Frescoes of the early renaissance. Comparative characteristics of the cultures of the epochs

Early Renaissance(XIV-XV centuries) in the art of Italy is associated primarily with Florence, where the Medici patronized the humanists and all the arts. At the beginning of the XV century. the Florentine school is the vanguard of the humanistic art of the Renaissance. Here, in 1439, the Platonic Academy was established, the Laurentian Library, the art collections of the Medici were founded; writers, poets, humanists, scientists work.

Fra Filippo Lippi. Worship of the Child.

The perception of reality is tested by experience, experiment, controlled by the mind. Hence the spirit of order and measure, which is so characteristic of the art of the Renaissance. Geometry, mathematics, anatomy, the doctrine of the proportions of the human body are of great importance to artists; it is then that they begin to carefully study the structure of man. A new criterion for evaluating the beautiful arises, based on the similarity with nature and a sense of proportion. In art, special attention is paid to the plastic elaboration of forms and drawings. The desire to know the laws of nature leads to the study of the proportions of the human figure, anatomy. In the 15th century, Italian artists also solved the problem of rectilinear perspective, which had matured in the art of the trecento.

During this period, ancient art is consciously and purposefully studied, ancient philosophy and literature. However, the influence of antiquity is superimposed on the centuries-old and strong traditions of the Middle Ages, on Christian art. Pagan and Christian plots are intertwined, transformed, imparting a specifically complex character to the culture of the Renaissance.

Architecture of the Early Renaissance.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective, became the ancestor of the Italian Renaissance architecture. The greatest engineering achievement of Brunelleschi was the erection of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Thanks to his mathematical and technical genius, Brunelleschi managed to solve the most difficult problem of his time. The dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore became the forerunner of numerous domed churches in Italy and other European countries.

Brunelleschi was one of the first in Italian architecture to creatively comprehend and originally interpret the ancient order system and laid the foundation for the creation of a domed church based on the ancient order. The true gem of the Early Renaissance was the Pazzi Chapel, commissioned by Brunelleschi and commissioned by a wealthy Florentine family (begun in 1429). The humanism and poetry of Brunelleschi's work, the harmonious proportion, lightness and elegance of his buildings, keeping in touch with the traditions of the Gothic, the creative freedom and scientific validity of his ideas determined Brunelleschi's great influence on the subsequent development of Renaissance architecture.

One of the main achievements Italian architecture 15th century was the creation of a new type of city palaces, which served as a model for public buildings of a later time. Italian palaces are called palazzo (from lat. palatium; this is where the Russian word"chambers"). Features of the 15th century palazzo are a clear division of the closed volume of the building into three floors, an open courtyard with summer floor arcades, the use of rust, i.e. stone with a roughly rounded or convex front surface, for facade cladding, as well as a strongly extended decorative cornice. A striking example of this style is the capital building of Brunelleschi's student and his gifted follower Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (1396-1472), the court architect of the Medici family, the Medici-Riccardi Palace (1444-60), which served as a model for the construction of many Florentine palaces.

Sculpture of the Early Renaissance.

15th century italian sculpture, which has acquired an independent meaning independent of architecture, is flourishing. The practice of artistic life began to include orders from wealthy craftsmen and merchants to decorate public buildings; are held art competitions. One of these competitions - for the manufacture of bronze of the second northern doors of the Florentine baptistery (1401) - is considered a significant event that opened a new page in the history of Italian Renaissance sculpture. This competition was attended by Filippo Brunelleschi, who later became famous architect. However, he won Lorenzo Ghiberti(1381-1455). One of the most educated people of his time, the first historian of Italian art, a brilliant draftsman, Ghiberti devoted his life to one type of sculpture - relief. The main principle of his art Ghiberti considered the balance and harmony of all elements of the image. The pinnacle of Ghiberti's work was the eastern doors of the Florentine baptistery (1425-52), which immortalized the master's name. The decoration of the doors includes ten square compositions made of gilded bronze, reminiscent of picturesque paintings with their extraordinary expressiveness.

him from the largest sculptors of the first half of the XV century. was Jacopo della Quercia (1374-1438), an older contemporary of Ghiberti and Donatello. His work, rich in many discoveries, stood, as it were, aloof from the general path along which the art of the Renaissance developed. The monumental reliefs made by Quercia on the main portal of the church of San Petronio in Bologna ("The Creation of Adam") had a significant impact on the art of Michelangelo.

Painting of the Early Renaissance.

The huge role that Brunelleschi played in the architecture of the Early Renaissance, and Donatello in sculpture, belonged to Masaccio (1401-1428) in painting. The famous art historian Vipper said: “Masaccio is one of the most independent and consistent geniuses in the history of European painting, the founder of a new realism ...” Continuing the search for Giotto, Masaccio boldly breaks with medieval artistic traditions. In the fresco "Trinity" (1426-27), created for the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Masaccio uses full perspective for the first time in wall painting. In the murals of the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence (1425-28) - the main creation of his short life - Masaccio gives the images an unprecedented vitality, emphasizes the physicality and monumentality of his characters, masterfully conveys the emotional state of the psychological depth of the images. In the fresco "Expulsion from Paradise", the artist solves the most difficult task of his time to depict a naked human figure. The harsh and courageous art of Masaccio had a huge impact on the artistic culture of the Renaissance, in particular, on the work of Piero della Francesca and Michelangelo.

A special place in the painting of the Early Renaissance belongs to Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and the young Michelangelo. exquisite art Botticelli with elements of stylization (i.e. generalization of images using conventional techniques - simplification of color, shape and volume) enjoyed great success among educated Florentines. Botticelli's art, unlike most of the early Renaissance masters, was based on personal experience. Among the many paintings created by Botticelli, there are some of the most beautiful creations of world art ("The Birth of Venus", "Spring"). Exceptionally sensitive and sincere, Botticelli went through a difficult and tragic path. creative pursuits- from the poetic perception of the world in youth to mysticism and religious exaltation in adulthood.

The art of the Early Italian Renaissance was represented by new painting, sculpture and architecture. The first major masters of painting were Giotto (1266-1337) and Masaccio (1401-1428) - Florentine artists. They painted on church-religious subjects (fresco painting-painting of walls inside temples), but gave their images realistic features. Giotto was the first artist to free Italian painting from the influence of Byzantine iconography.

major sculptor of this period was Donatello (1386-1466). Brunelleschi (1377-1445) was the greatest architect of the Early Renaissance. The revival was ambiguous: the artists went on their own, sometimes different ways. The secular beginning, the desire for a fascinating narrative, the lyrical earthly feeling found vivid expression in the works of Fra Filippo Lippi (1406--1469), a monk of the Carmelite order. A charming master, the author of many altarpieces, among which the painting “The Adoration of the Child”, created for the chapel in the Medici Palace, is considered the best. By the end of the XV century. principles, forms, images of the new art became the property of all Italy. The foundations have been laid new system genres, has accumulated a wealth of experience artistic knowledge man and the world around him. The influence of the new Italian art began to spread to other European countries. The stage of the Early Renaissance ended, preparing a powerful upsurge of all types of art at the time of the High Renaissance.

