In the drama, as in the epic, there is a system of characters, conflicts between the characters, unfolding in space and time, a plot constructed in a certain way. Drama and epic, unlike lyrics, are related by an objective depiction of life - through events, actions, collisions, struggles of characters.
However, compared to the epic drama has its own characteristics. According to Λ. M. Gorky, "a play is a drama, a comedy is the most difficult form of literature, difficult because a play requires that each unit acting in it be characterized by both word and deed on its own, without prompting from the author."
The basis of drama is action. Unlike the epic, where the action is described as having taken place, taking place in the past, the action in the drama unfolds in the present tense, takes place directly in front of the viewer, distinguished by activity, continuity, purposefulness, and compactness. In other words, the drama reproduces the very action performed by the characters, and does not tell about this action.
The action is shown through the conflict that lies at the center of the dramatic work, which determines all the structural elements of the dramatic action (in particular, the composition of the play is subject to the disclosure of the conflict). Inextricably linked to each other dramatic action and conflict are the main features of drama as a literary genre. The development of action and conflict is manifested in the plot organization of the work. IN classic drama there is no breadth and versatility of the plot, as in epic work. The dramatic plot concentrates only key, milestone events in the development of action and conflict. In the works of the dramatic kind, the plot is distinguished by tension and rapidity of development, greater nakedness of the conflict.
Dramatic conflict, reflecting specific historical and universal contradictions, revealing the essence of time, social relations, is embodied in the behavior and actions of the characters, and above all in dialogues, monologues, replicas.
Dialogue in drama is the main means of developing action and conflict and the main way of depicting characters (the most important functions of dramatic dialogue). (In prose, dialogue is combined with the author's speech.) It reveals the external and inner life characters: their views, interests, life position and feelings, experiences, moods. In other words, the word in the drama, being capacious, precise, expressive, emotionally saturated, the word-action, is able to convey the fullness of the characteristics of the characters.
form speech characteristics characters in the drama is also a monologue - the speech of the character, addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike the dialogue, does not depend on reciprocal remarks. In prose, the monologue does not play the main role, but it prevails in the lyrics. In the drama, the monologue reveals the ideals, beliefs of the characters, their spiritual life, the complexity of the character.
So, the character and the word in the drama are interdependent, are in unity: the character is revealed in the speech, and the character, in turn, leaves an imprint on the speech of the character. There is a requirement for the strict individuality of the speech of each character. This feature of the drama was emphasized by M. Gorky in the article "On Plays": "The characters in the play are created exclusively and only by their speeches, i.e. purely spoken language and not descriptive". This means that the drama requires a developed and comprehensive imagination from the reader. Relying in principle only on dramatic speech(first of all - dialogues, monologues), the reader must imagine the place and time of the action, the appearance of the characters, their manner of speaking and listening, their movements, gestures, facial expressions, to feel what is hidden behind the words and deeds in the soul of each of the characters.
Speaking about the specifics of the dramatic image, it should be seen that in a dramatic work the image of a person is more intense, and the feelings, thoughts of the character are more concentrated, purposeful. The hero talks about himself, enters into an argument, defends his convictions and, most importantly, acts, performs actions that are determined by his character, life position. Other characters in the play also talk about the character of the hero, his behavior, attitude towards people, events. The state of mind of the character at one time or another is also revealed by the author's remarks (explanations to the text of the play).
The purposefulness of the action, as well as the behavior of the characters in the drama, the tension and concentration of dramatic characters - this requirement for a dramatic work is usually called "unity of action" in literary criticism. The playwright strives for the internal unity of the whole work, the maximum gathering of events and episodes into one knot. V. G. Belinsky argued that "the action of the drama should be focused on one interest and be alien to secondary interests ... Everything in it should be directed towards a single goal, towards one intention." The unity of action, which the critic understood as the unity ideological content, he considered the law of drama. True, the unity of action allows, along with the main plot and the main characters, the existence of other storylines and minor characters.
Genre originality is connected with the features of the development of action and conflict in a dramatic work. Drama as a kind of literature exists in various genres: tragedy, drama (in the narrow, genre sense), comedy, tragicomedy, vaudeville, farce, melodrama. Tragedy is a dramatic work imbued with the pathos of the tragic. At the heart of the tragedy are the root problems human being, collisions of the individual with fate, society, the world, expressed in the intense form of the struggle of strong characters and passions. An insoluble socio-historical conflict is accompanied by the struggle and death of the protagonist ("Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare, "Faust" by I. Goethe, "Boris Godunov" by A. S. Pushkin, "Thunderstorm" by A. N. Ostrovsky).
