In the past few decades, in connection with its growing commercialization, an increasing amount of obvious lies, that is, custom-made disinformation and staged scenes, began to penetrate into the documentary film genre. In response, in feature films, as if as a parody, the pseudo-documentary genre appeared, where all this is finally brought to the point of absurdity. This genre became especially popular in the era of universal informatization. Considering that no one warns the viewer what is shown to him fake information, only framed in the form of documentaries, and sometimes it is directly stated that the information is supposedly “documentary”, it becomes quite obvious that the border between truth and lies in modern mass media products has been completely blurred. The pseudo-documentary lies on the screen are widely advertised and receive numerous awards. In pursuit of profit, entire TV channels, such as Ren-TV and NTV, began to specialize in displaying pseudo-documentary films.
Pseudo-documentary, along with such phenomena as astroturfing and the activities of “web teams”, can be part of information wars, in which lies and substitution of facts are widely used to properly present the interested party and form a certain opinion among the largest possible part of society. This is especially dangerous in states where there is no freedom of the media, which would allow citizens to select the most reliable information by analyzing several sources.
Lies as a psychological phenomenon[ | ]
The phenomenon of lying is widely studied in psychology and psycholinguistics.
There are many author's definitions of lies: J. Mazip offers a complex integrative definition of the phenomenon. Deception (or lies) - a deliberate attempt (successful or not), to hide and/or fabricate (manipulate) factual and/or emotional information, by verbal and/or non-verbal means, in order to create or support in another or in others an opinion that the communicator himself considers false.
O. Fry: A lie is a successful or unsuccessful deliberate attempt, made without warning, to form a belief in another person that the communicator considers wrong.
B. De Paulo proved that a lie is a very common communicative phenomenon in everyday life, which includes a variety of situations and tactics of lying. The author proposes a three-factor model of lies, which includes the following components: content, type and referent. The content of a lie can be emotion, action, justification, achievement, and fact. By type of lie is: a direct lie (untruth in pure form), exaggeration and sophisticated lies (omitting or distorting important details). The referent of the lie is the one (or what) the lie (self-oriented and others-oriented) is being told about.
Sometimes a lie is called the unintentional creation and retention of an opinion that the transmitter may consider true, but the inconsistency with the truth of which has been proven, confirmed and known, but for this case the term “ fallacy” is more often used. P. Ekman defines a lie as "a deliberate decision to mislead the person to whom the information is addressed, without warning about their intention to do so."
Lying as a psychiatric phenomenon (pathological lying)[ | ]
In general, pathological deceit (pseudologia fantastica) is understood as a falsification of a very complex structure, extensive in time (from several years to whole life) that is not caused by dementia, insanity or epilepsy. The need to attract attention to oneself and inspire in others admiration for one's personality is combined with an overly excitable, rich and immature fantasy and immoral defects.
Many researchers consider pathological deceit as an integral attribute and consequence of severe mental and "social" illnesses. For example, Dick and his colleagues classify drug addicts and alcoholics, people with narcissism, psychopathism and sociopathy as pathological liars.
Types of lies [ | ]
By (McCornack, Burgoon) Lying acts as manipulation of information. Based on the communicative code (Grice), McCornack, in his opinion, identified common types of lies:
Implicit (in the public mind) types of lies[ | ]
- Lies to evade responsibility (for example, the denial of guilt by the criminal);
- Lies to avoid serious problems which will inevitably follow if one does not resort to lying, but can be prevented by fraud (for example, cheating during a test as a way to avoid a bad mark);
- Lying as a way to commit the "lesser of two evils" (for example, lying as a way to avoid participating in a crime).
Perjury can only indirectly be attributed to the types of lies, and even then not in all cases, since for breaking an oath is not necessary condition to speak information that does not correspond to the truth (that is, to lie). At the time of the oath, a person could believe one fact to be true, but over time, a person’s beliefs and views could change, and he switched to the opposite side, considering another fact to be true. It is in cases of changed truth for a person that perjury is not a kind of lie.
