Zhigulin A.A. General cultural parameters of personality

Culture as a specifically human way of being in the world. Culture as a system.

Culture - (lat) cultivation, upbringing, education, development. This is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, representations in the products of material and spiritual labor in the system of social norms and institutions, in the system of spiritual values, in the aggregate, the relationship of people to nature among themselves and to themselves. In the broad sense of the word, culture is a set of manifestations of life, achievements of the creativity of a people or groups of peoples. In the narrow sense of the word, culture is the ennoblement of the bodily, mental inclinations and abilities of a person. Culture and being in our time are among the most common, and therefore the most familiar concepts. The unflagging interest in culture gradually acquired the features of a real cult, within which truly divine characteristics are attributed to it. It is culture that is considered as that highly important sphere in which truly human life takes place and which, being a special, artificial sphere of reality, embraces even history, accommodating all the products of specifically human life activity. On the other hand, culture becomes something so familiar that its fragility ceases to be visible, and all cultural forms are identified without any reservations with nature as a stable, substantial principle. commonplace speech formulas, according to which certain cultural artifacts (for example, certain specific manuscripts, books, projects, devices, engineering structures, etc.) "do not exist in nature", while in fact they simply cannot exist in "nature", convincingly testify precisely to such familiarity of the phenomenon of culture, when they simply cease to notice it in all its originality. At the same time, this situation is interesting precisely because of the identification of nature with being, which means the identification with being of both culture and history (as a segment of culture). However, the reckless use of nature as a synonym for being, although it raises serious objections, is not of great importance for everyday word usage as long as it does not begin to express deep philosophical attitudes. However, in our days this is exactly the case, and this makes the problem of the origins and boundaries of the paradigm of understanding culture as being the focus or, if you like, the generative structure of the methodology of the humanities.

K. as a system Culture as a system of artificial means distinguishes man from animals, which rely on natural means in their life. Culture does not originate empty place. It is preceded by the tool activity of animals with a highly developed psyche, and the elements of training of the younger generation observed in their environment, and high examples of “building art” (nests, burrows, honeycombs, etc.) and the instinctive division of labor. But all this differs fundamentally from culture, since it is developed by people in the process of conscious goal setting. Man himself creates new goals that go beyond the scope of his biological needs, and he himself not only creates, but constantly improves the means of activity.

The basis of the cultural progress of mankind is the constant transformation of the means of activity into its goals, and the ends into means. Spiritual activity, without which the existence of culture is unthinkable, arises as a means to improve practical activities for the extraction of material wealth. But with the development of society, it turns into an independent field of activity, giving rise to such spheres of culture as art, religion, and science.

2. Dialectic of forms of being. The ratio of the eternal and the transient, the single and the diverse, the material and the spiritual, the individual and the social in culture.

Dialectics (Greek - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a logical form and method of reflective theoretical thinking, which has as its subject the contradictions of the conceivable content of this thinking.

It is advisable to single out the following different, but also interconnected basic forms of being:

1) the existence of things (bodies), processes, which in turn is divided into the existence of things, processes, states of nature, the existence of nature as a whole and the existence of things and processes produced by man;

2) human being, which is (conditionally) subdivided into human being in the world of things and specifically human being;

3) spiritual (ideal) being, which is divided into individualized spiritual and objectified (non-individual) spiritual;

4) social being, which is divided into individual being (the being of an individual in society and in the process of history) and the being of society.

The relationship of culture and worldview.

What is a worldview? A set of thoughts that excite society and a person about the essence of the surrounding world, about the position and purpose of humanity and a person in it. What does the society in which I live, and what do I myself, living in the world, mean? What do we want to see in it? What do we expect from him? Depending on what answer to these fundamental questions of being the individuals who make up society come to, one can judge the spirit of the corresponding era. Doesn't this overestimate the importance of worldview? Of course, at present, many do not usually rise in their outlook on life to a conscious worldview. For the most part, they also do not realize the need and do not feel the need to derive their ideas and beliefs from such a worldview and usually, to a greater or lesser extent, are guided by the tone set by their time, listen to the leading voices of their era. But who do these voices belong to? Individuals who participated in shaping the worldview of society and then derived from it more or less valuable ideas that enjoy the authority of our generation. As a result, all thoughts and ideas of both individuals and society are somehow involved in the dominant worldview. Each era - consciously or subconsciously - lives by what was born in the minds of thinkers, whose influence it experiences on itself.

Historical types of worldview

The philosophy and religion of India and Germany is pantheism, that is, a doctrine in which evil is necessary condition being and life. Therefore, the only means of destroying evil here is the destruction of life itself, of being itself. So they decide, and to this, in the final conclusion, both Eastern Buddhism and Western pantheism should come. On the contrary, the Zend and Slavic worldviews and life views do not make evil an inevitable condition of being and life, and they make the fight against it the goal of historical existence. That is why the starting point here is not pantheism, but the final point is neither Buddhism nor pessimism. Between the worldviews of the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic, the Zendo-Slavic serves as a conciliatory link.

Evil lies in blindness and unconsciousness, and good lies in the transformation of the unconscious into the rational, birth into resurrection.

Only in the absence of consciousness does division destroy unity and turn (reasonable and moral) individuals (personalities) into only "natural" beings, that is, only into modifications, into modes of physical nature; and only with blindness does unity absorb (individual) differences, destroy individual personalities. The general resurrection is the restoration of both difference and unity, the destruction of both the yoke and arbitrary, disorderly confusion, which does not want to know either definitions or distinctions. Gathering or the condition of the general resurrection is the promotion, and not the opposition to the unification in a common and single goal.

The essence of the cogito principle and the doctrine of innate ideas by R. Descartes.