Drama(as a genre) depicts mainly the private life of a person in his sharply conflicted, but, compared with tragedy, not hopeless relations with society or with himself. Unlike the insoluble tragic conflict in the drama, the conflict is somehow resolved ("Dowry" by A. N. Ostrovsky, "The Seagull" by A. P. Chekhov, "At the Bottom" by M. Gorky, "Invasion" by L. M. Leonov, " duck hunting" A. V. Vampilova, "Further ... further ... further ..." M. F. Shatrova).
Comedy – dramatic genre in which the action and characters are treated in the form of a comic. Comedy depicts such life situations and characters that cause laughter. The heroes of this genre are internally untenable, do not correspond to their position, purpose, and thus are debunked by laughter. By the nature of the comic, comedies are distinguished: satirical ("The Government Inspector" by N.V. Gogol), "high", close to drama ("Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboedov), lyrical ("The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov) etc. Comedy is the most universal genre of dramaturgy. It is comedy that constitutes the genre dominant of historically mature, realistic drama, as evidenced by the works of A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol, A. N. Ostrovsky, A. P. Chekhov. This age-old penchant for comedy in the dramaturgy should probably be explained by its deep commitment to the game as a form of behavior - to the game, one way or another connected with the spirit of joy, fun and laughter.
Tragicomedy- a dramatic work that has features of both comedy and tragedy. Tragicomedy is based on a sense of the relativity of the existing criteria of life; the playwright sees the same phenomenon in both comic and tragic coverage. The tragicomedy combines funny and serious episodes, mixing comic and sublime characters ("The Tempest" by W. Shakespeare, "Three Sisters" by A.P. Chekhov).
Vaudeville- a kind of light comedy genre with entertaining intrigue, witty couplet songs and dances ("Actor" by N. A. Nekrasov, "Bear", "Wedding" by A. P. Chekhov).
Farce- a comedy genre, includes images-masks, action-packed situations, rude jokes, eccentricity (elements of farce in "The Government Inspector", "The Cherry Orchard").
revealing ideological meaning dramatic work, revealing the main conflict, it is necessary to see how in understanding this meaning, in the essence of this conflict, the worldview of the author, his ideological position is expressed. The playwright, without interfering in the development of the action, without commenting on the actions of the characters, without directly expressing his attitude towards them, nevertheless, expresses his attitude to what is happening in the play. The author's position is manifested in the selection of material, in the essence of the conflict, in the characters of the characters, the author's remarks, as well as in the title of the play, which is always associated with its idea, in the composition of the work, in the grouping of characters and, above all, in what questions are posed in the play. and how they are resolved in the final.
In the process of analyzing a dramatic work, it is also important to touch upon the problem of traditions and innovation: what does the playwright inherit from his predecessors and at the same time what does he bring to the history of dramaturgy that is fundamentally new, what is of interest to our contemporaries in his work.
It should also take into account the stage nature of the dramatic work. The specific feature of drama is that it is written for the stage and lives on it. But this does not exclude the great impact of the drama when reading it. Drama is an art both verbal and stage. The play educates both the reader and the viewer. But only when staged, the drama takes on a completely finished form and is able to influence the audience, the mass of those present as a whole. (The epic and the lyrics are intended to be read "to oneself".) The work of the playwright and the performance created on its basis differ in many respects from each other. The interpretation of the drama by the director and actors is, to a large extent, a new work, close, consonant with the experience of today's audience, capable of captivating it, although at the same time the director and actors strive to preserve and convey to the audience fidelity to the "spirit" (meaning) written by the playwright.
Let us dwell on the play "Thunderstorm" by A. N. Ostrovsky, we will reveal schematically its most important ideological and artistic features.
"A play of life" called N. A. Dobrolyubov "Thunderstorm", and the creation of the image of Katerina - "a step forward" in all Russian literature.
The play begins with an exposition, an introductory part: acquaintance with the characters, with the conditions of their life, mores. Imperceptibly and naturally, a plot occurs - the designation of conflicts, and the main one is Katerina and representatives of the "dark kingdom".
The life conflicts in The Thunderstorm appear as clashes, contradictions, hidden and overt struggles of characters. social, psychological and moral conflicts form the basis of the story.
In the process of development of the action, typical characters are revealed in typical circumstances, comprehensively, many-sidedly. At the same time, Ostrovsky, like Gogol, does not neglect "talking" surnames, names: Wild, Kabanikha, Tikhon, Kuligin (from the word "kuliga" - cleared land, located far from the common one. Hence the saying: "To hell with the middle of nowhere") .