TICKET #13

The third period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is commonly called the "High Renaissance". It extends into Italy from approximately 1500 to 1527. At this time, the center of influence of Italian art from Florence moved to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne of Julius II - an ambitious, courageous and enterprising man who attracted best artists Italy, which occupied them with numerous and important works and gave others an example of love for art. With this Pope and with his closest successors, Rome becomes, as it were, the new Athens of the time of Pericles: many monumental buildings are being built in it, magnificent sculptural works, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered the pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually acting on each other. Antiquity is now being studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater rigor and consistency; tranquility and dignity replace the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the preceding period; reminiscences of the medieval completely disappear, and a completely classical imprint falls on all works of art. But imitation of the ancients does not stifle their independence in artists, and they, with great resourcefulness and liveliness of imagination, freely process and apply to their work what they consider appropriate to borrow for themselves from ancient Greco-Roman art.

The work of three great Italian masters marks the pinnacle of the Renaissance, these are Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475 - 1564) and Rafael Santi (1483 - 1520).

Renaissance Titans

The titans of the Italian Renaissance are the three peaks of art: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo. Why do we call them "titans"? AT ancient mythology titans were those who dared to challenge the gods, wanting to be compared with the gods in power. But the Olympic gods severely punished the proud and overthrew them into tartar. One of the titans was Prometheus, who also challenged the gods to help the human race. He gave fire to people, but he himself became a victim of the revenge of the gods: he was chained to a rock, and a kite pecked at his liver.
The Titans of the Renaissance, like the demigods of antiquity, challenged Heaven. Unlike medieval representation about the insignificance of man, his weakness and sinfulness before the all-powerful God, they asserted the greatness of man, the boundlessness of his possibilities and the wealth of talents, and not on. in words, but in deeds, own example. It's hard to even imagine how many talents fit in one person!
Leonardo da Vinci combined the talents of a scientist (mathematician, mechanic, optician, physicist, biologist, anatomist, etc.), artist (draughtsman, painter, sculptor and architect), philosopher and writer. Michelangelo was at the same time a sculptor, painter, architect and poet. Raphael, perhaps, was not so versatile, but his artistic gift was so perfect that already during his lifetime he was called Santi, that is, "divine."
Take a look at Leonardo's late self-portrait. We see a man who has experienced a lot in life. Hair and a beard flow down his face, giving him the appearance of a wise sorcerer who discovered secrets inaccessible to a mere mortal. A penetrating look, the corners of the lips are lowered, which expresses disappointment. The lines of King Solomon from the book "Ecclesiastes" in the Old Testament come to mind: "Knowledge multiplies sorrow." Leonardo da Vinci is the image of a sage artist. His scholarship seeks to penetrate all corners of the world. Even beauty he wants to know and measure with a compass and ruler. And he succeeds. Knowledge of the innermost secrets of nature - that is the soul of Leonardo.
Rafael - bright genius, the angel of rebirth. Everything was easy for him. He does not suffer, his mind does not rush about in search of truth. The truth itself is revealed to him - in beauty, and he embodies it so perfectly that no one has been able to surpass him since then. Soon, this bright genius of the Renaissance passed away. At 38, almost like Pushkin. His death was mourned by all of Rome. Vasari said that people like Raphael, richly gifted with beauty and talent, gentle character, modesty and grace, are not people, but mortal gods. Michelangelo is a true titan. Always in a struggle with oneself, the world and God. A colossal impulse, faith in man. He himself said: "A man has not yet been born in the world who, like me, would be so inclined to love people." Michelangelo survived the rise of the Renaissance ideals and their tragic collapse.
The appearance of such remarkable personalities in culture as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo was not accidental. It testified to profound changes in attitude towards both art in the past and towards the artist in particular.
In the Middle Ages, the identity of the artist was not important. Creating a work of art, the master considered himself only an instrument in the hands of God. The works were not signed, as it was believed that their true author was God himself.
The creator of works of art was not called an artist in the high sense that we put into this word today. Icon painters, builders of cathedrals, etc. considered to be just craftsmen. These views persisted for a long time.
When Michelangelo decided to become a sculptor, his father forbade him to do so, considering such a profession unworthy of the glorious family of Buonar-roti; he simply did not see the difference between a sculptor and a stonecutter.

TICKET #15

REVIVAL NORTHERN Northern Renaissance is a term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more generally - throughout Europe outside of Italy, north of the Alps.

The designation of the period in the cultural and ideological development countries lying north of Italy (mainly the Netherlands, Germany and France in the 1st third of the 15th-16th centuries; for individual countries there is its own periodization), transitional from medieval culture to the culture of the new age. Unlike the Italian Renaissance ( cm. REVIVAL (Renaissance)), the Northern Renaissance is characterized by great persistence of medieval traditions, interest in the individual uniqueness of a person and his environment (including the interior, still life, landscape). The largest representatives Northern Renaissance: Van Eyck ( cm. VAN EYCK), H. Bosch ( cm. BOSCH Hieronymus), P. Brueghel the Elder ( cm. Brueghel Peter the Elder) - in the Netherlands; A. Durer ( cm. DURER Albrecht), M. Niethard ( cm. NITHHARDT Mathis), L. Cranach the Elder ( cm. CRANAH Lucas the Elder), H. Holbein the Younger ( cm. HOLBEIN Hans the Younger) - in Germany; J. Fouquet( cm. FOUQUET Jean), F. Clouet ( cm. KLUET), J. Goujon ( cm. GOUJON Jean) - in France.

17th century architecture Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) - became the conductor of the official line of the popes in the art of the Baroque period, positioned himself as universal master, able to equally fruitfully engage in painting, architecture and sculpture. But he turned out to be a weak artist, and in architecture he remained a gifted amateur, capable of developing an idea, a work program, leaving all the trouble of calculations, engineering support and real implementation to the numerous army of sculptors and assistant architects of his own Roman workshop. He left himself huge fees and fame.

· Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) - dealt only with architecture. He is a virtuoso architect-practitioner and a master of drawings, in which he fruitfully engaged in Milan. Borromini's drawings were unparalleled in professional excellence in 17th-century Italy. Forced to the margins of architectural practice in Rome, he becomes the architect of monastic orders. Therefore, his work is unjustifiably modest. But significant artistic value and the popularity of Boromini's works will cross the borders of Italy and find real successors and descendants in creative personalities, including Nicolo Michetti (Konstantinovsky Palace, Strelna, Russian Empire) or Jan Blazhey Santini Aichl (Czech Republic).

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Plan of the Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza

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Courtyard of Sant Ivo alla Sapienza

sant ivo, vintage engraving 1695

Composition of the palace and church of Sant Ivo.

Italian baroque garden

Villa Aldobrandini.