Innate Ideas

According to Plato, the true knowledge of the ideal prototypes of things in our world, stored in the deep memory of a person and not derived from any experimental research; the role of the latter in cognition is reduced only to initiating the process of "remembering" (anamnesis) these ideas. R. Descartes (XVII century) considered innate ideas to be completely clear and self-evident, withstanding any doubt and not needing any experimental justification: such are logical and mathematical ideas, as well as the idea of ​​God. On their basis, Descartes built the building of true knowledge. Critics of Descartes declared that the consciousness of a person from birth is a "blank slate" on which only experience writes its letters, which, however, is not at all indisputable. For modern philosophy, this dispute has lost its meaning, now it is about accepting certain ideas and premises that do not require substantiation, but are necessary for understanding experience in various studies of reality. But for religious philosophy, the conviction of Bonaventure and others that the soul has an innate knowledge of God and the higher wisdom given by him has not lost its significance. Contemporary Christian thinkers often speak not so much of innate ideas as of the innate aspirations of a person for the good, perfection, fullness of life, and, ultimately, for God.

Kant's transcendentalism.

(from lat. transcendere - to cross) - a concept that puts the transcendental or transcendental at the forefront. Initially, the term was used in relation to the "transcendental philosophy" of I. Kant and F.V.I. Schelling, then to designate post-Kantian idealism and any idealistic philosophy that assumes the indispensable presence of the ideal or spiritual in sensory experience. In a broad and derogatory sense, T. is any position that is "enthusiastic", "mystical", extravagant, impractical, breaking with common sense, etc.

The transcendental meaning belongs to all the a priori conditions of experience (i.e., to those functions of outlook and reason that do not follow from experience, but determine it ...), as well as to ideas in their true sense, as principles and postulates of reason; the science that studies these a priori foundations of everything that exists is transcendental philosophy, or (true) metaphysics - this is precisely how Kant designated his own philosophy ... "
So, Kantian philosophy, by definition of the author himself, is the philosophy transcendental. From this it is clear how much importance I. Kant attached to this tricky and sonorous term. Indeed, in the system of the Keningsberg thinker, the term "transcendental" performs diverse functions. First of all, transcendental philosophy is called upon to be opposed to philosophy transcendent.

Varieties

Distinguish analytical and continental philosophy.

Some are opposed to such a division of modern philosophy along geographical lines.

Analytical philosophy(Anglo-Saxon philosophy, Anglo-American philosophy) - a direction in the philosophical thought of the XX century, developing mainly in English-speaking countries and uniting a large number of various concepts and schools.

The following points are common to analytic philosophy:

· linguistic turn - philosophical problems are defined as lying in the area of ​​the language, therefore their solution is connected with the analysis of linguistic expressions;

· semantic accent- focusing on issues of meaning;

· analytical method- preference for analysis to all other types of philosophical reflection.

The founders of analytic philosophy are Gottlob Frege, George Moore, Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. In addition, similar problems were developed in the neopositivism of the Vienna Circle and in the German language criticism.

Continental philosophy is a term used to refer to one of the two main traditions of modern Western philosophy. This name was used to distinguish this tradition from Anglo-American or analytic philosophy because, at the time the distinction was first noted (mid-twentieth century), continental philosophy was the dominant style of philosophy in continental Europe, while analytic philosophy was the predominant style in the English-speaking world.

It is generally accepted that continental philosophy includes phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, structuralism, poststructuralism and postmodernism, deconstruction, French feminism, critical theory in the sense of the Frankfurt School, psychoanalysis, the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren Kierkegaard, most branches of Marxism and Marxist philosophy (although it should be noted that there is an analytic Marxism which ascribes itself to the analytic tradition).

37. The main problems considered in modern philosophy. Philosophical schools arising from the study of these problems.

The main question of philosophy as a special science is the problem of the relation of thought to being , consciousness to matter. F Philosophy increasingly and more actively draws into the orbit of its consideration problems of society, man, science. This is one of the signs of the renewal of religious thought. Throughout its history, including modern times, the most important, if not the first subject of theology and religious philosophy remains the problem of the existence of god.Human problem occupies a prominent place in classical religious philosophy. Human problem closely related to ethical issues. In religious ethics there is also a struggle between traditionalism and new approaches. The problem of good and evil has always stood at the center of religious philosophy.

SCHOOLS: Thomism is the name of a system that follows the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas in philosophical and theological questions. In a narrower sense, the term refers to the views held by the Thomist school. Returning to neo-Thomism, we can say that this is Thomism on present stage which originates in the last quarter of the 19th century. It was by this time that due to objective reasons there was a revival of scholasticism.

Existential thinking unfolds exclusively in the sphere of being, and all other traditional philosophical problems acquire secondary importance as particular consequences of the solution of the main problem. This existence (existence) is interpreted as something correlated with transcendence, that is, a person's going beyond his own limits.

Metaphysics, like dialectics, has never been something given once and for all. It changed, appeared in various historical forms (types) and diverse “faces” (types). Therefore, if “metaphysical problems” are considered in any philosophical system, then it is necessary to clearly understand what sense of the concept “metaphysics” is in question. If we mean anti-dialectics (a metaphysical way of thinking), it is necessary to differentiate its forms and types. The cognition of the thinking type differs essentially from the cognition of the intuitive type. The thinking type is usually interested in knowledge as such, seeks and establishes a logical connection between phenomena, while the intuitive type is focused on pragmatics, on the practically useful use of knowledge, regardless of their truth and logical consistency. What is useful is true - this is his life credo.

Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology - the organization of activities.

In this case, the methodology can be considered very broadly - as the doctrine of the organization of any human activity: both scientific and any practical professional activity, and artistic, and gaming, etc. - one side. On the other hand, both individual and collective activity.

If we proceed from the classification of activities according to the target orientation: game-learning-work, then we can talk about:

Methodologies of game activity;

Methodologies of educational activity;

Methodology of labor, professional activity.

ethical

1) The main human values ​​that are more or less included in all other ethical values ​​(the value of life, consciousness, activity, suffering, strength, free will, foresight, purposefulness);

2) Virtues (justice, wisdom, courage, self-control, love of neighbor, truthfulness, sincerity, fidelity, devotion, kindness, compassion, trust, faith, modesty, humility, decency, attentiveness, tolerance, restraint, generosity, respect, courtesy, friendly disposition);

3) More private ethical values ​​(love for the most distant, the ability to give others one's spiritual property, the value of a person, love aimed at the ideal value of someone else's personality).

aesthetic

Aesthetic values ​​(like any others) are a synthesis of three basic values: material-objective, psychological, social. Real-objective value includes a characteristic external properties things and objects acting as an object of value relations. The second meaning characterizes the psychological qualities of a person as a subject of value relations. social significance indicates the relationship between people, thanks to which values ​​acquire a universally valid character. The peculiarity of aesthetic values ​​lies in the relation of a person to reality, characteristic of aesthetics. It implies a sensual-spiritual, disinterested perception of reality, which is aimed at comprehending and evaluating the inner essence of real objects.