An important role in The Thunderstorm is played by episodic and off-stage characters, without whom, according to N. A. Dobrolyubov, one cannot understand the face of the main character and one can easily distort the meaning of the entire play.
Each character (Katerina, Kabanikha, Dikoy, Feklusha, etc.) speaks in his own way. The speech of each character is individual in terms of syntactic structure, vocabulary, and intonation. For example, Katerina's character, her resolute protest, motivated by life and psychological circumstances, is also clearly expressed in her words: "And if I get really cold here, they won't hold me back by any force. I'll throw myself out the window, I'll throw myself into the Volga."
But not only the speech of the hero reveals the features of his character, actions, deeds, attitudes towards other people, events, especially behavior in difficult situations. And we know that Katerina's decisive character was also manifested in her tragic death.
When analyzing the play, it is appropriate to include in the analysis the concept of "logic of character development." The actions and deeds of the Wild most clearly reveal his tyranny.
Tracing the relationships and interactions of the characters, we note how the drama of events grows, culminating in a climactic scene.
The play "Thunderstorm" is a "great Russian tragedy". This is how the well-known playwright and theater critic A.L. Stein defines its genre. The understanding of "Thunderstorm" as a tragedy has also been substantiated in modern literary criticism.
Domestic and psychological conflicts in the play have a social basis. The petty tyrants of the "dark kingdom" are exposed as the perpetrators of Katerina's death. The conflict in "Thunderstorm" has an unresolvable character. Katerina could not do otherwise. The pathos of the play, as we see, is tragic.
Exploring Article II. A. Dobrolyubova "Ray of Light in the Tempo Realm" will especially deepen the artistic perception of this dramatic work.
The artistic merits of the drama "Thunderstorm" give the right to consider it one of the masterpieces of Russian dramatic literature. The action of the drama is revealed with a deep internal regularity, harmoniously and naturally. At the same time, the playwright skillfully uses such techniques of composition, which give the play a special stage character, and the movement of action - sharpness and tension. This is the way the landscape is used throughout the play.
The landscape performs a double function in The Thunderstorm. At the beginning of the play, he is the background against which the dramatic action unfolds. He, as it were, emphasizes the discrepancy between the dead, motionless life of the Kalinovites and their “ cruel morals”, on the one hand, and the wonderful gifts of nature, which Kalinovtsy do not know how to appreciate, on the other. This landscape is really beautiful. Admiring him, Kuligin says to Boris: “All right, sir, let's go for a walk now. Silence, the air is excellent, because of the Volga it smells of flowers from the meadows, the sky is clear ... The abyss has opened, the stars are full, There are no stars, the abyss is the bottom.
But Kuligin, a poet, a romantic, is alone in the city with his enthusiastic attitude towards nature. The more vividly the indifference to everything elegant, beautiful is outlined on the part of the Wild and Kabanovs, who are ready to stifle any manifestation of a good, natural feeling in their environment.
The thunderstorm plays a different role in the play in the first and fourth acts. A thunderstorm in nature, atmospheric, here directly invades emotional drama heroines, influencing the very outcome of this drama. It comes at the moment of the most strong feelings Catherine.
In the soul of Katerina, under the influence of a feeling of love for Boris, confusion begins. She betrays her secret to Varvara and struggles between two feelings: love for Boris and the consciousness of sinfulness, the “illegality” of this love. Katerina feels as if some kind of misfortune is approaching her, terrible and inevitable, and at this time a thunderstorm begins. "Storm! Let's run home! Hurry!” she exclaims in horror. The first thunderclaps are heard, and Katerina again exclaims: “Oh, hurry, hurry!”
The storm is coming again:
"Woman. Well, the whole sky overlaid. Exactly with a hat, and covered it.
1st walker. Eko, my brother, it’s like a cloud is twisting in a ball, it’s as if life is tossing and turning in it.
2nd walker. You mark my word that this thunderstorm will not pass in vain! .. Either it will kill someone, or the house will burn down ...
KATERINA (listening). What they're saying? They say they'll kill someone... Tisha, I know who they'll kill... They'll kill me."
A thunderstorm breaks out, and Katerina's tense nerves cannot stand it: she publicly repents of her guilt ... A thunderclap - and she falls unconscious.
