of both the figurative and ideological content of music, and F. m .; "Musical form as a socially determined phenomenon is first of all known as a form ... of the social discovery of music in the process of intonation "- Asafiev B.V., 1963, p. 21). Merging into a single quality of beauty, all layers of content function, thus, as a reflection of reality in the form of a transfer of a second, "humanized" nature. Musical Op., Artistically reflecting the historical. and socially determined reality through the ideal of beauty as a criterion for its aesthetic. evaluation, and therefore turns out to be the way we know it - "objectified" beauty, a work of art. However, the reflection of reality in the categories of form and content is not only the transfer of the given reality into music (reflection of reality in art would then only be a duplication of what exists without it). Just as human consciousness "not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it" (V. I. Lenin, PSS, 5th ed., vol. 29, p. 194), so art, music is a transformative, creative sphere. human activity, the area of ​​creating new realities (spiritual, aesthetic. , arts. values) that do not exist in the reflected object in this view. Hence the significance for art (as a form of reflection of reality) of such concepts as genius, talent, creativity, as well as the struggle against obsolete, backward forms, for the creation of new ones, which is manifested both in the content of music and in F. m. Therefore, F m. is always ideological (i.e., bears the stamp of a certain worldview), although b. h. it is expressed without direct verbal political and ideological. formulations, and in non-program instr. music - without k.-l. at all. logical-conceptual forms. Reflection in music socio-historical. practice is associated with a radical processing of the displayed material. The transformation can be so significant that neither the musical-figurative content nor the F. m. can in any way resemble the reflected realities. A common opinion is that in the work of Stravinsky - one of the most prominent exponents of modern. reality in its contradictions, allegedly did not receive a sufficiently clear reflection of the reality of the 20th century, is based on naturalistic, mechanical. understanding the category of "reflection", on the misunderstanding of the role in the arts. reflecting the conversion factor. Analysis of the transformation of the reflected object in the process of creating art. The work was given by V. I. Lenin in his article "Leo Tolstoy as a Mirror of the Russian Revolution".

The most general principles of form-building, which concern any style (and not a specific classical style, for example, the Viennese classics of the Baroque period), characterize F. m. as any form and, naturally, are therefore extremely generalized. Such most general principles of any F. m. characterize deep essence music as a kind of thinking (in sound images). Hence the far-reaching analogies with other types of thinking (first of all - logically conceptual, it would seem completely alien in relation to art, music). The very posing of the question of such most general principles of F. m. European music culture of the 20th century (Such a position could not exist either in the Ancient World, when music - "melos" - was conceived in unity with verse and dance, or in Western European music until 1600, i.e. until instr. music became an independent category musical thinking, and only for the thinking of the 20th century it became impossible to confine ourselves to posing the question of the formation of a given era only).

The general principles of any F. m. suggest in each culture the conditionality of one or another type of content by the nature of the muses. lawsuit in general, his istorich. determinism in connection with a specific social role, traditions, racial and national. originality. Any F. m. is an expression of muses. thoughts; hence the fundamental connection between F. m. and the categories of music. rhetoric (see further in section V; see also Melody). Thought can be either autonomous-musical (especially in the many-headed European music of modern times), or connected with the text, dance. (or marching) movement. Any music. the idea is expressed within the framework of the definition. intonation building, music-express. sound material (rhythmic, pitch, timbre, etc.). To become a means of expressing music. thoughts, intonation The material of the FM is organized primarily on the basis of an elementary distinction: repetition versus non-repetition (in this sense, the FM as a determinant arrangement of sound elements in the temporal unfolding of thought is a close-up rhythm); different F. m. in this respect - different types of repetition. Finally, F. m. (although to an unequal degree) is the refinement, the perfection of the expression of muses. thoughts (aesthetic aspect of F. m.).

III. Musical forms before 1600. The problem of studying the early history of musical music is complicated by the evolution of the essence of the phenomenon implied by the concept of music. Music in the sense of the art of L. Beethoven, F. Chopin, P. I. Tchaikovsky, A. N. Scriabin, together with its inherent F. m., did not exist at all in the Ancient world; in the 4th c. in Augustine's treatise "De musica libri sex" b. h. explanation of music, defined as scientia bene modulandi - lit. "the science of modulating well" or "knowledge of the correct formation" consists in expounding the doctrine of meter, rhythm, verse, stops and numbers (F. m. in the modern sense is not discussed here at all).

Initial The source of F. m. is primarily in rhythm (“In the beginning there was a rhythm” - X. Bülow), apparently arising on the basis of a regular meter, directly transferred to music from a variety of life phenomena - pulse, breathing, step, rhythm of processions , labor processes, games, etc. (see Ivanov-Boretsky M.V., 1925; Kharlap M.G., 1972), and in the aestheticization of "natural" rhythms. From the original the connection between speech and singing (“Speaking and singing was at first one thing” - Lvov H. A., 1955, p. 38) the most fundamental F. m. (“F. m. number one”) occurred - a song, a song form that combined also a purely poetic, verse form. The predominant features of the song form: an explicit (or residual) connection with the verse, stanza, evenly rhythmic. (coming from the feet) the basis of the line, the combination of lines into stanzas, the system of rhyme-cadences, the tendency towards equality of large constructions (in particular, towards squareness of the 4 + 4 type); in addition, often (in more developed song f. m.) the presence in f. m. of two stages - outlining and developing-concluding. Muses. an example of one of the oldest samples of song F. m. - Table Seikila (1st century AD (?)), see Art. Ancient Greek modes, column 306; see also whale. melody (1st millennium BC (?)):

Undoubtedly, the origin and origin. the development of the song form in the folklore of all peoples. The difference between P. m. songs comes from different conditions of existence of the genre (respectively, one or another direct life purpose of the song) and a variety of metric., Rhythmic. and structural features of poetry, rhythmic. formulas in dance genres (in later times - 120 rhythmic formulas by the Indian theoretician of the 13th century Sharngadeva). Related to this is the general significance of "genre rhythm" as the primary factor in shaping - characteristic. sign defined. genre (especially dance, march), repeated rhythmic. formulas as quasi-thematic. (motive) factor F. m.

Wed-century. European F. m. are divided into two largely sharply different large groups - monodic F. m. and polyphonic (predominantly polyphonic; see section IV).

F. m. monodies are represented primarily by Gregorian chant (see Gregorian chant). Its genre features are associated with a cult, with the defining meaning of the text and a specific purpose. Liturgical music. everyday life distinguishes from music in later Europe. sense applied ("functional") character. Muses. the material has an impersonal, non-individual character (melodic turns can be transferred from one melody to another; the lack of authorship of melodies is indicative). In accordance with the ideological installations of the church for monodich. F. m. is typical of the dominance of words over music. This determines the freedom of meter and rhythm, which depend on express. pronunciation of the text, and the characteristic "softness" of the contours of the F. m., as if devoid of a center of gravity, its subordination to the structure of the verbal text, in connection with which the concepts of F. m. and genre in relation to monodich. music are very close in meaning. The oldest monodic. F. m. belong to the beginning. 1st millennium. Among the Byzantine musical instruments (genres), the most important are the ode (song), psalm, troparion, hymn, kontakion, and canon (see Byzantine music). They are characterized by elaboration (which, as in other similar cases, indicates a developed professional composing culture). Sample of Byzantine F. m .:

Anonymous. Canon 19, Ode 9 (III plagal mode).

Later, this Byzantine F. m. received the name. "bar".

Higher, monumental monodich. F. m. - mass (mass). The current developed FM of the Mass forms a grandiose cycle, which is based on the succession of parts of the ordinary (ordinarium missae - a group of constant chants of the mass, independent of the day of the church year) and propria (proprium missae - variables) strictly regulated by the cult and everyday genre purpose. hymns dedicated to this day of the year).

The general scheme of the form of the Roman Mass (Roman numerals indicate the traditional division of the form of the Mass into 4 large sections)

The philosophies developed in the ancient Gregorian Mass retained their significance in one form or another for subsequent times, right up to the 20th century. The forms of the parts of the ordinary: Kyrie eleison is three-part (which has a symbolic meaning), and each exclamation is also made three times (structure options are aaabbbece or aaa bbb a 1 a1 a1; aba ede efe1; aba cbc dae). Lowercase P. m. Gloria quite consistently uses one of the most important principles of motive-thematic. structures: repetition of words - repetition of music (in 18 parts of Gloria repetition of words Domine, Qui tollis, tu solus). P. m. Gloria (in one of the options):

Later (in 1014), Credo, which became part of the Roman Mass, was built as a lowercase F. m., akin to Gloria. P. m. Sanestus is also built according to the text - it has 2 parts, the second of them is most often - ut supra (= da capo), according to the repetition of the words Hosanna m excelsis. Agnus Dei, due to the structure of the text, is tripartite: aab, abc or aaa. An example of F. m. monodich. for the Gregorian Mass, see column 883.

F. m. Gregorian melodies - not abstract, separable from the genre of pure music. construction, but the structure determined by the text and genre (text-musical form).