- Slander
Dissemination of deliberately false defamatory information about someone, or (in a narrower sense) a deliberately false denunciation of a crime. Like perjury, it is a criminal offense. It is considered one of the most reprehensible types of lies. However, if the distributor of defamatory information does not know that this information is false, and accepts it as the truth, such actions are qualified as gossip, and not as slander. - self-incrimination
A form of lie opposite to slander: the assumption by a person of responsibility for an act known to be committed by another person. Often self-incrimination is part of perjury. In the legislation of a number of countries, self-incrimination is a criminally punishable act and is equated with perjury and a knowingly false denunciation of a crime. - Bluff
A statement that the speaker has some object or intention that he does not actually have. A bluff is a tactic, and can at the same time be classified as a different kind of lie. For example, using a bluff in various games(usually card or sports) is considered part of the game and is acceptable; the bluff of a criminal demanding money from a cashier, holding a protruding finger in his pocket (given by the criminal as a pistol), is a lie; The bluff of a policeman who puts his finger in the back of a criminal instead of a gun is a lie for good. - misleading
A misleading statement does not contain an outright lie, but nevertheless its purpose is to try to make the hearer believe the truth of something that is not the truth. It is constructed in such a way that all the facts in it are true, but they are chosen in such a way and in such a sequence that they push the listener to the wrong conclusion. Innuendo and contextual lies are examples of misleading. In general, misleading is too broad a concept, since any form of lying contains an element of misleading. So, in Tartarin from Tarascon by Alphonse Daudet, Prince Grigory of Montenegro told Tartarin that he had lived in Tarascon for three years and almost never went outside. Subsequently, Tartarin found out that Gregory spent three years in a Tarascon prison. In fact, Gregory did not deceive Tartarin, since he really lived for three years in Tarascon and did not go out, but nevertheless he misled him, creating in his own words the impression that he was not in prison at that time. - Juggling the facts
A special case of deception, which consists in the manipulation of qualitatively true facts, which are presented in such a way that they lead to deliberately erroneous conclusions. - Exaggeration (understatement)
It arises if the statement is qualitatively true, but the given quantitative characteristics do not correspond to reality. - playful lies
An outright lie that is part of a joke, which is usually obvious to all participants in the conversation. An example of a playful lie is sarcasm; a more complex example is the fable found in the folklore of many peoples. In many countries, lying as a joke is traditional during the April 1 holiday. On this day, people often tell others that they have “clothing in paint”, “white back”, that they have been “deuced” (used among schoolchildren). The question of whether a playful lie is a "real" lie is often disputed, and many philosophers have different opinions on this. - Context lies
Speaking the truth out of context can create a false impression. A colorful example is given in the book by Richard Feynman:
- Exalted
an exaggerated statement, usually found in advertisements or campaign materials, such as "our powder washes impeccably clean", "candidate N is the only hope of democracy", etc. - Lies due to outdated information
Examples of such lies are letterheads and business cards that contain an outdated address or phone numbers; a billboard of a bankrupt company that has not yet been removed, etc. Often not perceived as a lie, since such information was initially reliable. - Lies due to ambiguity of information
A type of misrepresentation in which information is given in an ambiguous form that allows for more than one interpretation, with only one of the possible interpretations being correct. Sometimes it is not perceived as a lie, because the information provided contains the correct answer. However, more often than not, the ambiguous message is structured in such a way that it encourages the listener to choose the wrong interpretation. - False rebuttal
Correction of correct information to deliberately false; the belief of the interested party that previously reported information was erroneous, although in fact they were true. Often combined with other types of lies, as it can pursue different goals. - pathological lies