The role of the old “lady with two lackeys” also has an important compositional significance. Her appearances also coincide with the pictures of a thunderstorm ... “To be a sin of some kind,” says Katerina. - Such a fear on me, such a fear on me! It’s as if I’m standing over an abyss, and someone is pushing me there ... ”She is afraid of temptation, the“ terrible sin ”of forbidden love - and then an old woman appears with her ominous speeches:“ What, beauties? What are you doing here? Are you waiting for the good fellows, gentlemen? Are you having fun? Funny? Does your beauty make you happy? This is where beauty leads [points to the Volga]. Here, here, in the very pool, ”she prophesies Katerina her fate. In the distance, behind the Volga, clouds are crawling, enveloping the sky before a thunderstorm.
"A lady with a stick and two lackeys in three-cornered hats behind" are shown once again at the moment of the highest tension of the play's action. Thunder rumbles. Katerina again hears the words of the crazy old woman: “What are you hiding? Nothing to hide! It can be seen that you are afraid, you don’t want to die! .. It’s better with beauty in the pool ... Everything will burn in the fire in unquenchable! Katerina, horrified, runs up to the wall of the gallery and, as if on purpose, kneels down near the picture depicting “gehenna fiery”: “Hell! Hell! Hell! Gehenna fiery! (Kabanov, Kabanov and Varvara surround her). The whole heart is broken! I can't take it anymore. Mother! Tikhon! I am a sinner before God and before you!”
By such means, the author of The Thunderstorm intentionally enhances the drama of its stage positions.
The picturesqueness and relief of the image of the situation and characters in the play are enhanced by the use of contrasts. Parallel to the main intrigue of the play (Katerina and Boris Grigorievich), a secondary one (Varvara and Kudryash) also develops, opposed to the first. The whole scene of a meeting at night in a ravine is built on parallelism and contrast: the ingenuously rude feelings and speeches of Kudryash and Varvara set off the elevated lyrical tone of Boris and Katerina's explanations. Their very characters are opposite in everything: Kudryash, unlike Boris, is a lively, courageous, dexterous person who knows how to stand up for himself even in front of Wild; simply and easily looks at the life of Varvara, is not tormented by remorse, like Katerina, and does not even understand her torments. “In my opinion,” she argues, “do whatever you want, if only it were sewn and covered ...” Varvara does not let herself be offended, does not succumb to her mother and, defending her freedom, runs away from home with Kudryash.
Ostrovsky also emphasizes the characteristic features of the heroes with the so-called "significant" or "pictorial" surnames, with the help of which the author reveals inner world their heroes, the dominant features of their character (Wild, Boar, Curly). This method of characterization is generally widely used in Ostrovsky's dramaturgy, and his characters bear not only allegorical surnames, but also names: Gordey and Lyubim Tortsovs in the comedy "Poverty is no vice", Groznov's power in the dramatic scenes "True is good, but happiness is better", Lup Lupych is an official in "Abyss", etc. Sometimes Ostrovsky emphasizes the main properties of the hero in the names and surnames, even parodic and exaggerated: the quarterly in the comedy "There was not a penny, but suddenly Altyn" bears the name of Tigriy Lvovich Lyutov (fierce, as if tiger and lion). Merchants at Ostrovsky's have the names of Puzatov, Bryukhov, Raznovesov, Akhov, etc.
He very prominently characterizes the characters and their very language, somewhat old-fashioned, with a bookish, Church Slavonic touch from Kuligin, dotted with folk proverbs, proverbs and sayings from Kudryash, etc. The speech of the characters is strictly individualized. In its very warehouse, in the choice of expressions, in their turns, the inner essence of a person is visible. The wanderer Feklusha, for example, weaves her touching, flattering words, talks about her wonderful “visions” and about the lands “where all the people have dog heads”, and the image of a hypocrite and saint is drawn by itself, exploiting the philistine darkness, ignorance and backwardness.
which were truly popular
Yourself at home; such works over time
Make it understandable and valuable to
Other peoples and for the whole world.
A. N. Ostrovsky
The name of A. N. Ostrovsky in Russian literature is associated with the creation of a nationally distinctive dramatic art, calculated, as the playwright himself wrote, "for the whole people." One of his best and most significant achievements are the plays The Thunderstorm (1859) and The Dowry (1878). These works, like many other works of the great playwright, are difficult to attribute to any particular genre. These are not dramas or comedies, but rather, as N. A. Dobrolyubov aptly defined, “plays of life”, in which narrow family conflicts grow to global proportions and become public conflicts. A wide panorama of Russian life is revealed before readers. This is a real encyclopedia of life and customs of an entire era. Ostrovsky's skill is manifested in the accuracy of social and psychological characteristics, in the art of dialogue, in the use of a label, lively folk speech. Ostrovsky's work is distinguished by genre diversity, a skillful combination of tragic and comic, everyday and lyrical elements in one work.