Since ancient times, beauty has been considered the main aesthetic category. And the meta-category aesthetic itself was associated precisely with the beautiful. This can be deduced from the traditional harmonious relationship between man and the world. Initially, in ancient culture, a person is a contemplative being. It is known that the Greeks had a unique ability to feel and see the beauty in the nature around them and in space in general.

cognitive values

Intra-scientific values ​​are called cognitive. Models of cognitive values ​​are manifested in the belief system of the scientist. For him, the explanatory, demonstrative and predictive potential of science is a value, as well as the primacy of facts and the possibility of a consistent conclusion. Sometimes cognitive value refers to reliance on tradition or authority. Cognitive values ​​are the basis for the consolidation of scientists in the scientific community. However, in the latter, disputes sometimes arise about their hierarchy, their various systems, and the diversity of their carriers. The system of values ​​is of great importance for determining the criteria of science.

The principle of objectivity has always been considered the most important cognitive value. It was conceived, first, as a procedure that fixes the coincidence of knowledge with its object; secondly, as a procedure for eliminating from knowledge everything that is connected with the subject and the means of his cognitive activity.

60. Place and role of moral and aesthetic categories in the structure of philosophical knowledge. Reasons for their occurrence and conditions for implementation.

Ethics is a field of philosophical knowledge. Its content is set by the subject of research itself and includes two main components. One of them is connected with the study and theoretical justification of the origin and historical development morality, with the understanding of various forms and directions of ethical teachings. The other one covers the entire spectrum of problems that make up the content of ethics or the general theory of morality. This is a systematized philosophical understanding of the essence of morality, the laws of its functioning and development, its role in the life of a person and society. With all the qualitative originality of its historical types, the multiplicity of ethical teachings, the development of morality is integral and successive in a single historical process.

Aesthetic - metacategory of aesthetics. Metacategory is the broadest specifically fundamental category of any science, which determines its essence. It reflects what is common to aesthetic characteristics in life and art, as well as to all aesthetic categories. Categories - concepts that reflect the most significant aspects and relationships of a particular field of phenomena.

In aesthetics, almost any concept - perfect images devoid of visibility and reflecting the general essential properties and connections of the phenomena of objective reality, one way or another affect the aesthetic. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell on the problem of the nature of the aesthetic.

61. Specificity social cognition; subject and methods of social
philosophical analysis.

A specific combination of all these factors and aspects of the specifics of social cognition determines the diversity of points of view and theories that explain the development and functioning of social life. At the same time, this specificity largely determines the nature and characteristics of various aspects of social cognition: ontological, epistemological, and value (axiological).
1.ontological(from the Greek on (ontos) - being) the side of social cognition concerns the explanation of the existence of society, the laws and trends of its functioning and development. At the same time, it also affects such a subject of social life as a person, to the extent that he is included in the system of social relations. In the aspect under consideration, the above complexity of social life, as well as its dynamism, in combination with the personal element of social cognition, are the objective basis for the diversity of points of view on the essence of people's social existence.

To such basic objective social factors underlying any society, are primarily the level and nature of the economic development of society, the material interests and needs of people. Not only an individual, but the whole of humanity, before engaging in knowledge, satisfying their spiritual needs, must satisfy their primary, material needs. Certain social, political and ideological structures also arise only on a certain economic basis. For example, the modern political structure of society could not have arisen in a primitive economy. Although, of course, one cannot deny the mutual influence of various factors on social development, ranging from the geographical environment to subjective ideas about the world.
2.epistemological(from the Greek gnosis - knowledge) the side of social cognition is connected with the features of this cognition itself, primarily with the question of whether it is able to formulate its own laws and categories and whether it has them at all. In other words, we are talking about whether social cognition can claim the truth and have the status of science? The answer to this question largely depends on the position of the scientist on the ontological problem of social cognition, that is, on whether the objective existence of society and the presence of objective laws in it are recognized. As in cognition in general, in social cognition, ontology largely determines epistemology.
The epistemological side of social cognition also includes the solution of such problems:
- how is the knowledge of social phenomena carried out;
- what are the possibilities of their knowledge and what are the boundaries of knowledge;

The role of social practice in social cognition and the importance in this of the personal experience of the cognizing subject;

The role of various kinds of sociological research and social experiments in social cognition.

Of no small importance is the question of the possibilities of the human mind in the knowledge of the spiritual world of man and society, the culture of certain peoples. In this regard, there are problems of the possibilities of logical and intuitive knowledge of the phenomena of social life, including psychological states. large groups people as manifestations of their mass consciousness. The problems of the so-called " common sense"and mythological thinking in relation to the analysis of the phenomena of social life and their understanding.

3. In addition to the ontological and epistemological aspects of social cognition, there is also value - axiological its side (from the Greek axios - valuable), which plays an important role in understanding its specificity, since any knowledge, and especially social, is associated with certain value patterns, preferences and interests of various cognizing subjects. The value approach manifests itself from the very beginning of knowledge - from the choice of the object of study. This choice is made by a specific subject with his life and cognitive experience, individual goals and objectives. In addition, value prerequisites and priorities largely determine not only the choice of the object of cognition, but also its forms and methods, as well as the specifics of interpreting the results of social cognition.

The way the researcher sees the object, what he comprehends in it and how he evaluates it, follows from the value prerequisites of cognition. The difference in value positions determines the difference in the results and conclusions of knowledge.

Thus, the value side of social cognition does not at all deny the possibility scientific knowledge society and the presence social sciences. Moreover, it contributes to the consideration of society, individual social phenomena in different aspects and from different positions. This results in a more specific, multilateral and complete description of social phenomena and hence a more scientific explanation of social life. The main thing is to reveal the inner essence and pattern of development of social phenomena and processes on the basis of different points of view and approaches, positions and opinions, which is the main task of the social sciences.
The ontological, epistemological and axiological aspects of social cognition are closely interconnected, forming an integral structure of people's cognitive activity.