The Baroque garden of the Italian type is a logical continuation of the Renaissance garden. Renaissance gardens were still small in size, devoid of magnificence. They used a fountain with a sculpture, benches, pots with lemon trees. Everything was dominated by a palace or a villa. Terraces are not yet subject to a single artistic intent, each other and the palace. The tightness of buildings in the city walls did not allow the creation of gardens in cities, and they appear on the outskirts (Boboli Gardens in Florence) or in the countryside.

Art of Italy in the 18th century

[edit] late baroque

Baroque, born and matured in Italy, lingered in national art longer than in other European countries. Little by little, there is an accumulation of crisis traits and fatigue in him. Already in the works of Carlo Maratta (1625-1713), Baroque painting loses its dignity, truthfulness, which are replaced by bravura and insincere pathos. Researcher J. Argan noted bitterly: "His painting in the service of the rulers symbolizes banal things, hiding behind the authority of Raphael and Titian." But the baroque painting of Italy has not yet lost the ability to renew itself and tell about nature, history and the world of human feelings, both in the works of provincial masters (Crespi, Vittore Gislandi) and in decorative painting(Giovanni Battista Tiepolo). The fading Baroque will hold its position for a long time in the theatrical and decorative art of Italy and many European countries (Andrea Pozzo, Ferdinando Bibiena, Giuseppe Valeriani).

But the center of artistic searches in Europe finally goes to France.

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Crespi. Sibyl Kuma, Aeneas and the carrier Charon, 1705

Giacomo Cheruti. "Three Beggars", 1736

Lorenzo Tiepolo. Portrait of Cecilia Guardi

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Vittore Ghislandi. Young artist , 1732

TICKET #17

Caravaggio and caravaggism

Caravaggio (Caravaggio; actually Merisi da Caravaggio, Merisi da Caravaggio) Michelangelo (September 28, 1573, Caravaggio, Lombardy, - July 18, 1610, Porto Ercole, Tuscany), Italian painter. Founder realistic direction in European painting of the 17th century.

Studied in Milan (1584-88) under S. Peterzano. Between 1589 and 1593 he came to Rome, where he worked until 1606, then - in Naples (1607 and 1609-10), on the island of Malta and in Sicily (1608-09). The work of K., who did not belong to any particular art school, arose as an opposition to the dominant trends in Italian art late 16th - early 17th centuries (mannerism and academism).

The early works of K. (between 1592 and 1598), with their sonorous color and transparent chiaroscuro, reveal a connection with the traditions of northern Italian painting of the 16th century. (J. Savoldo, L. Lotto, A. Moretto and others). At the same time, a number of essentially new features already appear in them. K. contrasts the principle of idealization of the image with the individual expressiveness of a specific model (“Little Sick Bacchus”, Borghese Gallery, Rome), the allegorical interpretation of the plot - an unbiased study of nature in a simple everyday motif (“Young Man with a Basket of Fruit”, Borghese Gallery, Rome). Arguing with artistic concepts mannerism and academicism, K. embodies in antique story festive and playful, folk beginning (“Bacchus”, 1592-93, Uffizi Gallery, Florence), comes to a denial of the dominant system of genres and contributes to the creation of new types of painting - still life ("Fruit Basket", about 1596, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan) and household genre("Fortuneteller", Louvre, Paris). religious painting receives from him a new, intimate psychological interpretation (“Rest on the Flight into Egypt”, Doria-Pamphilj Gallery, Rome). By the end of the 1590s. the original pictorial system of K is taking shape. The foreground of the picture, brightly illuminated by a beam of light, stands out against a background immersed in a dense shadow, which achieves an emphasized optical clarity of the image and creates the impression of its immediate proximity to the viewer (“Lute Player”, Hermitage, Leningrad). mature works K. (1599-1606) - these are canvases that are monumental in compositional solution, possessing exceptional dramatic power. Powerful contrasts of light and shadow, expressive simplicity of gestures, energetic plastic modeling and sonorous, rich coloring reflect the emotional tension that arises from the unexpected manifestation of the ideally sublime in everyday life people or at moments of spiritual opposition of a person to a hostile environment (“The Calling of the Apostle Matthew” and “The Torment of the Apostle Matthew”, 1599-1600, the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi, “The Crucifixion of the Apostle Peter” and “The Conversion of Saul”, 1600-01, the church Santa Maria del Popolo, Madonna di Loreto, circa 1603-06, Church of Sant'Agostino, all in Rome; Entombment, 1602-04 (see illustration), Pinacoteca, Vatican; Death of Mary ”, circa 1605-06, Louvre, Paris). The emphasized commonness of the type, the decisiveness of the assertion of democratic artistic ideals in the paintings of K. aroused sharp opposition from supporters of official art. A number of the artist's works were rejected by customers. AT later works K., created during the years of wandering in southern Italy (1606-10), further development realistic tendencies, the expansion of the scope of life phenomena (“Seven Acts of Mercy”, 1607, the church of Pio Monte della Misericordia, Naples) are accompanied by a deepening of the tragedy of the worldview. Along with notes of mournful detachment, the spirit of sublime stoicism is manifested in them (“The Execution of John the Baptist”, 1609, the Cathedral of San Giovanni, La Valletta; “The Burial of St. Lucia”, 1608, the Church of Santa Lucia, Syracuse). K. refers to the theme of the loneliness of people in a vast world, he is attracted by the image of a closely knit human team, united by an atmosphere of family closeness and warmth. light in late paintings K. becomes soft and vibrating, the color scheme gravitates towards tonal unity (“Adoration of the Shepherds”, 1609, National Museum, Messina). The manner of performance acquires the features of free improvisation. The innovative art of K. found followers in Italy and other European countries, influencing the addition of realistic currents in many European art schools(Caravagism).

Caravaggism:

1) system artistic means, characteristic for initial stage the formation of realism in European painting of the 17th century. and received the most vivid embodiment in the work Italian painter Caravaggio. K. characterized by democracy
artistic ideal, interest in the direct reproduction of nature, an increased sense of the real objectivity of the image, the active role of contrasts of light and shadow in the pictorial solution of the picture, the desire to monumentalize genre motifs. Appeal to the techniques of K. was an important step in creative development many leading masters of the 17th century. (P. P. Rubene, Rembrandt), although in some cases it was not the result of the direct influence of the art of Caravaggio and his followers (F. Ribalt, D. Vslaskes, Georges de Latour).

2) The direction in European painting of the 17th century, represented by the followers of Caravaggio. In Italy, where the tendencies of painting retained their significance until the end of the 17th century, they penetrated into all significant artistic centers and had a particularly strong effect on the painting of Rome, Genoa, and Naples. The legacy of Caravaggio received the most original and independent reflection in the works of O. Borjanni, O. Geptileschi, C. Saraceni, G. B. Caracciolo. For a number of masters, k. was expressed in the superficial borrowing of formal techniques and plot motifs the art of Caravaggio (works by L. Spada, B. Manfredi and others). Among the foreign representatives of C., the most significant are: in Holland - H. Terbruggen, G. Honthorst, D. van Baburen, in Flanders - T. Rombouts, A. Jansens, in France - J. Valentin, S. Vuz, in Spain - X Ribera, in Germany - A. Elsheimer.