I. S. Turgenev believed that "Thunderstorm" is "the most amazing, most magnificent work of a Russian, powerful, completely self-mastered talent." And indeed, here, as in no other work, the Russian life of that time in all its manifestations is widely shown. The Thunderstorm stands out from a number of other works not only by the development of the main conflict, but also by a special artistic way of reflecting life, a special poetic narrative structure. The action of the play is made by the author for public viewing - on the boulevard, square, embankment; everything around is involved in it, even nature itself. Thus, the premonition of a thunderstorm approaching in the air creates a tense emotional coloring of the whole action, and the author compares Katerina herself with the free and indomitable Volga. An excellent connoisseur of oral folk art, Ostrovsky widely used folklore traditions in his work, and folk songs became one of the main means of expressing the experiences of heroes and revealing psychological situations. Russian folklore also determines the main character traits of the main character, her behavior, actions, way of thinking. The peculiarity of the play lies in the fact that not all the characters in it are directly related to each other. Wild, for example, has no visible relation to Katerina. However, he and many minor characters allow you to most fully display the image of the heroine, reveal deep roots dramatic conflict.
In many respects close to this work of Ostrovsky and his play "Dowry". Although here, in contrast to "Thunderstorm", the composition is organized more strictly: all the events that take place within one day, and all the characters are directly related to the story of the main character. Larisa - a beautiful, smart, proud, at the same time sensitive and sympathetic girl, is dying in an unequal struggle with an inhuman world in which money, profit, and calculation reign. The main conflict of the work in its construction differs in many respects from the previous play. Unlike Katerina, whose poverty was out of the question, Larisa's fate is completely predetermined by her miserable position in society. And a morally perverted society leaves its mark on the image of the heroine herself. It feels early fatigue from life, inner emptiness, disappointment. In her soul there is a gradual collapse of hopes, the collapse of faith in love, friendship, family. In the end, she herself is aware of herself as a thing, and Karandyshev accepts the shot as deliverance from the inevitable shame that awaited her.
As in The Thunderstorm, in The Dowry the action takes place on the street, on the banks of the Volga. This enhances the significance of the conflict, helps to perceive the tragic fate of the heroine against the backdrop of Russian nature, symbolizing the aspiration to a different, bright, free life. However, there is no longer folk songs, creating the main background of "Thunderstorms". They are replaced by a romance, a gypsy choir that sounds even at the moment of the tragic denouement, which in itself is very symbolic and enhances the overall emotional intensity of the action.
A. N. Ostrovsky significantly changed the nature of the Russian theater repertoire, opened up completely new paths and perspectives for dramaturgy. His influence on theatrical art was exceptionally large. Reflecting on the originality of Russian dramaturgy, he wrote: Folk writers want to try their hand in front of a fresh audience, whose nerves are not very malleable, which requires strong drama, big comedy, causing frank, loud laughter, hot, sincere feelings, lively and strong characters". In fact, in these words - the main principle of creativity of the playwright himself.
The method is realism. A) "Thunderstorm" as a product of the 60s. XIX century. B) Typical characters in typical circumstances, social types. C) The original features of Ostrovsky's realism:
One of the first in Russian dramaturgy, Ostrovsky introduces a landscape that acts not just as a background, but embodies the natural element that opposes the “dark kingdom” (at the beginning of the work, the scene on the Volga, the death of Katerina).
Ostrovsky uses the traditions of folklore when creating the image of Katerina, Kuligin, Kudryash, and some fabulous features can be traced in the images of Wild and Kabanikh. The speech of the characters is replete with vernacular. Use of symbols: a thunderstorm is a symbol of discord in Katerina's soul; the lightning rod proposed by Kuligin is a symbol of enlightenment, etc.
Genre - drama Drama is characterized by the fact that it is based on the conflict between the individual and the surrounding society. Tragedy is characterized by a feeling of tragic guilt that haunts the protagonist, leading him to death; the idea of fate, fate; catharsis (a feeling of spiritual purification that occurs in the viewer, contemplating the death of the protagonist). "Thunderstorm", despite the fact that main character dies, it is considered to be a drama, since the work is based on the conflict between Katerina and the "dark kingdom". Ostrovsky's Comedy Traditions: A Satirical Depiction of the Mores of the Patriarchal Merchant Environment.
The playwright's innovation is manifested in the fact that a real heroine from the people's environment appears in the play and it is the description of her character that is given the main attention, and the little world of the city of Kalinov and the conflict itself are described more generally.
Tools for creating the image of Katerina: folk type, natural beginning, integrity of character, desire for freedom, for spiritual emancipation.