Typological parallel to F. m. Western-Europe. church monodic. music - dr.-rus. F. m. The analogy between them concerns the aesthetic. prerequisites for F. m., similarities in genre and content, as well as music. elements (rhythm, melodic lines, correlation between text and music). The decipherable samples that have come down to us from other Russian. music is contained in manuscripts of the 17th and 18th centuries, but its musical instruments are undoubtedly of the most ancient origin. The genre side of these F. m. is determined by the cult purpose of Op. and text. The largest segmentation of genres and F. m. according to the types of services: Mass, Matins, Vespers; Compline, Midnight Office, Hours; the All-Night Vigil is the union of Great Vespers with Matins (however, the non-musical beginning was the bonding factor of F. m. here). Generalized textual genres and F. m. - stichera, troparion, kontakion, antiphon, theotokion (dogmatist), litany - reveal a typological similarity with similar Byzantine f. m.; also a composite F. m. is a canon (see Canon (2)). In addition to them, a special group is made up of concrete-textual genres (and, correspondingly, f. m.): blessed, "Every breath", "It is worthy to eat", "Quiet light", sedate, Cherubic. They are original genres and F. m., like texts-genres-forms in Western Europe. music - Kyrie, Gloria, Te Deum, Magnificat. The fusion of the concept of P. m. with the text (and with the genre) is one of the characteristic. principles of ancient F. m.; the text, in particular its structure, is included in the concept of F. M. (F. M. follows the division of the text into lines).

Gregorian Mass din Feriis per annum" (Roman numerals indicate frets).

In many cases, the basis (material) F. m. chants (see Metallov V., 1899, pp. 50-92), and the way they are used is variance (in the free variance of the chants structure of other Russian melodies - one of the differences between their F. m. European chorale, for which a tendency towards rational structure alignment is characteristic). The complex of tunes is thematic. basis overall composition F. m. In large compositions, the general contours of F. m. composition (non-musical) functions: beginning - middle - end. The diverse types of F. m. are grouped around the main. contrasting types of F. m. - chorus and through. Chorus F. m. are based on the diverse use of a pair: verse - chorus (choruses can be updated). An example of a refrain form (triple, that is, with three different refrains) is the melody of a large znamenny chant "Bless, my soul, the Lord" (Obikhod, part 1, Vespers). F. m. consists of the sequence "line - chorus" (S-P, S-P, S-P, etc.) with the interaction of repetitions and non-repetition in the text, repetitions and non-repetition in the melody. Cross-cutting F. m. are sometimes characterized by a clear desire to avoid the typical Western European. music of rationally constructive methods of constructing musical instruments, exact repetitions, and reprises; in the most developed F, m. ​​of this type, the structure is asymmetric (on the basis of the radical non-squareness), infinity of soaring prevails; the principle of F. m. is unlimited. linearity. The constructive basis of F. m. in through forms is the division into a number of parts-lines in connection with the text. Samples of large cross-cutting forms are 11 gospel stichera by Fyodor Krestyanin (16th century). For analyzes of their F. m., performed by M. V. Brazhnikov, see his book: "Fyodor Krestyanin", 1974, p. 156-221. See also "Analysis of Musical Works", 1977, p. 84-94.

The secular music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance developed a number of genres and musical instruments, also based on the interaction of word and melody. These are various types of songs and dances. F. m .: ballad, ballata, villancico, virele, canzo (canzo), la, rondo, rotrueng, estampi, etc. (see Davison A., Apel W., 1974, NoNo 18-24). Some of them are perfectly poetic. form, which is such an important element of F. m., that outside the poetic. text, it loses its structure. The essence of such F. m. is in the interaction of textual and musical repetition. For example, the rondo form (here 8 lines):

Diagram of an 8-line rondo:
Line numbers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Poems (rondo): A B c A d e A B (A, B are refrains)
Music (and rhymes): a b a a a b a b

G. de Macho. 1st rondo "Doulz viaire".

Initial P. m.'s dependence on word and movement persisted until the 16th and 17th centuries, but the process of their gradual release, the crystallization of structurally defined types of composition, has been observed since the late Middle Ages, first in secular genres, then in church genres (for example, imitation and canonical F. m. in masses, motets of the 15th-16th centuries).

A new powerful source of shaping was the emergence and rise of polyphony as a full-fledged type of muses. presentation (see Organum). With the establishment of polyphony in F. m., a new dimension of music was born - the previously unheard-of "vertical" aspect of F. m. Since historically the first "horizontal" aspect is not eliminated by this and even remains dominant, there is a huge internal enrichment of F. m.

Having established itself in Europe music in the 9th century, polyphony gradually turned into the main. type of music fabrics, marking the transition of muses. thinking to a new level. Within the framework of polyphony, a new, polyphonic, appeared. the letter, under the sign of which the majority of the Renaissance f. m. was formed (see section IV). polyphony and polyphony. writing created a wealth of musical forms (and genres) of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, primarily the mass, motet, and madrigal, as well as such musical forms as the company, clause, conduct, goket, various types of secular song and dance forms, diferencias (and other variational f. m.), quadlibet (and similar genres-forms), instrumental canzona, ricercar, fantasy, capriccio, tiento, instrumental prelude f. m. - preamble, intonation (VI), toccata (pl. from named F. m., see Davison A., Apel W., 1974). Gradually, but steadily improving the art of F. m. reached its peaks at outstanding masters 15th-16th centuries - G. Dufay, Josquin Despres, A. Willart, O. Lasso, Palestrina. Some of them (for example, Palestrina) apply the principle of structural development in the construction of F. m., which is expressed in the growth of structural complexity by the end of production. (but no dynamic effects). For example, the Palestrina madrigal "Amor" (in the collection "Palestrina. Choral Music", L., 1973) is constructed in such a way that the 1st line is drawn up as a correct fugato, in the next five imitation becomes more and more free, the 7th is sustained in a chordal warehouse, and canonically beginning the last one with its imitation resembles a structural reprise. Similar ideas of F. m. are consistently carried out in Palestrina's motets (in multi-choir F. m., the rhythm of antiphonal introductions also obeys the principle of structural development).

IV. polyphonic musical forms. Polyphonic F. m. are distinguished by the addition to the three main. aspects of F. m. (genre, text - in wok. music and horizontal) one more - vertical (interaction and system of repetition between different, simultaneously sounding voices). Apparently, polyphony existed at all times ("... when the strings emit one tune, and the poet composed another melody, when they achieve consonances and counter-sounds ..." - Plato, "Laws", 812d; cf. also Pseudo-Plutarch , "On Music", 19), but it was not a factor in the muses. thinking and shaping. A particularly important role in the development of the F. m. caused by it belongs to Western European polyphony (from the 9th century), which gave the vertical aspect the value of equal rights with the radical horizontal (see Polyphony), which led to the formation of a special new kind of F. m. - polyphonic. Aesthetically and psychologically polyphonic. F. m. on the joint sound of two (or several) components of music. thoughts and require correspondence. perception. Thus, the occurrence of polyphonic. F. m. reflects the development of a new aspect of music. Thanks to this music. lawsuit acquired new aesthetics. values, without which his great achievements would not have been possible, including in Op. homoph. warehouse (in the music of Palestrina, J. S. Bach, B. A. Mozart, L. Beethoven, P. I. Tchaikovsky, S. S. Prokofiev). See homophony.

The main channels of the formation and flourishing of polyphonic. F. m. are laid by the development of specific polyphonic. writing techniques and go in the direction of the emergence and strengthening of the independence and contrast of voices, their thematic. elaboration (thematic differentiation, thematic development not only horizontally, but also vertically, tendencies towards through thematization), the addition of specific polyphonic. F. m. (not reducible to the type of polyphonically expounded general F. m. - song, dance, etc.). From various beginnings of polyphonic. F. m. and polygonal. letters (Bourdon, various types of heterophony, duplication-seconds, ostinato, imitation and canonical, responsorial and antiphonal structures) historically, the starting point for their composition was paraphony, the parallel conduct of a counterpunctuated voice, exactly duplicating the given main one - vox (cantus) principalis (see Organum), cantus firmus ("statutory melody"). First of all, it is the earliest of the types of organum - the so-called. parallel (9th-10th centuries), as well as later gimel, foburdon. Aspect polyphonic. F. m. here is a functional division of Ch. voice (in later terms soggetto, "Subjectum oder Thema" - Walther J. G., 1955, S. 183, "theme") and the opposition that opposes it, and the sense of interaction between them at the same time anticipates the vertical aspect of polyphonic. F. m. (it becomes especially noticeable in the bourdon and indirect, then in the “free” organum, in the “note against note” technique, later called contrapunctus simplex or aequalis), for example, in treatises of the 9th century. "Musica enchiriadis", "Scholia enchiriadis". Logically, the next stage of development is associated with the establishment of the actual polyphonic. structures in the form of a contrasting opposition in the simultaneity of two or more. voices (in a melismatic organum), partly using the principle of bourdon, in some types of polyphonic. arrangements and variations on the cantus firmus, in the simple counterpoint of the clauses and early motets of the Paris School, in the polyphonic church songs. and secular genres, etc.