unmotivated lies; lies for the sake of lies. Although this species lies and is called "pathological", remains controversial issue about whether psychopathology is really taking place here. It has not been conclusively established how much a pathological liar can control his lies, and, therefore, whether such a person can be considered fully capable and whether he can perform certain social functions (for example, be involved in court as a witness, act as a guarantor in financial transactions, etc.) . P.). There is a hypothesis that pathological liars believe in own lies, which brings pathological lies closer to children's lies and suggests that pathological lies are just children's lies that have been preserved in a person until middle age. However, this has not been proven. Practice shows that the vast majority of pathological liars are quite sane and able to answer for their words. - self-deception
A specific type of lie, which consists in the fact that the subject of the lie is also its object, in other words, a person convinces himself of the truth of a deliberately false judgment. Suppose a student who has poorly prepared for an exam inspires himself that he is well prepared (in the depths of his soul, realizing that this is not so). Self-deception is based on wishful thinking. According to a number of psychologists, self-deception is a psychological defense mechanism in cases where the recognition of the truth can injure a person mentally or cause moral discomfort. Some psychiatrists compare self-deception with pathological lying on the basis of belief in a deliberately false statement. From a philosophical point of view, opinions about whether one can truly deceive oneself differ greatly, which is why some doctors and philosophers avoid the word "self-deception", replacing it with the word "self-hypnosis". - Involuntary lies ("innocent" lies, naive lies, inadvertent misrepresentation)
Involuntary misleading associated with the speaker's belief in the truth of an erroneous statement, therefore, only indirectly refers to the types of lies. For example, a child is convinced by his parents that a stork brings children, and tells his friends about it, who want to know where babies come from. Often such a lie is a consequence of the fact that the speaker himself was deceived by someone. Therefore, such a lie is sometimes called "innocent" (because the blame for the lie falls on the one who told the speaker false information) or naive (as a sign of the speaker's naivety and gullibility, repeating someone else's lie). In most cultures, unintentional lies are not considered "real" lies and are not frowned upon. So, if a witness who gave false testimony in court was mistaken, he is not held liable for perjury.
Lie levels [ | ]
Researcher Schools of Psychology at Cardiff University In the UK, Susan Leekam has classified lies according to their level/degree of difficulty. .
- First level of lies- is the manipulation of another person without the intention (even without thought) to influence his beliefs. The deceiver who resorts to this kind of lie, in most cases, does not realize that by telling a lie, he can influence other people's beliefs. This type of lie is most often used by children, either trying to hide their misdeeds in order to avoid punishment, or inventing their good deeds in order to demand a reward for them. Such a simple deception is often revealed, because children often neglect important details, which can expose them (for example, leave crumbs from cookies).
- The second level of lies includes the deceiver's awareness of the interlocutor's beliefs. Now the liar must remember that with the help of an incorrect statement (lie), one can manipulate the interlocutor's beliefs, that the interlocutor himself, having accepted an incorrect statement as true, will evaluate all subsequent ones on its basis. Liars who have reached this level of deception are much more effective at deceiving others than liars of the first level. For example, a car dealer may evaluate a potential buyer and, to some extent, trick him into paying extra for extras (eg, fuel economy, security, dash cam) of the car he is selling.
- The third level of lies achieved by a liar who is aware that he influences the interlocutor's beliefs with his own words and understands that the interlocutor evaluates his own beliefs. In other words, it evaluates how sincere the deceiver is. Thus, skillful lying involves convincing the interlocutor that the deceiver himself believes in his words and that he has sincere intentions. The master liar constantly "reads" nonverbal behavior the interlocutor and in response to his reaction uses verbal and non-verbal communicationto seem more sincere. This skill greatly increases the ability to manipulate people, to influence their beliefs. Also, this skill can be a sign of a subtle sense of tact, diplomacy and persuasiveness. An example of the application of this skill is the behavior of the aforementioned car salesman who "reads" the effect his product has on a potential buyer. If the salesperson feels distrustful, they will immediately change their behavior to appear more sincere and trustworthy.
The levels of lies described above represent a kind of complexity. The higher the level, the more complex and sophisticated skills the liar must have in order to successfully manipulate. Most people can learn level two lies, but not everyone can master level three.