Knowledge classification

By nature

declarative

procedural

Declarative knowledge contains only an idea of ​​the structure of certain concepts. This knowledge is close to data, facts.

Procedural knowledge is active in nature. They define ideas about the means and ways of obtaining new knowledge, testing knowledge.

By degree of science

Scientific knowledge can be

Empirical (based on experience or observation)

· theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models).

Extrascientific knowledge can be:

parascientific - knowledge incompatible with the existing epistemological standard;

· pseudoscientific - consciously exploiting conjectures and prejudices;

· quasi-scientific - they are looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion;

· anti-scientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality;

pseudoscientific - represent intellectual activity, speculating on a set of popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about a monster from Loch Ness;

everyday practical - delivering elementary information about nature and surrounding reality;

personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity.

By location

Allocate: personal (implicit, hidden, not yet formalized) knowledge and formalized (explicit) knowledge;

Implicit knowledge:

· knowledge of people that is not yet formalized and cannot be transferred to other people.

Formalized in some language (explicit) knowledge:

Knowledge in documents

Knowledge on CD

Knowledge of personal computers

Internet knowledge

Knowledge in knowledge bases

knowledge in expert systems extracted from implicit knowledge of human experts.

Direct (intuitive) knowledge is a product of intuition - the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without substantiation with the help of evidence.

Everyday knowledge, as a rule, is reduced to a statement of facts and their description, while scientific knowledge rises to the level of explaining facts, comprehending them in the system of concepts of a given science, and being included in the theory.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by logical validity, evidence, reproducibility of cognitive results.

Empirical knowledge is obtained as a result of the application of empirical methods of knowledge - observation, measurement, experiment. This is knowledge about the visible relationships between individual events and facts in the subject area.

Theoretical ideas arise on the basis of generalization of empirical data. At the same time, they influence the enrichment and change of empirical knowledge.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge involves the establishment of laws that enable idealized perception, description and explanation of empirical situations, that is, knowledge of the essence of phenomena. Theoretical laws are more rigorous and formal in comparison with empirical ones.

Formalized knowledge is objectified by the symbolic means of the language. cover the knowledge that we know about, we can write it down, communicate it to others.

Principles of scientific knowledge.

1. Causality.

AT modern understanding causality means the connection between the individual states of the species and forms of matter in the process of its movement and development. The emergence of any objects and systems, as well as the change in their properties over time, have their grounds in the previous states of matter; these grounds are called causes, and the changes they cause are called effects.

2. The criterion of truth.

Natural scientific truth is verified (proved) only by practice: observations, experiments, experiments, production activities. If a scientific theory is confirmed by practice, then it is true.

3. Relativity of scientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge (concepts, ideas, concepts, models, theories, conclusions from them, etc.) is always relative and limited.

an experience- this is the everyday everyday experience of people, this is the world of feelings, experiences and activity of a person, the sphere of his ordinary life.

STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Three levels: empirical, theoretical, philosophical grounds.
On empirical At the level of scientific knowledge, as a result of direct contact with reality, scientists receive knowledge about certain events, identify the properties of objects or processes of interest to them, fix relationships, and establish empirical patterns.

Theoretical the level of scientific knowledge is divided into two parts: fundamental theories, in which the scientist deals with the most abstract ideal objects, and theories that describe a specific area of ​​reality on the basis of fundamental theories.

Level philosophical premises, philosophical foundations. Certain ideas of a philosophical nature are woven into the fabric of scientific knowledge, embodied in theories.
A theory turns from an apparatus for describing and predicting empirical data into knowledge when all its concepts receive an ontological and epistemological interpretation.

84. Determinants and characteristic features of the image of science in the conditions of anthropogenic civilization.

Transfer from industrial civilization to the post-industrial (anthropogenic) - as a result of the scientific and technological revolution.

In the economic sphere:

* the predominance of the so-called tertiary sphere in the economy - the spheres of science, education, services

* social orientation of the economy: production of consumer goods, development of the service sector

* the main area of ​​economic activity is the service sector

* individualization of production and consumption

* increase in the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by mass production

* elimination of heavy and monotonous physical labor

* the leading role of science, knowledge and information

* development information technology and technologies, implementation information technologies in all areas

* the use of resource-saving technologies (replacement of natural raw materials with synthetic raw materials), the development of high and unmanned technologies, automation and computerization of production processes

* the transformation of information into the main strategic resource of the world economy, the integration of national, regional and world economies on the basis of information technology and telecommunications

In the social sphere:

* erasing class distinctions

* the elimination of social polarization and the growth of the proportion of the "middle class"

* the emergence of a new intellectual class professionals and technical specialists(a decisive role in the functioning and development of society)

* change in the structure of professional employment of the population, the predominance of the share of categories of the population associated with the production, distribution, storage, transfer of information

* fixing the level of education and knowledge of the role of the main factor that determines the social status of the individual, the social stratum and the social structure as a whole

* trend towards deurbanization (outflow of population from big cities to suburbs)

In the political sphere:

* development of legal regulation of public relations

* replacement of representative democracy by direct democracy (decision-making by voters via electronic communication)

* the possibilities of local municipal self-government are expanding → decentralization of social and political life

In the spiritual realm:

* in the center - a person, his individuality → anthropogenic civilization

* the increasing dependence of the daily life of society on the means mass media, video products, advertising, etc.

* science is a productive sphere

* high level of education of the population, awareness of the problem of functional illiteracy

the main objective– increase creativity personality and its information environment.

Components this environments Keywords: mediatization, computerization, intellectualization.

· mediatization: the process of improving the means of collecting, storing and disseminating information;

· computerization: the process of improving the means of searching and processing information;

· intellectualization: the process of developing the ability to perceive and generate new information, including the use of artificial intelligence tools.