The metrization of polyphony opened up new possibilities for rhythmic. contrasts of voices and, accordingly, gave a new look to polyphonic. F. m. Starting with rationalistic. organization of the metrorhythm (modal rhythm, mensural rhythm; see Modus, Mensural notation) F. m. gradually acquires specificity. for European music is a combination of perfect (further even sophisticated) rationalistic. constructiveness with sublime spirituality and deep emotionality. Big role in the development of new F. m. belonged to the Parisian school, then other French. composers of the 12th-14th centuries. OK. 1200 in the clauses of the Paris School, the principle of rhythmically ostinato processing of the choral melody, which is the basis of F. m., arises (with the help of brief rhythmic formulas that anticipate the isorhythmic talea, see Motet; example: clauses (Benedicamusl Domino, see Davison A., Apel W ., v. 1, p. 24-25) The same technique became the basis for two- and three-voice motets of the 13th century (example: motets of the Parisian school Domino fidelium - Domino and Dominator - Esse - Domino, c. 1225, ibid., 25-26) In motets of the 13th century, the process of thematization of counterpositions unfolds through various kinds of repetitions of lines, pitches, rhythmic figures, even attempts to simultaneously connect various melodies (see the motet "En non Diu! - Quant voi larose espanie - Ejus in oriente" of the School of Paris; Parrish K., Oul J., 1975, pp. 25-26). Subsequently, strong rhythmic contrasts could lead to sharp polymetry (rondo B. Cordier "Amans ames", ca. 1400, see Davison A., Apel W., v. 1, p. 51. Rhythmic contrasts are followed by a divergence in the length of phrases in different voices. (rudiment of counterpoint structures); the independence of the voices is emphasized by their diversity of texts (moreover, the texts can even be in different languages, for example, Latin in tenor and motetus, French in triplum, see Polyphony, a musical example in column 351). More than a single repetition of a tenor melody as an ostinato theme in counterpoint with a changing counterposition gives rise to one of the most important polyphonic. F. m. - variations on basso ostinato (for example, in the 13th century French motet "Salve virgo nobilis - Verbum caro - Veritatem", see Wolf J., 1926, S. 6-8). The use of rhythmic ostinato formulas led to the idea of ​​separation and independence of the parameters of pitch and rhythm (in the 1st part of the mentioned tenor motet "Ejus in oriente", bars 1-7 and 7-13; in the instrumental tenor motet "In seculum" in this In the same relation to the pitch line remetrization during rhythmic ostinato, the formula of the 1st ordo of the 2nd mode contains two parts of a two-part form (see Davison A., Apel W., v. 1, p. 34-35). The pinnacle of this development was isorhythmic. F. m. 14-15 centuries. (Philippe de Vitry, G. de Machaux, J. Ciconia, G. Dufay and others). With an increase in the value of the rhythmic formula from a phrase to an extended melody, a kind of rhythmic pattern arises in the tenor. theme - talea (talea). Its ostinato holdings in the tenor give F. m. equal rhythm. (i.e., isorhythmic) structure (isorhythm - repetition in a melodic voice of only an expanded rhythmic formulas, the high-rise content of which changes). To ostinato repetitions can be added - in the same tenor - repetitions of heights that do not coincide with them - color (color; for isorhythmic F. m., see Saponov M. A., 1978, pp. 23-35, 42-43). After the 16th century (A. Willart) isorhythmic. F. m. disappear and find a new life in the 20th century. in the rhythm-mode technique of O. Messiaen (proportional canon in No. 5 from "Twenty Views ...", see its beginning in Art. Polymodality, column 333) and in serialism.

In the development of the vertical aspect of polyphonic. F. m. will exclude. the development of repetition in the form of imitation technique and canon, as well as mobile counterpoint, was important. Being subsequently an extensive and diverse department of writing technique and form, imitation (and canon) became the basis of the most specific polyphonic. F. m. Historically, the earliest imitations. canonical F. m. is also associated with ostinato - the use of the so-called. exchange of voices, which is an exact repetition of a two- or three-part construction, but only the melodies that make it up are transmitted from one voice to another (for example, the English rondelle "Nunc sancte nobis spiritus", 2nd half of the 12th century, see "Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart", Bd XI, Sp. 885, see also the rondelle "Ave mater domini" from Odington's De speculatione musice, circa 1300 or 1320, in Coussemaker, "Scriptorum. ..", t. 1, p. 247a). The master of the Parisian school Perotin (who also uses the technique of exchanging voices) in the Christmas quadruple "Viderunt" (c. 1200), obviously, consciously already uses continuous imitation - the canon (a fragment falling on the word "ante" in tenor). The origin of these types of imitations. technology marks a departure from the stiffness of ostinato F. m. On this basis, purely canonical. forms - a company (13-14 centuries; a combination of a company-canon and a rondel-exchange of voices is represented by the famous English "Summer Canon", 13 or 14 centuries), Italian. kachcha ("hunt", with a hunting or love plot, in form - a two-voice canon with a cont. 3rd voice) and French. shas (also "hunting" - a three-voice canon in unison). The form of the canon is also found in other genres (Machot's 17th ballad, in the form of shas; Machaud's 14th rondo "Ma fin est mon commencement", probably historically the 1st example of a canon canon, not without connection with the meaning of the text: " My end is my beginning"; 17th le Masho - a cycle of 12 three-voice canons-shas); thus the canon as a special polyphonic. F. m. is separated from other genres and P. m. The number of voices in the F. m. cases were extremely large; Okegem is credited with the 36-voice canon-monster "Deo gratias" (in which, however, the number of real voices does not exceed 18); the most polyphonic canon (with 24 real voices) belongs to Josquin Despres (in the motet "Qui habitat in adjutorio"). P. m. of the canon were based not only on simple direct imitation (in Dufay, in the motet "Inclita maris", c. 1420-26, apparently, the first proportional canon; in his chanson "Bien veignes vous", c. 1420- 26, probably the first canon in magnification). OK. 1400 imitations F. m. passed, perhaps through kachcha, into motet - at Ciconia, Dufay; further also in F. m. parts of masses, in chanson; to the 2nd floor. 15th c. the establishment of the principle of end-to-end imitation as the basis of F. m.

The term "canon" (canon), however, had in the 15-16 centuries. special meaning. The author's remark-saying (Inscriptio), usually deliberately confusing, puzzling, was called canon ("a rule that reveals the will of the composer under the cover of some darkness", J. Tinktoris, "Diffinitorium musicae"; Coussemaker, "Scriptorum ...", t. 4, 179 b), indicating how two can be derived from one notated voice (or even more, for example, the entire four-voice Mass of P. de la Rue - "Missa o salutaris nostra" - is derived from one notated voice); see cryptic canon. Therefore, all products with a canon-inscription are F. m. with deducible voices (all other F. m. are constructed in such a way that, as a rule, they do not allow such encryption, that is, they are not based on the literally observed "principle of identity"; the term B. V. Asafiev). According to L. Feininger, the types of Dutch canons are: simple (one-dark) direct; complex, or compound (multi-dark) direct; proportional (mensural); linear (single-line; Formalkanon); inversion; elision (Reservatkanon). See more about this in the book: Feininger L. K., 1937. Similar "inscriptions" are found later in S. Scheidt ("Tabulatura nova", I, 1624), in J. S. Bach ("Musikalisches Opfer", 1747).

In the work of a number of masters of the 15th-16th centuries. (Dufay, Okeghem, Obrecht, Josquin Despres, Palestrina, Lasso, etc.) presents a variety of polyphonic. F. m. (strict writing), DOS. on the principles of imitation and contrast, motive development, independence of melodious voices, counterpoint of words and verse lines, ideally soft and exceptionally beautiful harmony (especially in the wok genres of mass and motet).

The addition of Ch. polyphonic forms - fugues - are also marked by a discrepancy between the development of Samui F. m. and, on the other hand, concepts and terms. In terms of meaning, the word "fugue" ("running"; Italian consequenza) is related to the words "hunting", "race", and initially (from the 14th century) the term was used in a similar meaning, indicating the canon (also in inscription canons: " fuga in diatessaron", etc.). Tinctoris defines fugue as "identity of voices". The use of the term "fugue" in the meaning of "canon" persisted until the 17th and 18th centuries; the term "fuga canonica" - "canonical fugue" can be considered a remnant of this practice. An example of a fugue as a canon from several departments in instr. music - "Fuge" for 4 string instruments ("violins") from "Musica Teusch" by X. Gerle (1532, see Wasielewski W. J. v., 1878, Musikbeilage, S. 41-42). All R. 16th century (Tsarlino, 1558) the concept of fugue is split into fuga legate ("coherent fugue", canon; later also fuga totalis) and fuga sciolta ("divided fugue"; later fuga partialis; succession of imitation-canonical sections, for example, abсd, etc. . P.); the last P. m. is one of the pre-forms of the fugue - a fugato chain of the type: abcd; so-called. motet form, where the difference in topics (a, b, c, etc.) is due to a change in text. The essential difference between such a "lowercase" F. m. from a complex fugue is the absence of a combination of topics. In the 17th century fuga sciolta (partialis) passed into the actual fugue (Fuga totalis, also legata, integra became known as the canon in the 17th-18th centuries). A number of other genres and F. m. 16 century. evolved towards the emerging type of fugue form - motet (fugue), ricercar (to which the motet principle of a number of imitation constructions was transferred; probably the closest fugue to F. m.), fantasy, Spanish. tiento, imitative-polyphonic canzone. To add the fugue in instr. music (where there is no previous connecting factor, namely the unity of the text), the tendency to thematic is important. centralization, i.e., to the supremacy of one melodic. themes (as opposed to vocab. multi-darkness) - by A. Gabrieli, J. Gabrieli, by J. P. Sweelinck (for the predecessors of the fugue, see the book: Protopopov V. V., 1979, p. 3-64).