There is another, even more complex level of deception, which can be called advanced lies. Such perfection of deception is available to relatively few, but among those to whom it submits are charismatic politicians, preachers, professional salesmen, poker players and swindlers. These people, especially scammers, use special psychological tricks to convince the victim of their sincerity as quickly as possible, to the point that a person trusts even his life to strangers. People who master these skills have their own proven techniques that allow them to control their non-verbal behavior and communicate at the same time on a subconscious and verbal level.
Lies and emotions[ | ]
The quality of a lie is closely related to the emotions the liar experiences (Paul Ekman):
noble lie[ | ]
The policy of "noble lies" was also advocated by Plato, who in the work The State suggested that in an ideal state philosopher-kings would spread lies in the name of the common good.
IN modern world a similar mythical philosophy is propagated by Leo Strauss, his followers and other supporters of neoconservatism.
see also [ | ]
| lie in Wiktionary | |
| lie at Wikiquote | |
| Lie at Wikimedia Commons |
Everyone knows what deception is, because everyone has come across a lie and deceived himself. And people who would never deceive in their lives, most likely, do not exist at all. And yet, all people can be conditionally divided into two categories - honest and dishonest, those who strive for the truth, strive to avoid meanness and lies in their lives, and those who use lies as a method to achieve their own, usually for selfish or outright negative purposes.
But, despite the fact that all people are quite familiar with such a phenomenon as deceit, few people understand the nature of this vice and really deeply understand the reasons for human lies.
What is deception (lie)
Deception (lie)- this is not true, a deliberate or unintentional distortion of information due to any motives. Moreover, the motives can be both frankly negative (slander and betrayal) or selfish (to benefit), and quite adequate and even positive ( For example when a warrior during torture in captivity of the enemy, remaining loyal to his homeland, deliberately gives false information).
The main reasons (motives) why people lie:
At the first place, oddly enough, it's worth it! People lie because they are afraid! Fear of unexpected, unknown, or negative reactions from others to the truth. Lies to hide something. They lie because they are afraid that others will find out about any of their other vices and weaknesses that they keep secret.
In second place perhaps worth the benefit. People lie or cheat because they are counting on some undeserved dividends. For example, they want to create a false impression (show off), gain confidence in order to obtain some benefit.
The essence of deception, as such, is that it is intended to protect and hide others, faults, weaknesses, and crimes.
What do you think is the most common type of scam? - Self-deception! Most people prefer to lie to themselves! Why? Because with the help of self-deception, you can justify any of your shortcomings, vices or weaknesses. What is it for? Everything is trite just to do nothing with it. After all, if a person recognized a flaw in himself, said - “yes, I have it and it’s very bad,” then you need to do something with this flaw, you need to change, work on yourself, get rid of the problem. And most people don't want to do that. Probably, most of all people do not want to change, so they prefer to deceive themselves, and others if necessary.
What are the exceptions or when is Cheating allowed?
- During the war and hostilities - in relation to the enemy, deceit is permissible (according to Spiritual Laws).
- To save a life (not always, of course, but sometimes cheating is justified).
- To maintain secrecy, this oath (obligations), classified information - a person has the right to remain silent, that is, not to give information, and this is not considered a deception.
What is the lie and deceit replaced by?
If lying and deceit is a vice and a great vice, then this is great dignity and what deceit should be replaced with.
A person of dignity and honor - strive to be sincere and truthful in everything. A dishonorable and vile person - lies right and left.
- gives from other people and organizations. Deception and deceit - kill trust and lead to the fact that not a single decent person wants to have anything in common with a liar. After all, a lie always pops up sooner or later and destroys all bright connections, feelings and relationships. And the power is in the Truth, whatever one may say! If a person is sincere and truthful, he has nothing to fear, he has nothing to hide, and this makes him incredibly strong.
What does Lie lead to (inevitable consequences of deceit)?
In personal life a lie kills all bright feelings, love and union, and of course completely destroys the trust between two people.