Problems

1. ensuring free access to national information resources as essential condition observance of the constitutional right to information;

2.development of information (computer) human psychology;

3.development of social informatization of society (language communication, information security of the individual, protection from computer crime);

4.information ecology of society in the social and natural environment;

5.development of measures to overcome intellectual emigration;

6. adaptation of people with disabilities to the modern information environment;

7.changing the role of labor in society, the development of new incentives labor activity;

8.prevention of the formation of a consumer society, leading to its degradation.

The concept of culture is central to cultural studies. In its modern meaning, it entered the circulation of European social thought from the 2nd floor. 18th century

Culture is an integral part of human existence and one of the fundamental characteristics used to study certain countries, regions, civilizations. Having arisen together with man, culture evolved along with him, within its framework, original and often contradictory ideas and trends were born, flourished and declined, but it itself has always remained relatively monolithic.

Culture is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other and to themselves.

Culture characterizes the features of consciousness, behavior and activities of people in specific areas of public life (work culture, culture of politics, and others).

The word "culture" comes from the Latin, meaning the cultivation of the soil, its cultivation, i.e. a change in a natural object under the influence of a person, in contrast to those changes that are caused by natural causes. Already in the original content, one can distinguish an important feature - the unity of culture, man and his activities. For example, the Hellenes saw in their upbringing their main difference from the "wild", "uncivilized barbarians". In the Middle Ages, the word "culture" was associated with personal qualities, with signs of personal improvement. In the Renaissance, personal perfection began to be understood as correspondence to the humanistic ideal. And from the point of view of the enlighteners of the 18th century. culture meant "reasonableness". Giambattista Vico (1668-1744), Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed that culture is manifested in the rationality of social orders and political institutions, and is measured by achievements in science and art. The goal of culture and the higher purpose of reason are the same: to make people happy. It was already a concept of culture, called eudaimonic ( direction that considers happiness, bliss highest goal human life).

From 2nd floor 19th century The concept of "culture" acquires the status of a scientific category. It ceases to mean only a high level of development of society. This concept increasingly began to intersect with such concepts as "civilization" and "socio-economic formation". This concept was introduced into scientific circulation by Karl Marx. It constitutes the foundation of the materialistic understanding of history.

In the 20th century in scientific ideas about culture, the touch of romanticism finally disappears, giving it the meaning of uniqueness, creative impulse, high spirituality. The French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) noted that culture does not save or justify anyone or anything. But she is the work of man, in her he seeks his reflection, in her he recognizes himself, only in this critical mirror can he see his face.

In general, there is no single answer to what culture is. Now, according to some researchers, there are about a thousand definitions of culture.

The concept of "culture", - noted in philosophical dictionary, - means a historically determined level of development of society, the creative forces and abilities of a person, expressed in the types and forms of organizing the life and activities of people, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​\u200b\u200bcreated by them.

Therefore, the world of culture is the result of the efforts of the people themselves, aimed at improving, transforming what is given by nature itself. One can cite as an example a poem by Nikolai Zabolotsky (1903-1958):

Man has two worlds:

One who created us

Another, who we are from the century

We create to the best of our ability

That. to understand the essence of culture is possible only through the prism of the activities of man, the peoples inhabiting the planet. Culture does not exist without man.

A person is not born social, but only in the process of activity becomes one. Education and upbringing is nothing but the mastery of culture, the process of passing it on from one generation to another. Therefore, culture means the introduction of a person to society, society.

Any person, first of all, masters the culture that was created before him, thereby mastering the experience of his predecessors, but at the same time he makes his contribution, thereby enriching him.

Culture as a world of human meanings

Culture is a special sphere of social life, in which the creative nature of a person is most fully realized, and first of all it is art, education, science. But only such an understanding of culture would impoverish its content. The most complete is such an understanding of culture, which reveals the essence human being as the realization of creativity and freedom.

The attitude of a person to the world is determined by meaning, in turn, meaning correlates any phenomenon, any object with a person. If something is devoid of meaning, it, as a rule, ceases to exist for a person. Meaning is, as it were, an intermediary between the world and man. The meaning is not always realized by a person and not every meaning can be expressed rationally. To a greater extent, meanings lurk in the human unconscious. But the meaning can also become universally valid, uniting many people. It is these meanings that form the culture.

T. O. culture is a way of creative self-realization of a person through meaning. Culture appears before a person as a world of meanings, which inspires and unites people into a community (nation). Culture is a universal way that a person makes the whole world “his”, i.e. turns into a "house of human existence", into a bearer of human meanings.

When is the birth of a new culture? In order to be born new culture, it is necessary that new meanings be fixed in symbolic forms and be recognized by other people as a model, i.e. became semantic dominants.

Dominant - the dominant idea, the main feature.

Culture is the result of free human creativity, but it also keeps it within its semantic framework. In the era of cultural transformations, old meanings do not always satisfy a person. New semantic paradigms are created, according to the Russian philosopher Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev, by individual creativity.

Structure of culture

For culture as a social phenomenon, the concepts of cultural statics and cultural dynamics are fundamental. The first characterizes culture at rest, immutability and repetition, the second considers culture as a process in motion and change.

The main elements of culture exist in 2 forms - material and spiritual. The totality of the material elements constitutes the material culture, and the intangible elements constitute the spiritual one.

An important feature of material culture is its non-identity with either the material life of society or material production.

The material culture includes the culture of labor and material production, the culture of everyday life, the culture of topos, i.e. place of residence (dwellings, houses, cities), culture of attitude to one's own body, physical culture.

The totality of non-material elements forms the spiritual side of cultural statics: norms, rules, patterns, ceremonies, rituals, myths, ideas, customs. Any object of intangible culture needs a material intermediary. For example, books are such an intermediary for knowledge.

Spiritual culture is a multi-layered formation and includes cognitive, moral, artistic, legal, pedagogical, religious and other cultures.

According to many culturologists, there are types of culture that cannot be unambiguously attributed only to the material or spiritual realm. These are, for example, economic, political, aesthetic cultures.

In cultural statics, elements are delimited in time and space. Thus, a part of the material and spiritual culture, created by past generations, withstood the test of time and passed on to the next generations, is called cultural heritage. Heritage is important factor unity of the nation, a means of uniting society in times of crisis.