TICKET No. 18

Art of France. Architecture.The architecture of the XVIII century in France is traditionally divided into two periods, which correspond to two architectural styles: in the first half of the XVIII century. the dominant position is occupied by rococo, in the second - by neoclassicism. These styles are in every way opposed to each other, which is why the transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism is often called "revolt".

The Rococo style departed from the strict rules of classicism of the 17th century; its masters were more attracted to sensual, free forms. Rococo architecture, even stronger than Baroque, strove to make the outlines of buildings more dynamic and their decoration more decorative, but it rejected the solemnity of the Baroque and its close connection with the Catholic Church.

The very word "neoclassicism" in the XVIII century. didn't exist yet. Critics and artists used other definitions - "true style" or "art revival". interest in antiquity XVIII century acquired a scientific character: archaeologists began methodical excavations of ancient monuments, architects began to make accurate measurements and drawings of the surviving fragments and ruins. For neoclassicists, architecture was a way of rebuilding the world. Utopian projects appeared that embodied the ideals of the Enlightenment; later they were called "talking architecture".

ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE

Rococo originated in the last years of the king's reign Louis XIV(1643-1715), but unlike all the styles of French architecture that preceded it, it was not court art. Most Rococo buildings are the private homes of the French aristocracy: rich city mansions (called "hotels" in France) and country palaces.

As a rule, a high fence separated the mansion from the city, hiding the life of the owners of the house. Hotel rooms often had curvilinear outlines; they were not located in an enfilade, as was customary in the mansions of the 17th century, but formed very elegant asymmetrical compositions. The main hall, the so-called salon, was usually placed in the center. The rooms were much smaller than the halls of the classical palaces, and with lower ceilings. And the windows in these mansions were made very large, almost from the floor. The interiors of Rococo buildings were decorated with sculptural and carved decorations, paintings on fantastic themes and many mirrors.

The Hotel Soubise in Paris was built for the Prince de Soubise between 1705 and 1709. designed by Pierre Alexis Delamere (1675-1745). Like other mansions, it is fenced off from the streets adjacent to it by a high wall with luxurious entrance gates.

Ticket number 19

Architecture and Art of Spain in the 17th century The Arabs brought a developed ornamental culture to Spanish art and left a number of magnificent architectural monuments in the Moorish style, among them the mosque in Cordoba (8th century) and the Alhambra Palace in Granada (13th-15th centuries). In the 11th-12th centuries. developing in Spain Roman style in architecture, a remarkable monument of which is the majestic cathedral in the city of Santiago de Compostela. In the 13th - first half of the 15th century. in Spain, as in all Western Europe, gothic style is formed. Spanish Gothic often borrows Moorish features, as evidenced by the majestic cathedrals in Seville, Burgos and Toledo (one of the largest in Europe). A special artistic phenomenon is the so-called. style<мудехар>, formed as a result of the fusion of Gothic elements in architecture, and later the Renaissance with the Mauritanian Arabs brought a developed ornamental culture to Spanish art and left a number of magnificent architectural monuments in the Moorish style, among them the mosque in Cordoba (8th century) and the Alhambra Palace in Granada (13 -15 centuries). In the 11th-12th centuries. Romanesque style in architecture is developing on the territory of Spain, a remarkable monument of which is the majestic cathedral in the city of Santiago de Compostela. In the 13th - first half of the 15th century. in Spain, as in all Western Europe, the Gothic style is being formed. Spanish Gothic often borrows Moorish features, as evidenced by the majestic cathedrals in Seville, Burgos and Toledo (one of the largest in Europe). A special artistic phenomenon is the so-called. style<мудехар>, which was formed as a result of the fusion of Gothic elements in architecture, and later the Renaissance with the Moorish heritage.

<платереск> <эрререско>

<Золотым веком> <эрререско> <чурригуреско>.

<гением модерна>

In the 16th century under the influence of Italian art in Spain, a school of mannerism is taking shape: its prominent representatives were the sculptor Alonso Berruguete (1490-1561), the painters Luis de Morales (c. 1508-1586) and the great El Greco (1541-1614). The founders of the art of court portraiture were the famous painters Alonso Sanchez Coelho (c. 1531-1588) and his student Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (1553-1608). In secular architecture of the 16th century. ornamental style established<платереск>, which was replaced at the end of the century by a cold style<эрререско>, an example of which is the monastery-palace of Escorial near Madrid, built in 1563-1584 as the residence of the Spanish kings.

<Золотым веком>Spanish painting is called the 17th century, when the great artists Jusepe Ribera (1588-1652), Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1618-1682), Francisco Zurbaran (1598-1664) and Diego de Silva Velazquez (1599-1660) worked. Discreet in architecture<эрререско>in the second half of the 17th century. replaced by an overly decorative style<чурригуреско>.

Period 18-19 centuries. generally characterized by a decline Spanish art, closed in imitative classicism, and later in superficial costumbrism. Against this background, the work of Francisco Goya (1746-1828) stands out especially clearly.

The revival of the great Spanish tradition takes place in the first half of the 20th century. New paths in world art were paved by the original architect Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926), who was called<гением модерна>Salvador Dali (1904-1989), one of the founders of cubism Juan Gris (1887-1921), abstract artist Juan Miro (1893-1983) and Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), who contributed to the development of several trends in contemporary art.

In the 17th century the artistic tradition of Netherlandish art continued in Flanders and Holland. On their basis, related, but distinctive Flemish and dutch school painting. The reason for this division was dramatic story Netherlands in the second half of the 16th century.

At that time, Protestantism was widespread in the Netherlands - a creed that denied the veneration of icons as idolatry and abandoned church art. In 1566, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the country. In a few days, many temples and monasteries were destroyed, statues of saints, altars, and icons were destroyed. King Philip II of Spain, who then ruled the Netherlands, sent a large army into the country to restore the dominant position of the Catholic Church. The Spaniards brutally suppressed the unrest, while tens of thousands of the Netherlands died. In response to the violence, an armed uprising broke out.

In the north of the country, where Protestants made up the majority of the population, in 1581 a new state was proclaimed - the Republic of the United Provinces. The leading role in it belonged to Holland, and pretty soon the whole country began to be called that.

In the south of the Netherlands, the Spaniards won. In 1585, the last stronghold of the rebels, the city of Antwerp, surrendered.

Philip II in 1598 transferred the Southern Netherlands to his beloved daughter Infante Isabella (1566-1633). The newly formed state in official documents was called the Catholic Netherlands, in scholarly writings - Belgium, in common parlance - Flanders, as well as the most developed of its constituent provinces. It was completely dependent on Spain.

In the fight for religious ideas culture suffered a defeat: many beautiful monuments of art were destroyed by the Protestants, but even in the Catholic provinces they had to forget about the original artistic tradition. Catholic Church was suspicious of the fabulous diversity of Old Netherlandish art. Artists who tried to interpret in their own way biblical stories risked being accused of heresy. church art has changed. From now on, it was supposed not only to explain the Holy Scripture to the parishioners, but to literally enchant, to subordinate their consciousness to the authority of the Church. It was served organ music, bizarre architecture of temples, religious painting. If in the Middle Ages the temple was conceived as a school, then in the 17th century. it was more like a theatre.