In business and any other meaningful activity, fraud destroys trusting partnerships, leads to dismissal and loss of opportunities, and therefore money. In some cases, For example in reputable corporations, if you are ever caught in a lie, your career is over, your reputation is destroyed, and you are blacklisted throughout the country. This means that you will not be hired anywhere else for a prestigious position in your profession. In the dark business, on the contrary, a lot is built on deceit, but retribution also comes quickly (either a prison or they bury their own).
The world wants to be deceived, let it be deceived. Carlo Caraffa You can fool some people all the time, you can fool everyone some of the time, but you can't fool everyone all the time. Abraham Lincoln You can fool too many too for a long time.… … Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
Wiktionary has an entry for "deception" Verb: to deceive (to give false information). That which consciously introduces smb. mislead, deceive; lie. The state of the deceived; delusion. Erroneous, imaginary representation; ... ... Wikipedia
Swindle, fraud, forgery, forgery, cunning, cunning, hoax, falseness; fiction, fiction, lie, pretense, illusion, averting eyes; comedy (puppet). A mistake is not false (proverb). Wed… Synonym dictionary
DECEPTION, husband. 1. see deceive. 2. The same as a lie. You won't get far on deception (last). Go to about. (decide to lie). 3. False idea about something, delusion. Enter in about. O. vision (visual error). O. feelings (error in its attitude ... ... Dictionary Ozhegov
Deception- Deception ♦ Mensonge A lie uttered with the intent to mislead (but not as an allegory or irony) and with the full knowledge that what is being said is false. Every deception presupposes the knowledge of truth, or at least contains the idea of truth. Thereby… … Philosophical Dictionary Sponville
In psychology, the deception of feelings. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010 … Philosophical Encyclopedia
deception- DECEPTION - a false, incorrect message that can mislead; disinformation that achieved its goal. O. is the opposite of truth, which means not only true, but also correct, genuine, fair, appropriate ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
deception- shameless (Tang); tempting (Ratgauz); caressing (Pozharova); crafty (Tarutin); radiant (Balmont); beautiful (Fet); ghostly (Nadson); sweet (Yur.P.); bewitching (Yur.P.) Epithets of literary Russian speech. M: Supplier of His Majesty's court... Dictionary of epithets
deception- DECEPTION, colloquial. swindle reduced inflated and loosened reduced puffed up, unfolded reduced blew and loosened reduced blew to DECEIVE / DECEIVE, colloquial. inflate/ inflate circle / circle bypass / bypass, unfold ... ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech
Deception- (Latin fraus, fraudis; English deception / fraud) in civil law deliberate misrepresentation by one party to the transaction of its other party in order to complete the transaction. O. can refer both to the elements of the transaction itself, and to the circumstances ... Encyclopedia of Law
Books
- Deception, Philip Roth. "Deception" is the most provocative (after Tailor's Disease) work by Philip Roth, the most famous today American writer. In the novel, a married American, a middle-aged Jew named...
script
Mary Agnes Donoghue
Bruce Joel Rubin
cast
Jack N. Green
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Plot
A seemingly perfect marriage collapses after the apparent death of Jack Saunders, Adrienne's husband. After his presumed death, strange events begin to happen to Adrian, which are connected to Jack's past. She begins to get to the bottom of the truth and gradually realizes that she was deceived. Her husband was not really who he claimed to be, and now she and her daughter are in danger.
Cast
| Actor | Role |
|---|---|
| Goldie Hawn | Adrien Saunders Adrien Saunders |
| John Hurd | Jack Saunders Jack Saunders |
| Damon Redfern | Master Dee Master Dee |
| Charles Cassatly | waiter |
| Robin Bartlett | Charlotte Charlotte |
| Ashley Peldon | Mary Saunders Mary Saunders |
| Beatrice Straight | Adrian's mother |
| George Robertson | father Adrian |
In its first week, the box office grossed $4,316,719. With a budget of $30 million, the film only grossed $28.7 million at the box office, a commercial failure.