By the 17th century formed the main relevant to this day polyphonic. F. m. - fugue (of all kinds of structures and types), canon, polyphonic variations (in particular, variations on basso ostinato), polyphonic. (in particular, chorale) arrangements (for example, to a given cantus firmus), polyphonic. cycles, polyphonic preludes, etc. A significant influence on the development of polyphonic F. of this time was exerted by a new major-minor harmonic system (updating the theme, nominating the tonal-modulating factor as the leading factor in F. M.; the development of the homophonic-harmonic type of writing and the corresponding F . m.). In particular, the fugue (and similar polyphonic f. m.) evolved from the predominant modal type of the 17th century. (where modulation is not yet the basis of polyphonic F. m.; for example, in Scheidt in "Tabulatura nova", II, Fuga contraria a 4 Voc .; I, Fantasia a 4 Voc. super lo son ferit o lasso, Fuga quadruplici ) to the tonal ("Bach") type with tonal contrast in the form of cf. parts (often in parallel mode). Exclude. significance in the history of polyphony. F. m. had the work of J. S. Bach, who breathed new life into them thanks to the establishment of the effectiveness of the resources of the major-minor tonal system for thematism, thematic. development and the process of shaping. Bach gave polyphonic F. m. new classic. appearance, on which, as on the main. type, the subsequent polyphony is consciously or unconsciously oriented (up to P. Hindemith, D. D. Shostakovich, R. K. Shchedrin). Reflecting the general trends of the time and the new techniques found by his predecessors, he far surpassed his contemporaries (including the brilliant G. F. Handel) in the scope, strength and persuasiveness of the assertion of new principles of polyphonic music. F. m.

After J. S. Bach, the dominant position was occupied by homophonic F. m. (see. Homophony). Actually polyphonic. F. m. are sometimes used in a new, sometimes unusual role (the fughetta of the guardsmen in the choir "Sweeter than Honey" from the 1st act of Rimsky-Korsakov's opera "The Tsar's Bride"), acquire dramaturgical motives. character; composers refer to them as a special, special expression. means. To a large extent, this is characteristic of polyphonic. F. m. in Russian. music (examples: M. I. Glinka, "Ruslan and Lyudmila", canon in the scene of stupor from the 1st act; contrasting polyphony in the play "In Central Asia" by Borodin and in the play "Two Jews" from "Pictures at an Exhibition" Mussorgsky; the canon "Enemies" from the 5th scene of the opera "Eugene Onegin" by Tchaikovsky, etc.).

V. Homophonic musical forms of modern times. The onset of the era of the so-called. new time (17-19 centuries) marked a sharp turning point in the development of muses. thinking and F. m. (the emergence of new genres, the dominant importance of secular music, the dominance of the major-minor tonal system). In ideological and aesthetic sphere advanced new methods of art. thinking - an appeal to secular music. content, the assertion of the principle of individualism as a leader, the disclosure of internal. the world of an individual ("the soloist has become the main figure", "individualization of human thought and feeling" - Asafiev BV, 1963, p. 321). The rise of the opera to the significance of the central music. genre, and in instr. music - the statement of the principle of concert (baroque - the era of "concert style", in the words of Zh. Gandshin) is associated with the most directly. the transfer of the image of an individual person in them and represents the focus of the aesthetic. aspirations of a new era (an aria in an opera, a solo in a concerto, a melody in a homophonic fabric, a heavy measure in a meter, a tonic in a key, a theme in a composition, and the centralization of musical music - multifaceted and growing manifestations of "soloness", "singularity", the dominance of one over others in various layers of musical thinking). The tendency that had already manifested itself earlier (for example, in the iso-rhythmic motet of the 14th-15th centuries) towards the autonomy of purely musical principles of shaping in the 16-17 centuries. led to qualities. jump - their independence, most directly revealed in the formation of an autonomous instr. music. The principles of pure music. shaping, which became (for the first time in the world history of music) independent of the word and movement, made instr. music was at first equal to vocal music (already in the 17th century - in instrumental canzones, sonatas, concertos), and then, moreover, shaping was put into wok. genres depending on autonomous music. laws of F. m. (from J. S. Bach, Viennese classics, composers of the 19th century). Identification of pure music. The laws of F. m. are one of the pinnacle achievements of world music. cultures that discovered new aesthetic and spiritual values ​​previously unknown in music.

Regarding f. m. The era of modern times is clearly divided into two periods: 1600-1750 (conditionally - baroque, the dominance of the bass general) and 1750-1900 (Viennese classics and romanticism).

Principles of shaping in F. m. Baroque: throughout a one-part form b. hours, the expression of one affect is preserved, therefore F. m. are characterized by the predominance of homogeneous thematicism and the absence of derivative contrast, i.e., the derivation of another topic from this one. Properties in the music of Bach and Handel, majesty is associated with the solidity that comes from here, the massiveness of the parts of the form. This also determines the "terraced" dynamics of V.F. m., using dynamic. contrasts, lack of flexible and dynamic crescendo; idea of ​​production not so much developing as unfolding, as if passing through predetermined stages. In dealing with thematic material affects the strong influence of polyphonic. letters and polyphonic forms. The major-minor tonal system more and more reveals its formative properties (especially in Bach's time). Chord and tonal changes serve new powers. means of internal movement in F. m. The possibility of repeating material in other keys and a holistic concept of movement by definition. the circle of tonalities creates a new principle of tonal forms (in this sense, tonality is the basis of the F. m. of the new time). In Arensky's "Guidelines..." (1914, pp. 4 and 53), the term "homophonic forms" is replaced as a synonym for the term "harmonic forms", and harmony means tonal harmony. The baroque f.m. (without derivative figurative and thematic contrast) give the simplest type of construction of f.m. hence the impression of a "circle"), passing through cadenzas on other steps of the tonality, for example:

in major: I - V; VI-III-IV-I
in minor: I - V; III - VII - VI - IV - I
with a tendency to non-repetition of keys between the tonic at the beginning and at the end, according to the T-D-S-T principle.

For example, in concert form (which played in sonatas and baroque concerts, especially with A. Vivaldi, J. S. Bach, Handel, a role similar to the role of sonata form in instrumental cycles of classical-romantic music):

Theme - And - Theme - And - Theme - And - Theme
T-D-S-T
(I - interlude, - modulation; examples - Bach, 1st movement of the Brandenburg Concertos).

The most widespread musical instruments of the Baroque are homophonic (more precisely, non-fugued) and polyphonic (see Section IV). Main homophonic F. m. baroque:

\1) forms of through development (in instr. music, the main type is prelude, in wok. - recitative); samples - J. Frescobaldi, preambles for organ; Handel, clavier suite in d-moll, prelude; Bach, organ toccata in d minor, BWV 565, prelude movement, before fugue;

\2) small (simple) forms - bar (reprise and non-reprise; for example, F. Nicolai's song "Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern" ("How wonderfully the morning star shines", its processing by Bach in the 1st cantata and in others op.)), two-, three- and many-part forms (an example of the latter is Bach, mass in h-moll, No14); wok. music often meets the form da capo;

\3) compound (complex) forms (combination of small ones) - complex two-, three- and many-part; contrast-composite (for example, the first parts of orchestral overtures by J. S. Bach), the da capo form is especially important (in particular, in Bach);

\4) variations and choral arrangements;

\5) rondo (in comparison with the rondo of the 13th-15th centuries - a new instr. F. m. under the same name);

\6) old sonata form, one-dark and (in embryo, development) two-dark; each of them is incomplete (two-part) or complete (three-part); for example, in the sonatas of D. Scarlatti; full one-dark sonata form - Bach, Matthew Passion, No 47;

\7) concert form (one of the main sources of the future classical sonata form);

\8) various types of woks. and instr. cyclic forms (they are also certain musical genres) - Passion, mass (including organ), oratorio, cantata, concerto, sonata, suite, prelude and fugue, overture, special types of forms (Bach, "Musical Offering", "The Art of the Fugue"), "cycles of cycles" (Bach, "The Well-Tempered Clavier", French suites);

\9) opera. (See "Analysis of Musical Works", 1977.)

F. m. classical-romantic. period, the concept of to-rykh reflected at the initial stage of the humanistic. European ideas. Enlightenment and rationalism, and in the 19th century. individualistic the ideas of romanticism ("Romanticism is nothing but the apotheosis of personality" - I. S. Turgenev), autonomization and aestheticization of music, are characterized by the highest manifestation of autonomous muses. the laws of shaping, the primacy of the principles of centralized unity and dynamism, the limiting semantic differentiation of F. m., and the relief of the development of its parts. For classic romantic The concept of F. m. is also typical of the selection of the minimum number of optimal types of F. m. (with sharply pronounced differences between them) with an unusually rich and diverse concrete implementation of the same structural types (the principle of diversity in unity), which is similar to the optimality of other parameters F. m. (for example, a strict selection of types of harmonic sequences, types of tonal plan, characteristic textured figures, optimal orchestral compositions, metric structures gravitating towards squareness, methods of motivational development), an optimally intense feeling of experiencing music. time, subtle and correct calculation of temporal proportions. (Of course, within the framework of the 150-year historical period, the differences between the Viennese-classical and romantic concepts of F. m. are also significant.) In some respects, it is possible to establish the dialectical nature of the general concept of development in F. m. (Beethoven's sonata form) . Musical music combines the expression of high artistic, aesthetic, and philosophical ideas with the juicy "earthly" character of the music. figurativeness (also thematic material that bears the imprint of folk-everyday music, with its typical features of musical material; this applies to the main arr. F. m. of the 19th century).