Similar information.

Federal Agency for Education

St. Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Department of History

Discipline: Culturology

Titans and masterpieces of Renaissance culture

Group 1 student ES 2

E. Yu. Nalivko

Supervisor:

to. and. n., teacher

I. Yu. Lapina

St. Petersburg

Introduction…………………………………………………………3

The art of the early Renaissance………………………..4

High Renaissance period…………………………….5

Sandro Botticelli……………………………………….5

Leonardo Da Vinci…………………………………………7

Michelangelo Buonarroti …….………………………10

Raffaello Santi…………....…………………………….13

Conclusion……………………………………………………..15

List of used literature……………………....16

Introduction

The Renaissance is an important period in world culture. Initially a new phenomenon in European cultural life looked like a return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture in the field of science, philosophy, literature. The phenomenon of the Renaissance lies in the fact that the ancient heritage has become a weapon for the overthrow of church canons and prohibitions. In essence, we must talk about a grandiose cultural revolution that lasted two and a half centuries and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. Nothing like this was observed outside the European region at that time. That's why this topic aroused my great interest and desire to analyze this period in more detail.

In my essay, I want to focus on such prominent people like Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raffaello Santi. It was they who became the most prominent representatives of the main stages of the Italian Renaissance.

1. The Art of the Early Renaissance

In the first decades of the 15th century, a decisive turning point took place in the art of Italy. The emergence of a powerful center of the Renaissance in Florence led to the renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture.

The work of Donatello, Masaccio and their associates marks the victory of Renaissance realism, which differed significantly from the "realism of details" that was characteristic of the gothic art of the late trecento. The works of these masters are imbued with the ideals of humanism. They glorify and glorify a person, raise him above the level of everyday life.

In their struggle with the Gothic tradition, the artists of the early Renaissance sought support in antiquity and the art of the Proto-Renaissance. What the masters of the Proto-Renaissance searched for only intuitively, by touch, is now based on accurate knowledge.

Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by great diversity. The new art, which won at the beginning of the 15th century in advanced Florence, did not immediately receive recognition and distribution in other areas of the country. While Bruneleschi, Masaccio, Donatello worked in Florence, the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art were still alive in northern Italy, only gradually being replaced by the Renaissance.

Florence was the main center of the early Renaissance. The Florentine culture of the first half and the middle of the 15th century is varied and rich. Since 1439, since the ecumenical church council held in Florence, to which the Byzantine emperor John Palaiologos and the patriarch of Constantinople arrived, accompanied by a magnificent retinue, and especially after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, when many scientists who had fled from the East found refuge in Florence, this city becomes one of the main centers in Italy for the study of the Greek language, as well as the literature and philosophy of Ancient Greece. And yet the leading role in the cultural life of Florence in the first half and the middle of the 15th century undoubtedly belonged to art. one

2. The period of the High Renaissance

This period of time represents the apogee of the Renaissance. It was a short period, lasting about 30 years, but quantitatively and qualitatively, this period of time is like centuries. The art of the High Renaissance is a summation of the achievements of the 15th century, but at the same time it is a new qualitative leap, both in the theory of art and in its implementation. The unusual "densification" of this period can be explained by the fact that the number of simultaneously (in one historical period) working brilliant artists is a kind of record even for the entire history of art. Suffice it to name such names as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo.

3. Sandro Botticelli

The name of Sandro Botticelli is known throughout the world as the name of one of the most remarkable artists of the Italian Renaissance.

Sandro Botticelli was born in 1444 (or 1445) in the family of a tanner, Florentine citizen Mariano Filippepi. Sandro was the youngest, the fourth son of Philippepi. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known about where and when Sandro was trained as an artist, and whether, as old sources say, he really first studied jewelry, and then began to paint. In 1470, he already had his own workshop and independently carried out the received orders.

The charm of Botticelli's art always remains a little mysterious. His works evoke a feeling that the works of other masters do not evoke.

Botticelli was inferior to many artists of the 15th century, some in courageous energy, others in true authenticity of details. His images (with very rare exceptions) are devoid of monumentality and drama, their exaggeratedly fragile forms are always a little arbitrary. But like no other painter of the 15th century, Botticelli was endowed with the ability for the finest poetic understanding of life. For the first time, he was able to convey the subtle nuances of human experiences. Joyful excitement is replaced in his paintings by melancholic reverie, outbursts of fun - aching melancholy, calm contemplation - uncontrollable passion.

The new direction of Botticelli's art receives its extreme expression in the last period of his activity, in the works of the 1490s and early 1500s. Here the devices of exaggeration and dissonance become almost unbearable (for example, the "Miracle of St. Zenobius"). The artist then plunges into the abyss of hopeless sorrow (“Pieta”), then surrenders to enlightened exaltation (“Communion of St. Jerome”). His pictorial manner is simplified almost to icon-painting conventions, distinguished by some kind of naive tongue-tiedness. Plane linear rhythm completely obeys both the drawing, brought to the limit in its simplicity, and color with its sharp contrasts of local colors. The images, as it were, lose their real, earthly shell, acting as mystical symbols. And yet in this thoroughly religious art, the human principle makes its way with great force. Never before has an artist invested so much personal feeling in his works, never before have his images had such a high moral significance.

With the death of Botticelli, the history of Florentine painting of the Early Renaissance ends - this true spring of Italian artistic culture. A contemporary of Leonardo, Michelangelo and the young Raphael, Botticelli remained alien to their classical ideals. As an artist, he belonged entirely to the 15th century and had no direct successors in High Renaissance painting. However, his art did not die with him. That was the first attempt to reveal the spiritual world of a person, a timid attempt and ending tragically, but through generations and centuries it received its infinitely multifaceted reflection in the work of other masters.

The art of Botticelli is a poetic confession of a great artist that excites and will always excite the hearts of people. 2

4. Leonardo Da Vinci

In the history of mankind it is not easy to find another person as brilliant as the founder of the art of the High Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The comprehensive nature of the activities of this great artist and scientist became clear only when the scattered manuscripts from his legacy were examined. Colossal literature is devoted to Leonardo, his life has been studied in detail. And, nevertheless, much in his work remains mysterious and continues to excite the minds of people.

Leonardo da Vinci was born in the village of Anchiano near Vinci: not far from Florence. He was the illegitimate son of a wealthy notary and a simple peasant woman. Noticing the boy's extraordinary ability in painting, his father gave him to the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio. In the picture of the teacher “The Baptism of Christ”, the figure of a spiritualized blond angel belongs to the brush of the young Leonardo.

Among his early works is Madonna with a Flower (1472), painted in oil painting, then rare in Italy.

Around 1482, Leonardo entered the service of the Duke of Milan, Lodovico Moro. The master recommended himself, first of all, as a military engineer, architect, specialist in the field of hydraulic engineering, and only then as a painter and sculptor. However, the first Milan period of Leonardo's creativity (1482-1499) turned out to be the most fruitful. The master became the most famous artist in Italy, studied architecture and sculpture, turned to fresco and altar painting.