The play repeatedly repeats an image that helps to understand the main thing in Katerina's character - the image of a bird. In folk poetry, the bird is a symbol of will. Katerina endures for the time being. Katerina's speech is imbued high poetry, she speaks the impeccably correct folk language, her speech is musical, melodious.
Katerina struggles not only with environment but also with itself. it is poisoned by religious prejudice. Katerina's religiosity is not hypocrisy, but rather a childish belief in fairy tales. Religion forces Katerina to perceive the bright human feeling of love as evil, a mortal sin.
The drama ends with Katerina's moral victory over dark kingdom that fettered her will and mind. Suicide is an expression of protest in this extreme case for Katerina, when other forms of struggle are impossible.
Ostrovsky created in Russia the genre of drama (the play of life). The drama is characterized by an interest in the conflicts of everyday reality, behind which the viewer catches the deep contradictions of the era. The artistic thought of Ostrovsky found in everyday life a bizarre combination of the tragic and the comic, and this also became one of the signs of Russian drama, cat. zat. was developed in Chekhov's TV.
24. The main motives of the lyrics of N.A. Nekrasov, her artistic originality. Studies on the work of the poet. Periodization of creativity
Nekrasov can distinguish two major creative periods:
First: from 1845 to 1856, in which his poetry can be called "the muse of sorrow and sorrow"; the main mood of the poems of this time is despondency; the main psychological trait of heroes from the people is eternal patience, passivity; the main characters are the peasant and urban poor, raznochintsy workers, people of a tragic social fate, the poor, the destitute and the powerless; the main attitude towards their heroes is compassionate love and pity; Nekrasov himself during this period acts as a "saddener" of the people's grief, having formulated his poetic and civic task; “I was called to sing of your sufferings, amazing people with patience.”
The social essence of the lyrics of this period was democracy and compassionate humanism.
Among the poems of these 10-11 years, two groups stand out. In the poems of the first group - sorrow and protection of the disenfranchised and disadvantaged: "On the road", "Gardener", "Troika", "Am I driving down a dark street at night", "In the village", "Uncompressed lane", "Vlas", "Forgotten village”, etc. Their leitmotif is love-sorrow. The second group includes satirical verses of open contempt “to the jubilant, idly chattering, staining their hands with blood”: “Lullaby”, “Moral Man”, “Modern Ode”, etc.; all this poetic satire would later be included in the large satirical poem "Contemporaries", written in the 70s in parallel with the poem "Who should live well in Rus'?".
If in the first group of poems Nekrasov is psychologically close to Dostoevsky, then in the second group he is close to Gogol and Shchedrin.
The second period of Nekrasov: from 1857 to 1877.
This second period begins with a social thaw in the country that came after the death of Nicholas I, after the defeat in the Crimean War, and with the beginning of the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform by Tsar Alexander II.
New heroic notes begin to sound in Nekrasov's poetry. Revolutionary-democratic optimism develops and grows stronger in it, an intensive search begins for a positive hero, a conscious exponent of progressive ideas, an educator-fighter who seeks to throw a "ray of consciousness" into the elements of the people, i.e., a hero of civil resistance, awakening the people to civil activity.
If Griboyedov raised the problem of “woe from wit” in Russian literature, then Nekrasov puts forward the problem of happiness from wit as a priority, that is, happiness from knowing what needs to be done for the common good. The leading ideological and psychological line is the idea of unity of the heroes of civil resistance with the people. Poetry is imbued with the revolutionary music of labor and struggle. In this atmosphere of "great expectations", which were felt by Turgenev in "Fathers and Sons", and Ostrovsky in "Thunderstorm", and Chernyshevsky in "What is to be done?", Nekrasov's mood also changed: out of grief and compassion, he, along with Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov passes into the vanguard of the revolutionary upsurge, turning into the Petrel of the peasant revolution, or, according to Dobrolyubov, becoming "Garibaldi in his business."
During this period, two groups of poems stand out. The first group includes, firstly, poems about the poet-citizen: “The Poet and the Citizen”, “Elegy; secondly, poems about the heroism of the people, their work and fate: “Reflections at the front door”, “Peddlers”, “Railway”, “Arina - the mother of a soldier” and the poem “Frost-Red Nose”.
Thirdly, poems glorifying the civil feat and moral purity of the ascetics and fighters for the people who are the poet’s contemporaries: “In Memory of a Friend” (about Belinsky), “On the Death of Shevchenko”, “In Memory of Dobrolyubov”, “In Memory of Pisarev” and “Prophet” (about Chernyshevsky); interesting is the ascending triad of the image or idea of the hero in poems about fighters: friend (“In memory of a friend” - Belinsky) - citizen (“Poet citizen”, “Blessed is the gentle poet”) - prophet (“Prophet” - Chernyshevsky).