General logical classical romantic principles. F. m. are a strict and rich embodiment of the norms of any thinking in the field of music, reflected in the definitions. semantic functions of parts of F. m. Like any thinking, musical has an object of thought, its material (in a metaphorical sense - a theme). Thinking is expressed in musical-logical. "discussion of the topic" ("Musical form is the result of a "logical discussion" of musical material" - Stravinsky I.F., 1971, p. 227), which, due to the temporal and non-conceptual nature of music as art, divides F. m. into two logical department - presentation of music. thought and its development ("discussion"). In turn, logical music development. thought consists of its "consideration" and the following "conclusion"; therefore development as a logical stage. Deployment F. m. is divided into two subdivisions - the actual development and completion. As a result of the development of the classic F. m. discovers three main. functions of the parts (corresponding to the Asafiev triad initium - motus - terminus, see Asafiev B.V., 1963, p. 83-84; Bobrovsky V.P., 1978, p. 21-25) - exposition (exposition of thought), developing (actual development) and final (statement of thought), complexly correlated with each other:

(For example, in a simple three-part form, in sonata form.) In finely differentiated F. m., in addition to the three fundamentals. auxiliary functions of the parts arise - an introduction (the function of which branches off from the initial presentation of the topic), transition and conclusion (branching from the function of completion and thereby dividing it into two - affirmation and conclusion of thought). Thus, parts of F. m. have only six functions (cf. Sposobin I. V., 1947, p. 26).

Being a manifestation of the general laws of human thinking, the complex of functions of the parts of F. m. reveals something in common with the functions of the parts of the presentation of thought in the rational-logical sphere of thinking, the corresponding laws of ancient teaching about rhetoric (oratory). The functions of the six sections of the classic. rhetoric (Exordium - introduction, Narratio - narration, Propositio - main position, Confutatio - challenging, Confirmatio - statement, Conclusio - conclusion) almost exactly coincide in composition and sequence with the functions of the parts of F. m. (the main functions of F. m.):

Exordium - intro
Propositio - exposition (main topic)
Narratio - development as a transition
Confutatio - contrasting part (development, contrasting theme)
Confirmatio - reprise
Conclusio - code (addition)

Rhetoric functions can manifest themselves in different ways. levels (for example, they cover both the sonata exposition and the entire sonata form as a whole). The far-reaching coincidence of the functions of sections in rhetoric and parts of F. m. testifies to the deep unity of decomp. and seemingly distant from each other types of thinking.

Diff. music elements (sounds, timbres, rhythms, chords, melodic intonations, melodic line, dynamic nuances, tempo, agogics, tonal functions, cadences, texture warehouse, etc.) are musical material. (in a broad sense) belongs to the musical organization of the material, considered from the side of expressing the musical content.In the system of musical organization, not all elements of the musical material are of equal importance.Profiling aspects of classical-romantic F.M. m (see Tonality, Mode, Melody), meter, motive structure (see Motive, Homophony), counterpoint of the main lines (in homoph. F. m., usually the so-called contour, or main, two-voice: melody + bass), thematism and harmony. The formative value of tonality consists (in addition to the above) in the consolidation of a tonal-stable theme by a common attraction to a single tonic (see diagram A in the example below). particles F. m. (chief principle: the 2nd measure responds to 1st and creates a two-cycle, 2nd two-cycle responds to the 1st and creates a four-cycle, 2nd four-cycle responds to the 1st and creates an eight-cycle; hence the fundamental importance of squareness for the classical-romantic. F. m.), thereby forming small constructions of F. m. - phrases, sentences, periods, similar sections of middles and reprises within themes; classical the meter also determines the location of cadences of one kind or another and the strength of their final action (semi-conclusion at the end of a sentence, full conclusion at the end of a period). The formative significance of motive (in a larger sense, also thematic) development lies in the fact that large-scale music. thought is derived from its core. semantic core (usually it is the initial motivic group or, more rarely, the initial motive) by various modified repetitions of its particles (motivational repetitions from another chord sound, from another degree, in another harmony, with an interval change in the line, varying the rhythm, in increase or decrease, in circulation, with fragmentation - a particularly active means of motivic development, the possibilities of which extend up to the transformation of the initial motive into other motives). See Arensky A.S., 1900, p. 57-67; Sposobin I.V., 1947, p. 47-51. Motivational development plays approximately the same role in homophonic F. m. as the repetition of the theme and its particles in polyphonic. F. m. (for example, in a fugue). The formative value of counterpoint in homophonic F. m. is manifested in the creation of their vertical aspect. Practically homophonic F. m. throughout it is (at least) a two-part combination in the form of extreme voices, obeying the norms of polyphony of this style (the role of polyphony may be more significant). A sample of contour two-voice - W. A. ​​Mozart, symphony g-moll No 40, minuet, ch. topic. The formative significance of thematism and harmony is manifested in the interrelated contrasts of close-knit arrays of presentation of themes and thematically unstable developmental, connecting, running constructions of one kind or another (also thematically "folding" final and thematically "crystallizing" introductory parts), tonally stable and modulating parts; also in contrasting the structurally monolithic constructions of the main themes and more "loose" side ones (for example, in sonata forms), respectively, in contrasting different types of tonal stability (for example, the strength of tonal connections in combination with the mobility of harmony in the main part, certainty and unity tonality in combination with its softer structure in the side, reduction to the tonic in the coda). If the meter creates F. m. on a small scale, then the interaction of thematism and harmony - on a large scale.

See column 894 for diagrams of some of the main classical-romantic musical instruments (from the point of view of the higher factors of their structure; T, D, p are functional designations of keys; - modulation; straight lines - stable construction, curved - unstable) see column 894.

The cumulative effect of the listed main. factors of classical romanticism. F. m. is shown on the example of Andante cantabile of Tchaikovsky's 5th symphony.

Scheme A: the whole ch. the theme of the 1st part of Andante is based on the tonic D-dur, the first performance of the secondary theme-addition is on the tonic Fis-dur, then both are regulated by the tonic D-dur. Scheme B (chapter theme, cf. with scheme C): another one-bar responds to a one-bar, a more continuous two-bar construction answers the resulting two-bar, a four-bar sentence closed by a cadence is answered by another similar one with a more stable cadence. Scheme B: based on metric. structures (Scheme B) motivic development (a fragment is shown) comes from a one-bar motive and is carried out by repeating it in other harmonies, with a change in melodic. line (a1) and metro rhythm (a2, a3).

Scheme G: contrapuntal. the basis of the F. m., the correct 2-voice connection based on permissions in consoner. interval and contrasts in the movement of voices. Scheme D: interaction thematically. and harmonic. factors forms the F. m. of the work as a whole (the type is a complex three-part form with an episode, with "deviations" from the traditional classical form towards the internal expansion of the large 1st part).

In order for the parts of F. m. to perform their structural functions, they must be built accordingly. For example, the second theme of the Gavotte of Prokofiev's "Classical Symphony" is perceived even out of context as a typical trio of a complex three-part form; both main themes of the exposition of the 8th fp. Beethoven's sonatas cannot be represented in reverse order - the main one as a side, and the side one as the main one. Patterns of the structure of parts of F. m., revealing their structural functions, called. types of presentation of music. material (the theory of Sposobina, 1947, pp. 27-39). Ch. There are three types of presentation - exposition, middle and final. The leading feature of the exposition is stability in combination with the activity of movement, which is expressed in thematic. unity (development of one or a few motives), tonal unity (one key with deviations; small modulation at the end, not undermining the stability of the whole), structural unity (sentences, periods, normative cadences, structure 4 + 4, 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2 and similar under the condition of harmonic stability); see Diagram B, bars 9-16. A sign of the median type (also developmental) is instability, fluidity, achieved harmonics. instability (reliance not on T, but on other functions, for example D; the beginning is not with T, avoiding and pushing the tonic, modulation), thematic. fragmentation (selection of parts of the main construction, smaller units than in the main part), structural instability (lack of sentences and periods, sequencing, lack of stable cadences). Conclude. the type of presentation affirms the tonic already achieved by repeated cadences, cadence additions, an organ point on T, deviations towards S, and the cessation of the thematic. development, gradual fragmentation of constructions, reduction of development to maintaining or repeating tonic. chord (example: Mussorgsky, chorus coda "Glory to you, the creator of the Almighty" from the opera "Boris Godunov"). Reliance on F. m. folk music as an aesthetic. the installation of the music of the new time, combined with a high degree of development of the structural functions of the F. m. and the types of presentation of music corresponding to them. The material is organized into a coherent system of musical instruments, the extreme points of which are the song (based on the dominance of metric relations) and the sonata form (based on thematic and tonal development). General systematics of the main. types of classical-romantic. F. m.:

\1) The starting point of the system of musical instruments (in contrast, for example, from the high musical instruments of the Renaissance) is the song form directly transferred from everyday music (the main types of structure are the simple two-part and simple three-part forms ab, aba; further in diagrams A), common not only in the wok. genres, but also reflected in instr. miniatures (preludes, etudes by Chopin, Scriabin, small piano pieces by Rachmaninov, Prokofiev). Further growth and complication of F. m., emanating from the form of the couplet nar. songs are carried out in three ways: repetition (changed) of the same theme, introduction of another theme and internal complication of parts (expansion of the period to a higher "form", splitting the middle into a structure: move - theme-embryo - return move, autonomization of additions to the role theme-embryos). In these ways, the song form rises to more advanced ones.

\2) Couplet (AAA...) and variational (А А1 А2...) forms, osn. on a repeat of the theme.