The picturesque paintings of Leonardo of the Milan period have survived to our time. The first altarpiece of the High Renaissance was Madonna in the Grotto (1483-1494). The painter departed from the traditions of the fifteenth century: in the religious paintings of which solemn stiffness prevailed. There are few figures in Leonardo's altarpiece: the feminine Mary, the Infant Christ blessing little John the Baptist, and a kneeling angel, as if looking out of the picture. The images are perfectly beautiful, naturally connected with their environment. This is a kind of grotto among dark basalt rocks with a gap in the depths - a landscape typical of Leonardo as a whole is fantastically mysterious. Figures and faces are shrouded in an airy haze, giving them a special softness. The Italians called this technique Deonardo sfumato.

In Milan, apparently, the master created the canvas "Madonna and Child" ("Madonna Lita"). Here, in contrast to the Madonna with a Flower, he strove for a greater generalization of the ideality of the image. Not a certain moment is depicted, but a certain long-term state of peace of joy in which a young beautiful woman is immersed. Cold clear light illuminates her thin soft face with a half-lowered gaze and a slight, barely perceptible smile. The picture is painted in tempera, giving sonority to the tones of Mary's blue cloak and red dress. The fluffy dark golden curly hair of the Infant is amazingly painted, his attentive gaze directed at the viewer is not childishly serious.

When Milan was taken by French troops in 1499, Leonardo left the city. The time for his wanderings has begun. For some time he worked in Florence. There, Leonardo's work seemed to be illuminated by a bright flash: he painted a portrait of Mona Lisa, the wife of the wealthy Florentine Francesco di Giocondo (circa 1503). The portrait is known as the "Gioconda", has become one of the most famous works of world painting.

A small portrait of a young woman, shrouded in an airy haze, sitting against the backdrop of a bluish-green landscape, is full of such lively and tender trembling that, according to Vasari, one can see the pulse beating in the deepening of Mona Lisa's neck. It would seem that the picture is easy to understand. Meanwhile, in the extensive literature dedicated to the Mona Lisa, the most opposite interpretations of the image created by Leonardo collide.

In the last years of his life, Leonardo da Vinci worked little as an artist. Having received an invitation from the French king Francis 1, he left for France in 1517 and became a court painter. Soon Leonardo died. In the self-portrait - drawing (1510-1515), the gray-bearded patriarch with a deep mournful look looked much older than his age.

The scale and uniqueness of Leonardo's talent can be judged by his drawings, which occupy one of the places of honor in the history of art. Not only manuscripts devoted to the exact sciences, but also works on the theory of art are inextricably linked with drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, sketches, sketches, and diagrams. A lot of space is given to the problems of chiaroscuro, volumetric modeling, linear and aerial perspective. Leonardo da Vinci owns numerous discoveries, projects and experimental studies in mathematics, mechanics, and other natural sciences.

The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have gone through the entire history of world culture and science and have had a huge impact. 3

5 Michelangelo Buonarroti

Among the demigods and titans of the High Renaissance, Michelangelo occupies a special place. As a creator of new art, he deserves the name Prometheus of the 16th century

The beautiful marble statue, known as the Pieta, remains to this day a monument to the first stay in Rome and the full maturity of the 24th summer artist. The Holy Virgin sits on a stone, on her lap rests the lifeless body of Jesus, taken down from the cross. She supports him with her hand. Under the influence of ancient works, Michelangelo discarded all the traditions of the Middle Ages in the depiction of religious subjects. He gave harmony and beauty to the body of Christ and to the whole work. It was not the death of Jesus that was supposed to evoke horror, but only a feeling of reverent surprise towards the great sufferer. The beauty of the naked body benefits greatly from the effect of light and shadow produced by the artfully arranged folds of Mary's dress. In the face of Jesus, depicted by the artist, they even found similarities with Savonarola. Pieta remained an eternal testament to struggle and protest, an eternal monument to the hidden sufferings of the artist himself.

Michelangelo returned to Florence in 1501, at a difficult moment for the city, where from a huge block of Carrara marble, which was intended for a colossal statue of the biblical David to decorate the dome of the cathedral, he decided to create an integral and perfect work, without reducing its size, and it was David. In 1503, on May 18, the statue was installed on the Piazza Senoria, where it stood for more than 350 years.

In the long and bleak life of Michelangelo, there was only one period when happiness smiled at him - this is when he worked for Pope Julius ll. Michelangelo, in his own way, loved this rude warrior dad, who had not at all papal sharp manners. The tomb of Pope Julius did not turn out as magnificent as Michelangelo intended it to be. Instead of the Cathedral of St. Peter, she was placed in a small church of St. Peter, where she did not even enter in its entirety, and its individual parts dispersed along different places. But even in this form, it is rightfully one of the most famous creations of the Renaissance. Its central figure is the biblical Moses, the liberator of his people from Egyptian captivity (the artist hoped that Julius would free Italy from the conquerors). All-consuming passion, inhuman strength strain the powerful body of the hero, his face reflects will and determination, a passionate thirst for action, his gaze is directed towards the promised land. In Olympian majesty sits a demigod. One of his hands rests powerfully on a stone tablet on his knees, the other rests here with a carelessness worthy of a man who needs only a movement of his eyebrows to make everyone obey. As the poet said, “Before such an idol, the Jewish people had the right to prostrate themselves in prayer.” According to contemporaries, Michelangelo's “Moses” actually saw God.

At the request of Pope Julius, Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican with frescoes depicting the creation of the world. His paintings are dominated by lines and bodies. 20 years later, on one of the walls of the same chapel, Michelangelo painted the Last Judgment fresco - a stunning vision of the appearance of Christ at the Last Judgment, at the wave of whose hand sinners fall into the abyss of hell. Muscular, Herculean giant does not look like the biblical Christ, who sacrificed himself for the good of mankind, but the personification of the retribution of ancient mythology, the fresco reveals the terrible abyss of a desperate soul, the soul of Michelangelo.

In the works of Michelangelo, the pain caused by the tragedy of Italy is expressed, merged with pain about his own sad fate. Beauty, which is not mixed with suffering and misfortune, Michelangelo found in architecture. Michelangelo took over the construction of St. Peter's after Bramante's death. A worthy successor to Bramante, he created a dome and to this day is unsurpassed in either size or grandeur,

Michelangelo had no pupils, no so-called school. But there was a whole world created by him. four

6. Rafael

The work of Rafael Santi is one of those phenomena of European culture that not only are covered with world fame, but also gained special meaning- the highest landmarks in the spiritual life of mankind. For five centuries, his art has been perceived as one of the examples of aesthetic perfection.

The genius of Raphael was revealed in painting, graphics, architecture. The works of Raphael are the most complete, vivid expression of the classical line, the classical beginning in the art of the High Renaissance (Appendix 3). Raphael created a "universal image" of a beautiful person, perfect physically and spiritually, embodied the idea of ​​the harmonious beauty of being.