The second group of poems includes confessional-love poems, the main theme of which is the theme of one's own tragic guilt and personal responsibility to the people, to the dead and arrested comrades in the struggle, to one's conscience, to unrealized poetic possibilities.
This mournful, suffering, tragic theme of one's own sin and repentance (partly caused by the poet's severe physical illness) was embodied by him in a collection of poems from the last two years of his life, called by Nekrasov himself "Last Songs" and representing the "Chronicle of the unfortunate life" of the poet himself. In these poems of the dying Nekrasov, suffering is expressed from the insufficient activity of his people, insufficient revolutionary spirit, and the poet perceives the poverty of the people's consciousness and their civil immaturity as the result of personal guilt and his own sinfulness, which causes the pathos of self-accusation, self-reproach, lynching.
Thus, poetry becomes self-criticism, fearlessly exposing the author's weaknesses, breakdowns, retreats, hesitations. In these verses, Nekrasov suffered and mourned because he could not be constantly uncompromising, steadfast and monolithic, like Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov.
Blaming himself, Nekrasov appeared to the reader as a highly moral person, and at the same time he debunked the artificial myth of the superhumanity of the hero of civil resistance, that is, the hero-citizen, who, supposedly, is alien to human weaknesses (poems: “I deeply despise myself for this”, "Literature with crackling phrases", "Knight for an hour", "The enemy rejoices, is silent, at a loss", "I will die soon. A miserable inheritance ...", "I will soon become the prey of decay", etc.). The entire collection "Last Songs" is riddled with frank sobbing. Note that Nekrasov is the poet who has the most poems about death in Russian poetry.
All these themes and aspects of Nekrasov's poetry, taken together, make, firstly, his poetry an "encyclopedia of Russian life", and secondly, they represent him not only as an agitator poet, but, above all, as an all-Russian poet, who is characterized by ethical maximalism, a Russian poet of a wounded soul, publicly recognizing himself as a sinner, and in this fearless confession he turns into a righteous man.
In Nekrasov's poetry, two extreme tendencies that are difficult to connect are adjacent and mated: on the one hand, the prosaic ruthlessness of introspection, on the other, the songful sobbing cry. This combination is the uniqueness of Nekrasov the poet to this day.
It has long been a traditional idea of N. A. Nekrasov as a "singer of the peasant share", "women's fate." At the same time, the poetic heritage of the poet is distinguished by thematic and genre diversity.
Nekrasov's poetry was not limited to solving social problems. He penned heartfelt words of love confessions, wonderful messages to friends, subtle landscape sketches, striking scenes of urban and rural life with psychologism. The poet's lyrics reflected not only all aspects of the life of that time, but also the poet's philosophical thoughts about the fate of the people, his country, the meaning of life and the purpose of a person in it, his own innermost feelings and experiences were conveyed. The works of N. A. Nekrasov at the beginning of the 21st century sound no less relevant than at the time when they were created, because the main motives for the poet's work were such moral concepts as conscience, sympathy, empathy, compassion.
25. The development of the genre of the poem in the work of N.A. Nekrasov. A wide panorama of the pre-reform and post-reform life of the peasants in the poem "Who Lives Well in Rus'". The skill of the poet in the image of the Russian national character
Nekrasov's poems: "Sasha", "Pedlars", "Frost, Red Nose", "Grandfather", "Russian Women", satirical poem"Contemporaries"
The poem "To whom it is good to live in Rus'" occupies a central place in Nekrasov's work. It has become a kind of artistic result of more than thirty years of the author's work.
All the motifs of Nekrasov's lyrics are developed in the poem; all the problems that worried him were rethought; used his highest artistic achievements.
Nekrasov not only created special genre socio-philosophical poem. He subordinated it to his super-task: to show the developing picture of Russia in its past, present and future. Starting to write "in hot pursuit", that is, immediately after the reform of 1862, a poem about a liberated, resurgent people, Nekrasov endlessly expanded the original plan.
The search for "lucky people" in Rus' took him from modernity to the origins: the poet seeks to realize not only the results of the abolition of serfdom, but also the very philosophical nature of the concepts of HAPPINESS, FREEDOM, HONOR, PEACE, because outside of this philosophical understanding it is impossible to understand the essence of the present moment and see the future people.