\3) Diff. types of two- and multi-theme composite ("complex") forms and rondo. The most important of the composite F. m. is the complex three-part ABA (other types are the complex two-part AB, arched or concentric ABBCVA, ABCDCBA; other types are ABC, ABCD, ABCDA). For rondo (AVASA, AVASAVA, ABACADA) the presence of transitional parts between themes is typical; rondo may include sonata elements (see Rondo sonata).

\4) Sonata form. One of the sources is its "germination" from a simple two- or three-part form (see, for example, the f-moll prelude from the 2nd volume of Saha's Well-Tempered Clavier, the minuet from the Mozart Quartet Es-dur, K.-V 428; the sonata form without development in the 1st part of Andante cantabile of Tchaikovsky's 5th symphony has a genetic connection with the thematic contrasting simple 3-movement form).

\5) On the basis of the contrast of tempo, character, and (often) meter, provided that the concept is united, the above-mentioned large single-part F. m. fold into multi-part cyclic and merge into single-part contrast-composite forms (samples of the latter - Ivan Susanin by Glinka, No 12, quartet, a form of the "Great Viennese Waltz", for example, the choreographic poem "Waltz" by Ravel). In addition to the listed typified musical forms, there are mixed and individualized free forms, most often associated with a special idea, possibly programmatic (F. Chopin, 2nd ballad; R. Wagner, "Lohengrin", introduction; P. I. Tchaikovsky, symphony . fantasy "The Tempest"), or with the genre of free fantasy, rhapsodies (W. A. ​​Mozart, Fantasia c-moll, K.-V. 475). In free forms, however, elements of typed forms are almost always used, or they are specially interpreted ordinary F. m.

Opera music is subject to two groups of formative principles: theatrical-dramatic and purely musical. Depending on the preponderance of one principle or another, operatic musical compositions are grouped around three fundamentals. types: numbered opera (for example, Mozart in the operas "The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni"), music. drama (R. Wagner, "Tristan and Isolde"; C. Debussy, "Pelléas and Melisande"), mixed, or synthetic., type (M. P. Mussorgsky, "Boris Godunov"; D. D. Shostakovich, "Katerina Izmailov"; S. S. Prokofiev, "War and Peace"). See Opera, Dramaturgy, Musical drama. The mixed type of opera form gives the optimal combination of stage continuity. actions with rounded F. M. An example of F. M. of this type is a scene in a tavern from Mussorgsky's opera "Boris Godunov" (an artistically perfect distribution of ariose and dramatic elements in connection with the form of stage action).

VI. Musical forms of the 20th century F. m. 20 p. are conditionally divided into two types: one with the preservation of old compositions. types - a complex three-part F. m., rondo, sonata, fugue, fantasy, etc. (by A. N. Scriabin, I. F. Stravinsky, N. Ya. Myaskovsky, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, P. Hindemith, B. Bartok, O. Messiaen, composers of the new Viennese school, etc.), another without their preservation (by C. Ives, J. Cage, composers of the new Polish school, K. Stockhausen, P. Boulez , D. Ligeti, with some Soviet composers - L. A. Grabovsky, S. A. Gubaidullina, E. V. Denisov, S. M. Slonimsky, B. I. Tishchenko, A. G. Schnittke, R K. Shchedrin and others). In the 1st floor. 20th century the first kind of F. m dominates, in the 2nd floor. significantly increases the role of the second. The development of a new harmony in the 20th century, especially in combination with a different role of timbre, rhythm, and structure of fabric, is able to greatly renew the old structural type of rhythmic music (Stravinsky, "The Rite of Spring", the final rondo "The Great Sacred Dance" with the scheme AVASA, rethought in connection with the renewal of the entire musical language system). With a radical internal the renewal of the F. m. can be equated with the new one, since connections with the former structural types may not be perceived as such (for example, the orchestral play by K. Penderetsky "Tren in memory of the victims of Hiroshima" is formally written in , however, is not perceived as such because of the sonoristic technique, which makes it more similar to the F. m. of other sonoristic op. than the usual tonal op. in sonata form). Hence the key concept of "technique" (writing) for the study of F. m. in the music of the 20th century. (the concept of "technique" combines the idea of ​​the used sound material and its properties, of harmony, writing and form elements).

In tonal (more precisely, new-tonal, see Tonality) music of the 20th century. The renewal of traditional F. m. occurs primarily due to new types of harmonica. centers and corresponding to the new harmonic properties. material of functional relations. So, in the 1st part of the 6th fp. sonatas by Prokofiev traditional. opposition to the "solid" structure of Ch. part and the "loose" (albeit fairly stable) side part is convexly expressed by the contrast of the strong A-dur tonic in ch. theme and softened veiled foundation ( h-d-f-a chord) in the side. The relief of F. m. is achieved by new harmonics. and structural means, due to the new content of the muses. lawsuit. The situation is similar with modal technique (example: 3-part form in Messiaen's play "Calm Complaint") and with the so-called. free atonality (for example, a piece by R. S. Ledenev for harp and strings, quartet, op. 16 No 6, performed in the technique of central consonance).

In the music of the 20th century a polyphonic renaissance is taking place. thinking and polyphonic. F. m. Contrapuntal. letter and old polyphonic F. m. became the basis of the so-called. neoclassical (b. h. neo-baroque) direction ("For modern music, the harmony of which is gradually losing its tonal connection, the connecting force of contrapuntal forms should be especially valuable" - Taneyev S. I., 1909). Along with filling the old F. m. (fugues, canons, passacaglia, variations, etc.) with a new intonation. content (in Hindemith, Shostakovich, B. Bartok, partly Stravinsky, Shchedrin, A. Schoenberg, and many others) a new interpretation of the polyphonic. F. m. (for example, in the "Passacaglia" from Stravinsky's septet, the neoclassical principle of linear, rhythmic and large-scale invariance of the ostinato theme is not observed, at the end of this part there is a "disproportionate" canon, the nature of the cycle's monothematism is similar to serial-polyphonic variations ).

Serial-dodecaphonic technique (see Dodecaphony, Serial technique) was originally intended (in the Novovensk school) to restore the opportunity to write large classics, lost in "atonality". F. m. In fact, the expediency of using this technique in neoclassical. purpose is somewhat questionable. Although quasi-tonal and tonal effects are easily achieved using serial technique (for example, in the minuet trio of Schoenberg's suite op. 25, the tonality of es-moll is clearly audible; in the entire suite, oriented to a similar Bach time cycle, serial rows are drawn only from sounds e and b, each of which is the initial and final sound in two serial rows, and thus the monotony of the baroque suite is imitated here), although it will not be difficult for the master to oppose "tonally" stable and unstable parts, modulation-transposition, corresponding reprises of themes and other components of tonal F. m., internal contradictions (between the new intonation and the old technique of tonal F. m.), characteristic of neoclassical. shaping, affect here with particular force. (As a rule, those connections with the tonic and the oppositions based on them are unattainable or artificial here, which were shown in Scheme A of the last example in relation to the classical-romantic. F. m.) samples of F. m. Mutual correspondence of the new intonation, harmonic. forms, writing techniques and form techniques are achieved by A. Webern. For example, in the 1st part of the symphony op. 21 he does not rely only on the formative properties of serial conductions, on neoclassical. by origin, canons and quasi-sonata pitch ratios, and, using all this as material, forms it with the help of new means of F. m. - connections between pitch and timbre, timbre and structure, multifaceted symmetries in pitch-timbre-rhythm. fabrics, interval groups, in the distribution of sound density, etc., simultaneously abandoning the methods of shaping that have become optional; new F. m. conveys aesthetic. the effect of purity, sublimity, silence, sacraments. radiance and at the same time trembling of each sound, deep cordiality.

A special kind of polyphonic constructions are formed with the serial-dodecaphone method of composing music; respectively, F. m., made in the serial technique, are polyphonic in essence, or at least according to the fundamental principle, regardless of whether they have a textured appearance of polyphonic. F. m. (for example, the canons in the 2nd part of Webern's symphony, op. 21, see Art. Rakohodnoe movement, an example in columns 530-31; in the 1st part of "Concerto-buff" by S. M. Slonimsky, minuet trio from the suite for piano, op. 25 by Schoenberg) or quasi-homophonic (for example, the sonata form in the cantata "Light of the Eyes" op. 26 by Webern; in the 1st part of the 3rd symphony by K. Karaev; rondo - sonata in the finale of Schoenberg's 3rd quartet). In the work of Webern to the main. features of the old polyphonic. F. m. added its new aspects (emancipation of musical parameters, involvement in a polyphonic structure, in addition to high-pitched, thematic repetitions, autonomous interaction of timbres, rhythms, register relations, articulation, dynamics; see, for example, 2nd part variations for piano op.27, orc.variations op.30), which paved the way for another modification of polyphonic. F. m. - in serialism, see Serialism.

In sonoristic music (see Sonorism) predominates are used. individualized, free, new forms (A. G. Schnittke, Pianissimo; E. V. Denisov, piano trio, 1st part, where the main structural unit is "sigh", - asymmetrically varied, serves as material for building a new , non-classical three-part form; A. Vieru, "Eratosthenes' sieve", "Clepsydra").