Raphael (more precisely, Raffaello Santi) was born on April 6, 1483 in the city of Urbino. He received his first painting lessons from his father, Giovanni Santi. When Raphael was 11 years old, Giovanni Santi died and the boy was left an orphan (he lost the boy 3 years before the death of his father). Apparently, over the next 5-6 years, he studied painting with Evangelista di Piandimeleto and Timoteo Viti, minor provincial masters.

The first works of Raphael known to us were performed around 1500 - 1502, when he was 17-19 years old. These are miniature-sized compositions “Three Graces”, “Dream of a Knight”. These simple-hearted, still student-timid things are marked by subtle poetry and sincerity of feeling. From the very first steps of creativity, Raphael's talent is revealed in all its originality, his own artistic theme is outlined.

The best works of the early period include the Conestabile Madonna. Compositions depicting the Madonna and Child brought Raphael wide fame and popularity. The fragile, meek, dreamy Madonnas of the Umbrian period were replaced by more earthly, full-blooded images, their inner world became more complex, rich in emotional shades. Raphael created a new type of depiction of the Madonna and Child - monumental, strict and lyrical at the same time, gave this topic an unprecedented significance.

He glorified the earthly existence of man, the harmony of spiritual and physical forces in the paintings of the stanzas (rooms) of the Vatican (1509-1517), achieving an impeccable sense of proportion, rhythm, proportions, harmony of color, unity of figures and the majesty of architectural backgrounds. There are many images of the Mother of God ("Sistine Madonna", 1515-19), artistic ensembles in the murals of the Villa Farnesina (1514-18) and the loggias of the Vatican (1519, with students). In portraits, he creates the ideal image of a Renaissance man (Baldassare Castiglione, 1515). Designed the Cathedral of St. Peter, built the Chigi Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo (1512-20) in Rome.

Raphael's painting, its style, its aesthetic principles reflected the worldview of the era. By the third decade of the 16th century, the cultural and spiritual situation in Italy had changed. Historical reality destroyed the illusions of Renaissance humanism. The revival was coming to an end. 5

Conclusion

During the Renaissance, interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome arose, which prompted Europe to change, which marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time. This period was not only a time of “revival” of the ancient past, it was a time of discoveries and research, a time of new ideas. Classical examples inspired new thinking, emphasizing the human personality, the development and manifestation of abilities, and not their limitations, which was characteristic of the Middle Ages. Training and Scientific research were no longer exclusively the work of the church. New schools and universities arose, natural science and medical experiments were carried out. Artists and sculptors strove in their work for naturalness, for a realistic recreation of the world and man. Classical statues and human anatomy were studied. Artists began to use perspective, abandoning the planar image. The objects of art were the human body, classical and modern subjects, as well as religious themes. Capitalist relations were emerging in Italy, and diplomacy began to be used as a tool in relations between city-states. Scientific and technological discoveries, such as the invention of the printing press, contributed to the spread of new ideas. Gradually, new ideas took possession of the whole of Europe.

(XIV-XVI/XVII centuries) ... this is a great contribution to art Renaissance.TITANS HIGH RENAISSANCE SALEONARDO DA VINCI end... his unique contribution to era Renaissance and created their own masterpieces. AT culture XV-XVI centuries ...

For a hundred years after the death of Giotto, there was not a single artist in Florence as gifted as he. The best of the subsequent masters were aware of their inferiority, but they saw no other way than to strengthen the copying and distortion of Giotto. Giotto was ahead of his time, and only a hundred years later another Florentine - Masaccio (1401-1428) - raised art to an even higher level.

Less than ten years of creativity were released to him by fate. But even in this short time, he managed to make, according to his contemporaries, "a real revolution in painting." In Florence, he painted two of the largest cathedrals - the church of Santa Maria Novella and the Brancacci chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine.

Giotto's successor, Masaccio, always sought to build space according to the laws of perspective, conveying real volumes on a plane. But his innovation was not limited to the development of perspective. He was attracted by the image of the surrounding world, the imitation of natural nature. Art critic A.K. Dzhivelegov noted the innovative nature of his work: “Painting before Masaccio and painting after Masaccio are two completely different things, two different eras. Giotto discovered the secret of conveying the sensations of a person and a crowd. Masaccio taught to portray man and nature ... He completely freed himself from stylization. The mountains are no longer pointed, ledge pebbles, but real mountains. Either they take on the soft outlines of the spurs of the Apennines ... or they form into a harsh rocky landscape ... The land on which people stand is a real plane, on which one can really stand and which the eye can trace to the background. Trees and vegetation in general are no longer props, now stylized, now simply invented, but nature itself... collapse. Masaccio began to see how everything was happening in reality. Then conditional poses, and unnatural facts, and a fictional landscape fell away by themselves.

The main subjects of the paintings by Masaccio were the life and deeds of the apostles, Jesus Christ, scenes of the creation of the world. Such are the frescoes "The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise" (1427-1428) [Appendix 3] and "The Miracle with the Stater" (1427-1428) [Appendix 4] in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine. One of Masaccio's early paintings, Madonna and Child with Angels [Appendix 5], was conceived as the centerpiece of a large altarpiece for the church of Santa Maria del Carmine. On a high throne, placed in a deep niche, Mary sits with a baby in her arms. The golden background, the halos on the heads, the cascading discounts of clothing give a special solemnity to the image depicted. In the picture, the novelty of the artistic solution is striking. None of the masters of the XV century. there is no such clarity in the transfer of the depth of space, "achieved due to the geometrically precise reduction in the size of the throne. The figures are naturally inscribed in the architectural space with a Gothic arch and classical columns of the throne.

"Trinity" [Appendix 6] is one of the last and perfect creations of Masaccio, in which a completely new interpretation of the plot of the Old Testament Trinity was proposed. In three-dimensional space, the artist shows the real figures of God the Father, Christ and the Holy Spirit, symbolically embodying the image of the world created by the human mind. In the ability to distribute light and shadows, in creating a clear spatial composition, in the volume and tangibility of the figures, Masaccio in many ways surpasses his contemporaries. Showing the naked body of Christ, he gives him ideal, heroic features, exalts his power and beauty, glorifies the strength of the human spirit. Inside the chapel at the foot of the cross are the Virgin Mary and the Apostle John. The face of the mother of Christ, devoid of the usual beauty, is turned to the viewer. Being a link between God and man, she points to the crucified Son with a restrained gesture of her hand. In this generally static composition, Mary's gesture is the only movement that symbolically organizes space. In front of the arch, at the entrance to the chapel, kneeling man and woman are depicted in profile - the commissioners of the murals for the church.