In addition to cultural heritage, cultural statics also includes the concept of a cultural area - a geographical area, within which different cultures show similarities in their main features.

On a global scale cultural heritage express the so-called cultural universals - norms, values, rules, traditions, properties, which are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical time and social structure society.

As already noted, culture is a very complex, layered system. It is customary to divide culture according to its carriers. Depending on this, world and national cultures are distinguished.

World culture is a synthesis of the best achievements of all national cultures various peoples that inhabit the planet.

National culture, in turn, acts as a synthesis of cultures of various classes, social strata and groups of the corresponding society. The originality of the national culture, its originality and originality are manifested both in the spiritual (language, literature, music, painting, religion) and material (features of the economic structure, traditions of labor and production) spheres of life and activity.

The set of values, beliefs, traditions and customs that guide the majority of members of society is called the dominant culture. But since society breaks up into many groups (national, social, professional, etc.), each of them gradually forms its own culture, i.e. system of values ​​and rules of conduct. Such small cultural worlds are called subcultures. Talk about youth subculture, subculture of national minorities, professional subculture, etc.

The subculture differs from the dominant one in language, outlook on life, and manners of behavior. Such differences may be strongly pronounced, but the subculture does not oppose the dominant culture.

And the subculture that opposes the dominant one, i.e. is in conflict with dominant values, is called counterculture.

The underworld subculture opposes human culture, and the hippie youth movement, which became widespread in the 60s and 70s. in countries Western Europe and America, denied the dominant American values: social values, moral standards and moral ideals consumer society, political loyalty, conformism and rationalism.

Conformism (from the late Latin Conformis - similar, consistent) - opportunism, passive acceptance of existing orders, prevailing opinions, lack of one's own positions.



"Culture" (from Latin culture - cultivation, education, development, etc.) means the cultivation (development, planting) of some features of an object, which is consciously carried out by a person. This definition still retains its meaning when it comes to crops grown, or when talking about the degree of cultivation of an individual's culture. With regard to social development, culture is understood more broadly as a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other and to themselves. Such an understanding of culture makes it possible to point out the specific nature of human activity, which is conscious and active, in contrast, for example, to the development of pre-social forms of life in biology, where it is subject to biological laws.
According to its original meaning, the concept of "culture" is quite close in content to the concept of "civilization" and in many cases they are used as synonyms. "Civilization" (from lat. civilis - civil, state), although it can be used as a synonym for culture, but etymologically is a concept that is narrower in content. We can say that this is some special stage of development human culture, which is necessarily connected with society and is constituted in the form of a state. Civilization is not any society, but only one that is built on reasonable principles, i.e. certain principles consciously brought into his management.
It is possible to distinguish two main lines in the interpretation of the development of culture, one way or another connected with the comparison of the concepts of culture and civilization. In the universalist approach, culture and civilization are considered most often as synonyms. Here the formation of human culture is a single directed process, which allows us to talk about its progress. At the same time, culture includes the results of both material and spiritual activities to create a set of cultural values. In some cases, these two activities are considered in isolation from each other. As a result, concepts appear based on the primacy of either spiritual or material activity.
The materialistic version of the interpretation of the development of culture, on the contrary, is associated with the absolutization of the role of material activity. Within the framework of this approach, the Marxist model of understanding culture is implemented, which is based on the principle of a materialistic understanding of history and explains cultural phenomena and the development of culture, proceeding from the determining role of the productive forces and production relations. Accordingly, it is proposed to study the study of the spiritual sphere as a certain reflection of the processes that occur in society itself. Culture here acts as one of the characteristics of society and expresses the level of historical development achieved by mankind, determined by the relationship of man to nature and society. In culture, two layers are distinguished - the spiritual sphere and the sphere of material production, which are in relation to the above subordination and reflect the corresponding types of activity (production). Material culture includes all types and results of material activity. Spiritual culture is a sphere of consciousness.
The civilizational approach comprehends the historical process as the formation and change of civilizations. So, for example, in NL. Danilevsky civilizations found in world history are various cultural and historical types that unite within themselves common language, representing a distinct identity. The condition for the birth and development of civilization is the political independence of a given people. Thus, not every nation is capable of acting as a civilization at a given stage of its development. Civilizations are closed, local formations. The beginnings of a civilization of one cultural-historical type are not transmitted to peoples of another type. Each type develops it for itself with greater or lesser influence of alien, previous or modern civilizations.
The German philosopher Spengler laid down the tradition of considering civilization as the final stage in the development of a given culture, at which, along with the development of science and technology, the destruction of spiritual culture (literature, art) occurs. "The decline of Europe", according to Spengler, means the decline of classical culture based on ancient traditions, and the emergence of civilization. Civilization is a stage of attenuation of creativity, when people's activity is increasingly pragmatic in nature, which inevitably leads to reproductive forms of production, meaning is acquired not by a holistic organic life, but by a formalized, strictly ordered and forcibly regulated being.
Man, as an element of the social system, realizes himself in a variety of ways. Culture in this respect is special form the existence of man, which arises as a kind of "second nature" created by man himself along with nature as such. But a person can create something (in the form of products) only by using nature, transforming it. As a result of special cultural activities man transforms nature according to his spiritual needs, thereby realizing his inner essence. Mankind is constantly expanding its own cultural world, realizing the growing spiritual needs of man.
Since culture is a social phenomenon, it would be logical to consider it also as a special kind of system. On the basis of a systematic approach, it is possible not only to fix the truly specific that, as elements, is included in the characteristics of culture, but also to understand its essence as a special sphere of being. In this aspect, culture is a special kind of complex system that has not only a fairly strict internal structure, but at the same time bears the features of individual purposeful creative activity of people.
Culture is at the same time a self-organizing system, which determines such a feature as the active generation of new subsystems, objects that did not exist in nature, based on the processing of existing information. However, this is a property of many complex systems. The specificity of culture lies in this regard in the fact that its main structural component is human activity, understood as the unity of biological (natural) and non-biological (social) components. Based on this, when explaining certain cultural phenomena as the results of this activity, we must take into account the indicated dual specificity of the latter, without reducing everything only to biological nature or, on the contrary, to the social essence of man. Culture as a system has its own properties that distinguish it from other self-organizing systems. This allows us to point out the social specifics of human activity, which, having its initial source, including the biological needs of the individual's life, emerges from the "world of nature", becoming a social activity.
The most important feature of culture as a system is the way of organizing communication between its elements (people), which provides communication between its relatively local subsystems (separate cultures), individuals within one culture or at the level of intercultural communication, and even between cultures of different times.
Since culture is, in a broad sense, communication, it is always realized as a dialogue between cultures and individuals who act as its bearers. individual person as a social being, entering into communication with a representative of another culture, always "dialogs" on behalf of his own cultural community, the social "we", within which his formation as a person took place.