Polyphonic in origin F. m. 20th century, osn. on contrasting interactions of simultaneously sounding muses. structures (pieces No. 145a and 145b from Bartók's "Microcosmos", which can be performed both separately and simultaneously; D. Millau's quartets No. 14 and 15, which have the same feature; K. Stockhausen's "Group" for three spatially separated orchestras). Limit sharpening polyphonic. the principle of independence of voices (layers) of the fabric is an aleatoric of the fabric, allowing for a temporary temporary separation of parts of the general sound and, accordingly, a plurality of their combinations at the same time. combinations (V. Lutoslavsky, 2nd symphony, "Book for Orchestra").

New, individualized F. m. (where the "scheme" of the work is the subject of the composition, as opposed to the neoclassical type of modern F. m.) dominate electronic music (the sample is Denisov's Birdsong). Mobile F. m. (updated from one performance to another) are found in some types of alea-toric. music (for example, in Stockhausen's "Fp. Piece XI", Boulez's 3rd Fp. Sonata). F. m. 60-70s. mixed techniques are widely used (R. K. Shchedrin, 2nd and 3rd piano concertos). The so-called. repetitive (or repetitive) F. m., the structure of which is based on multiple repetitions b. hours of elementary music. material (for example, in some works by V. I. Martynov). In the field of stage genres - happening.

VII. Teachings about musical forms. The doctrine of F. m. as a department. branch of applied theoretical musicology and under this name arose in the 18th century. However, its history, which runs parallel to the development of the philosophical problem of the relationship between form and matter, form and content, and coincides with the history of the doctrine of the muses. compositions, dates back to the era of the Ancient World - from the Greek. atomists (Democritus, 5th century BC) and Plato (he developed the concepts of "scheme", "morphe", "type", "idea", "eidos", "view", "image"; see Losev A F., 1963, pp. 430-46, etc.; his own, 1969, pp. 530-52, etc.). The most complete antique philosophical theory form ("eidos", "morphe", "logos") and matter (related to the problem of form and content) was put forward by Aristotle (the ideas of the unity of matter and form; the hierarchy of the relationship between matter and form, where the highest form is the divine mind; see Aristotle, 1976). The doctrine, similar to the science of F. m., developed within the framework of melopei, which developed as a special. music-theoretical. discipline, probably under Aristoxenus (2nd half of the 4th century); see Cleonides, Janus S., 1895, p. 206-207; Aristides Quintilian, "De musica libri III"). Anonymous Bellerman III in the section "About Melopee" sets out (with musical illustrations) information about "rhythms" and melodic. figures (Najock D., 1972, pp. 138-143), i.e., rather about the elements of F. m., than about F. m. in own. sense, to-heaven in the context of the ancient idea of ​​music as a trinity was thought primarily in connection with the poetic. forms, structure of a stanza, verse. The connection with the word (and in this respect, the absence of an autonomous doctrine of F. m. in the modern sense) is also characteristic of the doctrine of F. m. of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. In the psalm, the Magnificat, the hymns of the Mass (cf. section III ) and other genres of this time, F. m., in essence, were predetermined by the text and liturgical. action and did not require special. autonomous doctrine of F. m. In art. secular genres, where the text was part of the F. m. and determined the structure of purely muses. construction, the situation was similar. In addition, the formulas of modes, set forth in the musical-theoretical. treatises, in measure served as a kind of "melody-model" and repeated in decomp. products belonging to the same tone. Polygon rules. letters (beginning with "Musica enchiriadis", late 9th century) supplemented the F. m. embodied in a given melody: they can also hardly be considered as a teaching about F. m. So, in the Milan treatise "Ad Organum faciendum" (c. 1100), belonging to the genre of "musical-technical." works on music. compositions (how to "make" the organum), after the main. definitions (organum, copula, diaphony, organizatores, "kinship" of voices - affinitas vocum), the technique of consonances, five "methods of organization" (modi organizandi), i.e., various types of use of consonances when "composing" counterpoint organum, with music . examples; sections of the given two-voice constructions are named (according to the ancient principle: beginning - middle - end): prima vox - mediae voces - ultimae voces. Wed also from ch. 15 "Micrologist" (c. 1025-26) by Guido d "Arezzo (1966, p. 196-98). Descriptions of various genres are also close to the doctrine of F. m.. In the treatise J. de Groheo ("De musica", c. 1300), marked by the influence of already Renaissance methodology, contains an extensive description of many genres and F. m. estampi), induction, motet, organum, goquet, mass and its parts (Introitus, Kyrie, Gloria, etc.), invitatorium, Venite, antiphon, anthem. "(sections of F. m.), types of conclusions of parts of F. m. (arertum, clausuni), the number of parts in F. m. It is important that Groheo widely uses the very term "F. m.", moreover, in a sense similar to the modern one: formae musicales (Grocheio J. de, p. 130; see also in the introductory article by E. Rolof a comparison with the interpretation of the term forma y by Aristotle, Grocheio J. de, p. 14 -16) Following Aristotle (whose name is mentioned more than once), Groheo correlates "form" with "matter" (p. 120), and "matter" is considered to be "harmonic sounds", and "form" (here - the structure of consonance) is associated with "number" (p. 122; Russian translation - Groheo J. de, 1966, pp. 235, 253). A similar rather detailed description by F. m. gives, for example, V. Odington in the treatise "De speculatione musice": treble, organum, rondel, conduct, copula, motet, goket; in the music He gives examples of two- and three-voice scores. In the teachings of counterpoint, along with the technique of polyphonic. Letters (for example, from J. Tinktoris, 1477; N. Vicentino, 1555; J. Tsarlino, 1558) also describe elements of the theory of some polyphonic. forms, eg. canon (originally in the technique of exchanging voices - rondelle with Odington; "rotunda, or rotundel" with Groheo; from the 14th century under the name "fugue" mentioned by Jacob of Liege; also explained by Ramos de Pareja; see Pareja, 1966 , pp. 346-47; in Tsarlino, 1558, ibid., pp. 476-80). The development of the fugue form in theory falls mainly on the 17th-18th centuries. (in particular, J. M. Bononcini, 1673; I. G. Walter, 1708; I. I. Fuchs, 1725; I. A. Scheibe (c. 1730), 1961; I. Mattheson, 1739; F. V. Marpurga, 1753-54; I. F. Kirnberger, 1771-79; I. G. Albrechtsberger, 1790, etc.), then at the muses. theorists of the 19th and 20th centuries.

On the theory of F. m. 16-18 centuries. a notable influence was exerted by the understanding of the functions of the parts on the basis of the doctrine of rhetoric. Originating in Dr. Greece (c. 5th century BC), on the verge of late antiquity and the Middle Ages, rhetoric became part of the "seven liberal arts" (septem artes liberales), where it came into contact with the "science of music" ("... rhetoric is not could not be extremely influential in relation to music as an expressive language factor "- Asafiev B.V., 1963, p. 31). One of the departments of rhetoric - Dispositio ("arrangement"; i.e. compositional plan op.) - as a category corresponds to the doctrine of F. m., indicates a definition. structural functions of its parts (see section V). To the idea and structure of the muses. cit., and other departments of music also belong to F. m. rhetoric - Inventio ("invention" of musical thought), Decoratio (its "decoration" with the help of musical-rhetorical figures). (On musical rhetoric, see: Calvisius S., 1592; Burmeister J., 1599; Lippius J., 1612; Kircher A., ​​1650; Bernhard Chr., 1926; Janowka Th. B., 1701; Walther J. G., 1955 ; Mattheson J., 1739; Zakharova O., 1975.) From the standpoint of music. rhetoric (functions of parts, dispositio) Mattheson analyzes precisely F. m. in the aria of B. Marcello (Mattheson J., 1739); in terms of music. rhetoric, the sonata form was first described (see Ritzel F., 1968). Hegel, differentiating the concepts of matter, form and content, introduced the latter concept into broad philosophical and scientific use, gave it (however, on the basis of an objective idealistic methodology) a deep dialectic. explanation, made it an important category of teaching about art, about music ("Aesthetics").

New science of F. m., in own. sense of the doctrine of F. m., was developed in the 18-19 centuries. In a number of works of the 18th century. the problems of meter ("the doctrine of beats"), motive development, expansion and fragmentation of muses are investigated. construction, sentence structure and period, the structure of some of the most important homophonic instr. F. m., established resp. concepts and terms (Mattheson J., 1739; Scheibe J. A., 1739; Riepel J., 1752; Kirnberger J. Ph., 1771-79; Koch H. Ch., 1782-93; Albrechtsberger J. G., 1790). In con. 18 - beg. 19th centuries a general systematics of homophonic F. m. was outlined, and consolidated works on F. m. appeared, covering in detail both their general theory and their structural features, tonal harmonic. structure (from the teachings of the 19th century - Weber G., 1817-21; Reicha A., 1818, 1824-26; Logier J. B., 1827). Classic A. B. Marx gave a consolidated doctrine of F. m.; his "Doctrine of Musical Composition" (Marx A.V., 1837-47) covers everything a composer needs to master the art of composing music. F. m. Marx interprets as "an expression ... of content", by which he means "sensations, ideas, ideas of the composer." Marx's system of homophonic F. m. comes from the "primary forms" of music. thoughts (movement, sentence, and period), relies on the form of the "song" (the concept he introduced) as fundamental in the general systematics of F. m.