The fundamental novelty of the genre explains the fragmentation of the poem, built from internally open chapters. United by the image-symbol of the road, the poem breaks up into stories, the fate of dozens of people. Each episode in itself could become the plot of a song or a story, a legend or a novel. All together, in their unity, they constitute the fate of the Russian people, their historical path from slavery to freedom. That is why only in the last chapter does the image of the "people's protector" Grisha Dobrosklonov appear - the one who will lead people to freedom.
Only by this moment the author himself fully saw the compositional and artistic solution of his poem and, dying, regretted that he did not have time to realize it: "The only thing I regret," he said, "is that I do not have time to finish" To whom in Russia ... "Now I see that this is such a thing that will only have its entire meaning." The author's task determined not only genre innovation, but also the whole originality of the poetics of the work.
Nekrasov repeatedly turned to folklore motifs and images in lyrics. He builds a poem about folk life entirely on a folklore basis. All the main genres of folklore are "involved" to one degree or another in "To whom in Rus' it is good to live: a fairy tale, a song, an epic, a legend."
The place and meaning of folklore in the poem
Folklore has its own special ideas, style, techniques, its own figurative system, their laws and their artistic means. The most basic difference between folklore and fiction is the absence of authorship in it: the people compose, the people tell, the people listen.
Nekrasov repeatedly turned to folklore motifs and images in lyrics. He builds a poem about folk life entirely on a folklore basis. In "Who is living well in Rus'?", to one degree or another, all the main genres of folklore are "involved": a fairy tale, a song, an epic, a legend.
Authorial literature turns to folklore when it is necessary to penetrate deeper into the essence of public morality; when the work itself is addressed not only to the intelligentsia (the main part of the readers of the nineteenth century), but also to the people. Both of these tasks were set by Nekrasov in the poem "Who should live well in Rus'?"
And one more important aspect distinguishes author's literature from folklore. Oral creativity does not know the concept of "canonical text": each listener becomes a co-author of the work, retelling it in his own way. Nekrasov aspired to such active co-creation of the author and the reader. That is why his poem is written "in a free language, as close as possible to common speech.
"Researchers call the verse of the poem Nekrasov's 'brilliant find'. Free and flexible poetic meter, independence from rhyme opened up the possibility:
Generously convey the originality of the national language, retaining all its accuracy, aphorism and special sayings; organically weave into the fabric of the poem village songs, sayings, lamentations, elements of a folk tale (a magical self-assembly tablecloth treats wanderers);
Skillfully reproduce the fervent speeches of peasants drunk at the fair, and the expressive monologues of peasant speakers, and the absurdly self-satisfied reasoning of the tyrant landowner, colorful folk scenes, full of life and movements, many characteristic faces and figures ... - all this creates the unique polyphony of the Nekrasov poem, in which the voice of the author himself seems to disappear, and instead of him the voices and speeches of his countless characters are heard.
Ideological and artistic originality:
1. The problem is built on the correlation of folklore images and specific historical realities. The problem of people's happiness is the ideological center of the project. Images of 7 wandering men - a symbolic image of Russia, which started off
2. The poem reflected the contradictions of Russian reality in the post-reform period:
a) class contradictions (the landowner Obolt-Obolduev does not understand why he needs to study, work, because he is “not a peasant-bast worker, but, by the grace of God, a Russian nobleman”)
b) contradictions in the peasant consciousness (on the one hand, the people are a great worker, on the other hand, a drunken ignorant mass)
c) contradictions between the high spirituality of the people and ignorance, illiteracy and downtroddenness (Nekrasov's dream of the time when the peasant "will carry Belinsky and Gogol from the market")
d) Contradictions between strength, the rebellious spirit of the people and humility, long-suffering, humility (images of Savely, the Syator Russian hero and Jacob the faithful, an exemplary serf)
3. The reflection of revolutionary democratic ideas is associated with the image of the people's protector Grisha Dobrosklonov (prototype Dobrolyubov)
4. Reflection of the evolution of the people's consciousness is associated with the images of 7 men
5. This is the pr-th of critical realism, tk.
a) historicism (depiction of the contradictions of the life of peasants in post-reform Russia)
b) images of typical characters in typical circumstances (a collective image of 7 peasants, typical images of a priest, a landowner, peasants)
c) the original features of Nekrasov's realism - the use of folklore traditions, in the cat. he was a follower of Lermontov and Ostrovsky
For the poem, the profuse use of folklore genres is characteristic:
Fairy tale - prologue
Bylina - Saveliy - hero
Ritual song (wedding, harvesting, lamentation songs) and labor song
Legend (About two great sinners)
Proverbs, sayings, riddles