Culture (from lat. culture - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration) is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's attitudes to nature, among themselves and to themselves.

Two types of cultural elements: 1. Material - these are physical objects created by human hands. They are called artifacts Steam engine, book, temple, house). Artifacts have a certain symbolic meaning perform the intended function and are of value to the group or society. 2. Non-material (spiritual) elements of culture are rules, samples, standards, models and norms of behavior, laws, values, ceremonies, rituals, symbols, knowledge, ideas, customs, traditions, language.

Rules - elements that regulate people's behavior in accordance with the values ​​of K. Sociocultural norms - standards of behavior. A sign of a social norm is its imperativeness (imperiousness). A norm is an imperative expression of a value defined by a system of rules that are aimed at its reproduction. Social punishments or rewards that encourage compliance with norms are called sanctions. Positive sanctions (monetary reward, empowerment, prestige). Negative sanctions (fine, reprimand). Sanctions acquire legitimacy on the basis of norms.

Agents of culture: large social groups, small social groups, individuals. Cultural institutions - organizations that create, perform, store, distribute works of art, as well as sponsoring and teaching the population about cultural values ​​(schools and universities, academies of sciences, ministries of culture and education, lyceums, galleries, libraries, theaters, educational complexes, stadiums).

The main functions of culture: 1. Protective function- with the help of artificially created tools and devices of labor tools, medicines, weapons, Vehicle man greatly increased his ability to adapt to the world around him, to subjugate nature to himself. 2. Creative function - transformation and development of the world.

The main functions of culture: 3. Communicative function - the transfer of information in any form: oral and written communication, communication of groups of people, nations, the use of technical means of communication. 4. Significative - the function of determining values ​​and values. Any natural phenomenon involved in cultural circulation gets its name.

The main functions of culture: 5. Normative function - is responsible for the creation of norms, standards, rules of human behavior. 6. Relaxation function Relaxation is the art of physical and mental relaxation, relaxation. Stylized forms of stress relief entertainment, holidays, rituals.

The concept of culture has a long and complicated history. Non-professionals use this word to denote a certain sophistication (“a cultured person”). Anthropologists define culture as "a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morality, customs, and any abilities and habits acquired by a person as a member of society" (). In the last ten years, this concept has also been used by some organizational researchers and managers, denoting the overall climate of the organization and characteristic methods working with people, as well as the values ​​​​and credo proclaimed by it.

At all culture is a system of relationships and actions that stands the test of time and forms a rather unique common psychology for the members of a given cultural community. Of particular importance here is the unique general psychology. It is she who gives meaning to various relationships and actions. By unique psychology, we recognize people belonging to the same culture. It's about about the deep power of thinking and feeling, perception and evaluation.

culture acts as "a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other and to themselves" ().

The subject of our consideration is a kind of "middle link" of culture - its cut at the level of a separate organization - organizational culture(it is often called the corporate culture or the socio-culture of the organization).

What is organizational culture and how is it defined? First of all, the business culture of the country, which in turn is determined by the general culture of the people.

In the general culture of the country, everyday, artistic, scientific, business and other types of it are distinguished. Business culture exists at the level of the country, the people. It determines the behavior of people in work, in partnership, in negotiations, etc. Values ​​such as quality, time, obligation, etc., manifest themselves in different ways among peoples.

Of course, within the same country there are so-called. subcultures that distinguish different ethnic, comradely, amateur, age, gender, professional groups, families. Such subcultures are also formed in organizations.

There is also a personal, individual culture. Leaders and other employees of business organizations create a unique combination of their personalities every time.

Finally, there are cultures in each social organization- organizational cultures.

In other words, organizational culture is a product of the interaction of the business culture of the macro environment (continent, country, region, type of business, industry, profession) and the uniqueness of the individual cultures of the participants in the organization ().

There can be no organizational culture. It spontaneously develops in any organization some time after its inception, since people inevitably bring into it their individual experience gained in other subcultures; it turns out a complex coalition of individual cultures that forms, so to speak, the identity of the organization, its uniqueness.

Why is this important in a managerial sense? Because culture, as G. Hofstede noted, is “ collective programming of human behavior her”, the features of their activities in the organization. So management has long been learning to influence this programming mechanism towards greater integration of workers around corporate goals.

In other words, in a natural way, spontaneously, an organizational culture that is not the most favorable for business can be formed, where, for example, it is customary to work with coolness and somehow, high conflict, disrespect for technology, for the client, etc. But through the skillful definition of functions, motivation, development of relations between employees, coordination of interests, involvement of employees in the development of common goals, etc., i.e. through special methods, to develop organizational culture to the level of corporate culture, when the interests and actions of employees are maximally focused on the goals of the organization as a whole.

It turns out that corporate culture there is a natural-artificial formation that characterizes the most developed personality of the organization. But the highest level of its development is the development of the company's ideology, which gives it a spiritual and emotional uplift, a high identification of personnel with the organization and a corresponding labor return.

So the development of organizational culture becomes an important (and sometimes the most important) managerial resource. More and more managers are discovering opportunities to improve the manageability of their enterprises, institutions on the way to the formation of a corporate culture in them.

Peculiar pioneers in the field of organizational culture were scientists led by E. Mayo. Today, there are a large number of approaches to the definition of organizational culture.

“The culture of a group can be defined as the pattern of collective basic perceptions acquired by a group in resolving the problems of adapting to change. external environment and internal integration, the effectiveness of which is sufficient to consider it valuable and pass it on to new members of the group as the correct system for the perception and consideration of these problems" ( E. Shine) ().