The main types of homophonic F. m .: song, rondo, sonata form. Marx classified five forms of rondo (they were adopted in the 19th - early 20th centuries in Russian musicology and educational practice):

(Examples of rondo forms: 1. Beethoven, 22nd piano sonata, 1st part; 2. Beethoven, 1st piano sonata, Adagio; 3. Mozart, rondo a-moll; 4. Beethoven, 2- 1st piano sonata, finale 5. Beethoven, 1st piano sonata, finale.) In the construction of the classical. F. m. Marx saw the operation of the "natural" law of tripartiteness as the main one in any music. designs: 1) thematic. exposure (ust, tonic); 2) modulating moving part (motion, gamma); 3) reprise (rest, tonic). Riemann, recognizing the importance for true art of the "significance of content", "idea", which is expressed by means of F. m. (Riemann H., (1900), S. 6), interpreted the latter also as a works into one." From the "general aesthetic principles" caused by this, he derived "the laws of specially-musical construction" (G. Riemann, "Musical Dictionary", M. - Leipzig, 1901, pp. 1342-1343). Riemann showed the interaction of the muses. elements in the formation of F. m. (for example, "Catechism of piano playing", M., 1907, pp. 84-85). Riemann (see Riemann H., 1897, 1902-1903, 1918-19; Riemann G., 1892, 1898), relying on the so-called. iambic principle (cf. Momigny J. J., 1806, and Hauptmann M., 1853), created a new doctrine of the classical. metric, a square eight-cycle, in which each cycle has a certain metric. value different from others:

(the values ​​of the light odd measures depend on the heavy ones they lead to). However, evenly spreading the structural patterns of metrically stable parts to unstable ones (moves, developments), Riemann, therefore, did not take into account structural contrasts in the classical. F. m. G. Schenker deeply substantiated the importance of tonality, tonics for the formation of classical. F. m., created the theory of structural levels of F. m., ascending from the elementary tonal core to the "layers" of integral music. compositions (Schenker H., 1935). He also owns the experience of a monumental holistic analysis otd. works (Schenker H., 1912). Deep development of the problem of the formative value of harmony for the classical. f. m. gave A. Schoenberg (Schönberg A., 1954). In connection with the development of new techniques in music of the 20th century. there were doctrines about P. m. and muses. composition structure based on dodecaphony (Krenek E., 1940; Jelinek H., 1952-58, etc.), modality and new rhythmic. technology (Messiaen O., 1944; it also speaks of the resumption of some Middle Ages. F. m. - hallelujah, Kyrie, sequences, etc.), electronic composition (see "Die Reihe", I, 1955) , new P. m. (for example, the so-called open, statistical, moment P. m. in the theory of Stockhausen - Stockhausen K., 1963-1978; also Boehmer K., 1967). (See Kohoutek Ts., 1976.)

In Russia, the doctrine of F. M. originates from the "Music Grammar" by N. P. Diletsky (1679-81), which describes the most important F. M. of that era, the polygonal technique. writing, the functions of the parts of a musical instrument (“every concerto” should have a “beginning, middle and end” - Diletsky, 1910, p. 167), elements and factors of shaping (“padizhi”, i.e. " and "descent"; "dudal rule" (i.e., organizational point), "countercurrent" (counterpoint; however, dotted rhythm is meant), etc.). In Diletsky's interpretation of F. m., the influence of the categories of muses is felt. rhetoric (its terms are used: "disposition", "invention", "exordium", "amplification"). The doctrine of F. m. newest sense belongs to the 2nd floor. 19 - beg. 20th century The third section of I. Gunke's "Complete Guide to Composing Music" (1863) - "On the Forms of Musical Works" - contains a description of many applied musical instruments (fugue, rondo, sonata, concerto, symphonic poem, etude, serenade, sec. dances, etc.), analyzes of exemplary compositions, a detailed explanation of some "complex forms" (for example, sonata form). In the 2nd section, polyphonic is set out. technique, described osn. polyphonic F. m. (fugues, canons). With practical compositions. positions, a short "Guide to the study of the forms of instrumental and vocal music" by A. S. Arensky (1893-94) was written. Deep thoughts about the structure of F. m., its relationship to the harmonic. system and historical fate was expressed by S. I. Taneev (1909, 1927, 1952). The original concept of the temporal structure of musical instruments was created by G. E. Konius (the main work is “Embryology and Morphology of the Musical Organism”, manuscript, Glinka Museum of Musical Culture; see also G. E. Konyus, 1932 , 1933, 1935). A number of concepts and terms of the doctrine of F. m. was developed by B. L. Yavorsky (predicate, change in the 3rd quarter, comparison with the result). In the work of V. M. Belyaev, “A Brief Exposition of the Doctrine of Counterpoint and the Doctrine of Musical Forms” (1915), which had an impact on the subsequent concept of F. m. musicology, a new (simplified) understanding of the rondo form is given (based on the opposition of the main theme and a number of episodes), the concept of "song form" is eliminated. B. V. Asafiev in the book. "Musical Form as a Process" (1930-47) substantiated F. m. by the development of intonation processes in connection with the historical. the evolution of the existence of music as a social determinant. phenomena (the idea of ​​F. m. as indifferent to the intonational properties of the material schemes "brought the dualism of form and content to the point of absurdity" - Asafiev B.V., 1963, p. 60). The immanent properties of music (including F. m.) are only possibilities, the realization of which is determined by the structure of society (p. 95). Resuming the ancient (still Pythagorean; cf. Bobrovsky V.P., 1978, pp. 21-22) idea of ​​the triad as the unity of the beginning, middle and end, Asafiev proposed a generalized theory of the formation-process of any F. m., expressing the stages of development with a concise formula initium - motus - terminus (see section V). Main the focus of the study is to determine the prerequisites for the dialectics of music. formation, the development of the doctrine of internal. the dynamics of F. m. ("musical form as a process"), which is opposed to "dumb" forms-schemes. Therefore, Asafiev singles out "two sides" in F. m. - the form-process and the form-construction (p. 23); he also emphasizes the importance of the two most common factors in the formation of F. m. - identities and contrasts, classifying all F. m. according to the predominance of one or the other (book 1, section 3). The structure of F. m., according to Asafiev, is associated with its orientation towards the psychology of listener's perception (Asafiev B.V., 1945). In the article by V. A. Zuckerman about N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov's opera "Sadko" (1933), music. prod. for the first time considered by the method of "holistic analysis". In line with the main classic settings. the theory of metrics is treated by G. L. Catoire (1934-36); he introduced the concept of "trochea of ​​the second kind" (the metric form of the main part of the 1st part of the 8th fp. of Beethoven's sonata), which contradicts the Riemannian theory of iambism. Following the scientific Taneyev's methods, S. S. Bogatyrev developed the theory of the double canon (1947) and reversible counterpoint (1960). I. V. Sposobin (1947) developed the theory of the functions of parts in F. m., investigated the role of harmony in shaping. A. K. Butskoy (1948) made an attempt to build the doctrine of F. m. in a new way, from the standpoint of the ratio of content and express. means of music, bringing together the traditions. theoretical musicology and aesthetics (pp. 3-18), focusing the researcher's attention on the problem of music analysis. works (p. 5). In particular, Butskoy raises the question of the meaning of this or that express. means of music in connection with the variability of their meanings (eg, increased triads, pp. 91-99); in his analyzes, the method of binding expresses is used. effect (content) with a complex of means expressing it (pp. 132-33, etc.). (Cf .: Ryzhkin I. Ya., 1955.) Butsky's book is an experience in creating a theoretical. fundamentals of "analysis of musical works" - a scientific and educational discipline that replaces the traditional. the science of F. m. (V. P. Bobrovsky, 1978, p. 6), but very close to it (see Musical Analysis). In the textbook of Leningrad authors, ed. Yu. N. Tyulina (1965, 1974) introduced the concepts of "inclusion" (in a simple two-part form), "multi-part refrain forms", "introductory part" (in a side part of the sonata form), classified in more detail higher forms rondo. In the work of L. A. Mazel and V. A. Tsukkerman (1967), the idea of ​​considering the means of F. m. (to a large extent - the material of music) in unity with the content (p. 7) was consistently carried out; means (including those that are rarely considered in the teachings of F. M. - dynamics, timbre) and their impact on the listener (see also: Zukkerman V. A., 1970), the method of a holistic analysis (pp. 38-40, 641-56; further - samples of analysis), developed by Zuckerman, Mazel and Ryzhkin back in the 30s. Mazel (1978) summarized the experience of the convergence of musicology and muses. aesthetics in the practice of music analysis. works. In the works of V. V. Protopopov, the concept of a contrast-composite form is introduced (see his work "Contrast-composite forms", 1962; Stoyanov P., 1974), the possibilities of variations are revealed. forms (1957, 1959, 1960, etc.), in particular, the term "form of the second plan" was introduced, the history of polyphonic. letters and polyphonic forms of the 17th-20th centuries. (1962, 1965), proposed the term "large polyphonic form". Bobrovsky (1970, 1978) studied F. m. as a multi-level hierarchical. a system whose elements have two inextricably linked sides - functional (where the function is the "general principle of connection") and structural (the structure is "a specific way of implementing the general principle", 1978, p. 13). The (Asafiev's) idea of ​​three functions of universal development has been elaborated in detail: "impulse" (i), "movement" (m) and "completion" (t) (p. 21). Functions are divided into general logical, general compositional and specifically compositional (p. 25-31). The original idea of ​​the author is the combination of functions (constant and mobile), respectively - "composite deviation", "composite modulation" and "composite ellipsis" (an example of "ascending composition modulation" is a side theme of Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet: the beginning as a simple 3-part form, the ending - as a complex one).

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