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Notes
Links
- Deceived by the Internet Movie Database 5.9 out of 10 stars
- (eng.) on the site - Don't worry, dear Isidora, without you it wouldn't even be so "funny"! I promise you will see everything, and I am very glad that you expressed such a desire.
And smiling contentedly, he already turned to the door, but suddenly remembering something, he stopped:
- Tell me, Isidora, when you "disappear" - does it matter to you where you do it from? ..
– No, Your Holiness, it does not. I don't go through walls. I just “melt” in one place in order to immediately appear in another, if such an explanation gives you at least some picture, - and, in order to finish him off, I purposely added, - Everything is very simple when you know how to do it ... Holiness.
Caraffa devoured me for another moment with his black eyes, and then turned on his heels and quickly left the room, as if afraid that I would suddenly stop him for some reason.
I understood perfectly why he asked last question... From the very moment he saw that I could suddenly take it and disappear so easily, he puzzled over his proud head, as if to “tie me” somewhere stronger, or, for reliability, put me in some a stone bag, from which I certainly would not have any hope of “flying away” anywhere ... But, with my answer, I deprived him of peace, and my soul sincerely rejoiced at this small victory, since I knew for sure that from that moment Caraffa will lose sleep, trying to think of a better place to hide me.
These, of course, were only amusing, distracting terrible reality moments, but they helped me at least with him, with Caraff, to forget for a moment and not show how painfully and deeply wounded me what was happening. I wildly wanted to find a way out of our hopeless situation, wishing this with all the strength of my tormented soul! But just my desire to defeat Karaffa was not enough. I had to understand what made him so strong, and what was this "gift" that he received in Meteora, and which I could not see in any way, since he was completely alien to us. For this, I needed a father. And he didn't respond. And I decided to try if the North would respond ...
I have been thinking about this article for two days and wanted to call it differently, in the end I settled on simple title“What is deception”, although I am not going to quote Wikipedia and give definitions of “Deception”.
Why am I writing and talking about this now?
By learning to deceive, we will be able to notice when we are being deceived.
I divide deception into 2 types:
- which can be seen
- Which is almost invisible
We will not analyze the first type for a long time, since everyone understands what in question. Firstly, these are jokes, and secondly, affectionate expressions of lovers (my fish, bird, bunny, etc.), or outright naked lies that children often resort to and it is easy for parents to see it.
Let's make better use of the real deception that accompanies us every day.
The real lie is the truth, not fully told.
How to Lie
To deceive is to tell the truth, but to hide a significant fact that fundamentally changes the meaning of what was said and encourage a person to think out the missing moments of the whole plot. To illustrate, let's remember Puzzles. Have you ever collected? I hope the answer is positive. You have completed almost the entire picture, but there are a few puzzles missing. Certainly, common sense understandable, but can these few puzzles change the meaning. Maybe not, and maybe yes.
To enhance the deception, you need to focus the interlocutor's attention on an extraneous insignificant fragment.
Let me give you an example from life:
By the way, that's when I noticed how lies work.
My friend liked the girl from the next office. I wanted to tease him and told him that I saw her with a guy. And to reinforce the deception, he said that he had arrived today with Lenochka in a blue nine (VAZ 2109) and parked the car in the yard right next to mine. The nine is very memorable, I continued my story, with a black spoller, cool tuning and, by the way, the left mirror is broken.
In the end, of course, he believed. What happened? I turned the conversation to completely secondary things, and the main thing became self-evident.
If you are deceiving, then in order for you to be believed, you need to concentrate on secondary things, then the purpose of deception will be accepted much easier !!!
Please keep this principle in mind as we talk about how deception shapes our beliefs in other articles.
What is the purpose of deception?
The purpose of deceit is to generate faith in our mind. The one who invents a lie gets his bonuses from it. Which? In each case different.
But now we have a series of articles on making money, so we will try to sort out false beliefs on this topic. After all, someone is trying to convince us of something. Why?