French researcher of organizational culture N. Demeter emphasizes that "the culture of an enterprise is a system of ideas, symbols, values, patterns of behavior shared by all its members." The main function of organizational culture, in his opinion, is to create a sense of identity for all members of the organization, the image of the collective "we".

Dutch scientists Andrel Kammel and Joachim Hentue culture refers to the "collective programming" that distinguishes one group from another. The program assimilated and accepted by the team is a kind of "software" for managing the behavior and goals of the individual. The values ​​contained in it are abstract, they form a time-stable structure of values ​​that are consciously or unconsciously realized throughout life. The daily behavior of the individual is formed on the basis of mental orientation.

Vikhansky and Naumov: « Organizational culture- this is a set of the most important assumptions accepted by the members of the organization and expressed in the organization's declared values ​​that give people guidelines for their behavior and actions "().

The fundamental elements of organizational culture, in their opinion, are:

• Assumptions held by the members of the organization in their behavior and actions. They are often associated with vision. environment and its governing variables.
• Values ​​- show a person what behavior should be considered acceptable and what is not.
• Symbolism, through which value orientations are transmitted to members of the organization.

Thus, in relation to organizations, the term " organizational culture"covers most of the phenomena of the spiritual and material part of the team, namely: the moral norms and values ​​that dominate in it, the adopted code of conduct and ingrained rituals, established product quality standards, even the manner of dressing, etc.

Employees and managers are constantly confronted with the manifestation of organizational culture, in particular, in the implementation of a specific strategy of the organization, in the forms of adaptation of young workers, in the behavior of veterans.

There is also a slightly different approach to identifying elements of organizational culture (practical).

Studying the experience of Japanese and American organizations allows us to identify the following main features of a developed organizational culture that form their "business credo", i.e. some set of their main goals:

• mission of the organization (general philosophy and policy),
• basic goals of the organization;
• Code of Conduct.

These three mandatory elements of organizational culture in different organizations can be presented in different ways ().

Organizational culture It is the lifeblood of an organization. This is what people become members of the organization for: the way relationships are built between them; what stable principles and norms of life and activity they share; what they think is good and what is bad.

All this not only distinguishes one organization from another, but also determines the success of its functioning and survival. Organizational culture does not appear on the surface, it is difficult to “touch” it. This is a kind of "soul" of the organization.

Allocate subjective organizational culture, which comes from the patterns of assumptions, beliefs and expectations shared by employees, as well as from the group perception of the organizational environment with its values, norms and roles that exist outside the individual. This includes a number of elements of "symbolism", especially its "spiritual part": the heroes of the organization, myths from the history of the organization and its leaders, organizational taboos, rites and rituals, the perception of languages ​​of address and slogans.

There is also objective organizational culture. It is usually associated with the physical environment created by the organization: the building itself and its design, location, equipment and furniture, colors and amount of space, amenities, reception rooms, parking lots, and the cars themselves. All this reflects to some extent the values ​​that this organization adheres to.

Although both aspects are very important, however, the subjective aspect creates more opportunities for finding both similarities and differences between people and organizations.

What is content of organizational culture?

• Thus, F. Harris and R. Moran propose to consider a specific organizational culture based on ten characteristics:
• awareness of one's place in the organization;
• communication system and language of communication;
• appearance, clothing and self-image at work;
• what and how people eat, habits and traditions in this area;
• awareness of time, attitude towards it and its use;
• relationships between people;
• values ​​and norms;
• belief in something and attitude and disposition towards something;
• the process of employee development and learning;
• work ethic and motivation.

The above characteristics of organizational culture, taken together, reflect and give meaning to the concept of organizational culture.

It is not necessary to talk about organizational culture as a monolithic phenomenon. This is only one culture per organization. However, it is important to understand that there can be many “local” cultures in one organization. This refers to one culture prevailing in the entire organization and the culture of its parts (levels, divisions; professional, regional, national, age, gender and other groups). These different subcultures can coexist under the roof of one common culture.

In addition, the concept of " organizational counterculture”and its following types can be distinguished: direct opposition to the values ​​that dominate org. culture; opposition to the power structure within the dominant culture of the organization; opposition to patterns of relationships and interactions supported by the dominant culture. Countercultures in organizations usually appear when individuals or groups are in conditions that they feel cannot provide them with the usual or desired satisfaction.

The importance of culture in organizations is growing year by year. If in the recent past all innovations began mainly with technical and organizational reshuffles, now the issues of restructuring socioculture are among the top-priority problems. This is due to the fact that culture, being the "soul" of the organization, has a significant impact on the latter through its impact on the behavior of employees. Therefore, it is now the subject of close attention of the leadership and the scientific community.

The main goal of organizational culture- ensuring external adaptation and internal integration of the organization by improving personnel management. That's why modern leaders and managers see social culture as a powerful strategic tool to orient all departments and individuals towards common goals, mobilize the initiative of employees and facilitate productive communication between them.

Organizational culture enhances organizational cohesion and generates consistency in employee behavior. And in terms of the strength of its impact on people's behavior, organizational culture, as a very powerful means of management, is now on the same level with such traditionally considered global management factors as the structure of the organization and motivation. Managers can change the culture of their teams to increase worker productivity by replacing obsolete norms, practices, and procedures with more relevant standards, practices, and technologies.

Organizational culture, however, can not only help the organization by creating an environment conducive to productivity and innovation, but also work against the organization by creating barriers to the development and implementation of corporate strategy. These barriers include resistance to innovation and ineffective communication. Therefore, with all the positive that corporate culture brings, one should not underestimate its possible negative manifestations, which will have a significant impact on the achievement of goals.

In general, when assessing the degree of influence of socioculture on the activities of an organization, specialists take into account three factors: direction, breadth and strength. The first factor indicates how socioculture affects the achievement of the organization's goal - helps or hinders; the second factor indicates the breadth of the idea of ​​organizational culture among the staff; the third factor characterizes the degree of acceptance by the staff of the ideas and values ​​of socio-culture. Therefore, only that social culture has a positive impact on the organization that supports its goals, has a wide coverage of workers and finds a warm response in their hearts.

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