The artistic unity of Masaccio, just like that of the great Giotto, the founder of the new Italian painting, was not identical with reality, but was something that stood above it, something that should not be a copy of this reality. This phenomenon becomes clearer when analyzing the image of individual figures than the entire composition as a whole. And the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel in this respect most of all reflect new era. A gigantic chasm separates the powerful figures of Christ and his disciples from the graceful costumed puppets of the works of the immediately preceding period. Gone are not only the precious fashion robes and entertaining details, but also all attempts to influence the viewer with the help of plausibility in the transfer of real objects taken from reality: the fresco captures the timeless, eternally human existence that arises before us in the same way as in Giotto, and again - completely different than his. Usually this difference is defined as a different sense of form. What can be seen in Masaccio's frescoes is typicality, exalted through intensive study of nature. The real forms underlying the old iconographic schemes turned out to be so enriched with new knowledge that they no longer appear to be dead formulas, but living people. Far from the slender and graceful images depicted in lively movement of the late trecento period, these figures remind us of the powerful characters of Giotto. Just as in ancient art, here the heaviness and lifelessness of the body are overcome with the help of vital energy, and this balance is the source of a new sense of form and the source of what should be the most important content of the artistic representation of the human figure. And at the same time, this is the overcoming of the Gothic.

The characters of Masaccio are much more independent than the characters of Giotto, therefore they are full of a new understanding of human dignity, expressed in all their appearance. This understanding is based on the reflection of a certain spiritual force, it is also based on the awareness of Masaccio's heroes of their own power and free will. Therein lies the moment of some of their isolation. For to whatever extent all these characters participate sacred history in the events depicted, yet they are characterized not only by their attitude to these events, but also by their own individual significance, which gives them the character of solemnity. But this isolation is also expressed in the compositional role of individual figures. Giotto dismembered into separate figures the traditional medieval mass group of participants in some event; in Masaccio, on the contrary, groups are built from separate, completely independent figures. Each of these figures seems to be absolutely free in its position in space and in its plastic volume. The whole artistic process proceeds with Masaccio differently than in the art of the period preceding it. Giotto, like medieval artists, in his compositions starts from a general concept, in which individual figures are assigned certain functions of content and form that determine their character. Masaccio's compositions are endowed with a special originality - it is characteristic that, despite all the achievements in the depiction of figures and spatial environment, their connection with each other has not become closer than before, but, on the contrary, has weakened.

The image of a landscape segment of space has become more consistent with sensory experience. Those occasional advances in perspective during the trecento period are replaced by a universal and more accurate system of perspective. In Giotto, everything - both space and figures - consists of one piece and is built as a kind of unity, here the plane and space are inextricably intertwined. This absolute unity, which closes all the elements of the composition and creates a solid structure of the work, is replaced by Masaccio (and even more so by his followers) with somewhat conditional connections. This can be seen in the division of the image into three scenes. As a result, there is a dualism of figure and space. This dualism is even more striking in the later masters of the Quattrocento period than in Masaccio, in whom the Giotta composition is felt somewhat stronger; in later masters, this dualism leads to the opposition of the landscape background and the figures in the plane. This dualism is based on the fact that the body and space appear as separate complexes of visual means. As a result, the paintings become a juxtaposition of space and individual figures, and figures, as the most important component of this complex unity, have an advantage.

Without this fact, it is impossible to achieve an understanding of the nature of the development of art in the Quattrocento period. Compositional rules during the entire fifteenth century change to a small extent - accordingly, very few sketches of compositions have survived - but on the other hand, in the depiction of figures and in the depiction of space, there is a continuous intensive progress, which is evidenced not only by finished works, but - to a much greater extent - Numerous sketches and drawings. The great deed of the Renaissance was not the “discovery of the world and man”, but the discovery of material patterns. Proceeding from this discovery, which is in close contact with the ancient understanding of the world, the meaning and content of the entire subsequent development of art now consisted in the task of a new understanding of the image and a new conquest of the world. The image of a person as the most important and responsible complex should have come to the forefront of artistic interests, and it is in this area that further improvement of the new style can be observed. How short is the period of time allotted by Masaccio to create frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, just as great is the progress made during this period.

In the narrow fresco "St. Peter Healing with His Shadow" [Appendix 7], Peter, immersed in his thoughts, accompanied by St. John, passes through the quarter of the poor, and his shadow heals the sick, located near the wall of the house. The excitement of the sick - it is represented by various shades, is as beautiful in design as the majestic tread of the saint is beautiful. The saint's robes - just like those of Giotto - still touch the ground, which, however, Masaccio usually avoided. to more clearly characterize the motives of rest and movement. But also baggy clothes, in the image of which only rare folds within the boundaries of large planes create plastic animation, are reminiscent of Giotto. Signs of the realism of late trecento art can also be found in the second scene, which depicts Saints Peter and John distributing alms. This time, the outskirts of the city are depicted: the streets end here, and only a few buildings precede the field. The poor gathered here to receive modest gifts from the saints. Nothing like this, of course, has ever happened before in Italian painting: due to their grandeur and free style, they resemble classical dressed figures and testify to the fact that the desire to depict clothing in its natural function led the artist not only to imitate antique models, but also to comprehend the artistic the meaning of ancient clothing. And not only this greatness, but also the concept of beauty and perfection underlying it - this can be taught to us by the fresco located above the one described above and depicting St. Peter performing the rite of baptism. This event takes place in a desert mountainous area, the powerful forms of which emphasize the significance of the scene. The converts gathered in a semicircle around the saint, who was about to be baptized in the water of a kneeling man. Already throughout the 15th century, the figure of a naked, seemingly shivering youth among the witnesses of baptism has been admired, but the group of St. Peter and the kneeling one deserves more attention. Giotto in "The Baptism of Christ" [Appendix 8] depicted a naked Savior: the figure of a standing haggard man; in the fresco by Masaccio, a beautiful male body is again introduced into art, similar to antique statue introduced the classical ideal of bodily beauty and perfection. Masaccio seems to have used an antique model when depicting the body - and yet, despite some contradictions that become noticeable only upon careful study, the whole figure of the kneeling figure is perceived as a whole as a free competition with the ancient depiction of the naked body. In order to enter into such a competition with equal forces, it was still lacking, however - and this is evidenced by the "Expulsion from Paradise" [Appendix 3] - the exact knowledge of a living organism. The heavy, hopeless tread of people leaving lost bliss behind the gates seems clumsy; overcoming this constraint was the problem that had to be solved. Masaccio acquired knowledge of the anatomy of the human body by working with nature and studying works of classical sculpture; he abandoned in his work the decorativeness and conventionality inherent in Gothic art. The figures, the three-dimensionality of which is conveyed through powerful light-and-shadow modeling, are correlated in scale with the landscape around them, painted taking into account the light-air perspective.

Thus, we can conclude that Masaccio was a great master who understood the essence of painting, he was highly gifted with the ability to convey tactile value in artistic images.

Masaccio was a worthy successor to Giotto, whose art he knew well and carefully studied. Giotto introduced him to monumental forms, taught him to depict what is important and significant from the standpoint of high artistic unity. The art of Masaccio contains the entire program of the new Renaissance painting - man as the center of the universe

Unlike Giotto, a characteristic feature of Masaccio's work is a more accurate study of nature. He is also the first in painting to depict a naked body and gives a person heroic features. In the painting of a later time one can find a greater perfection of detail, but it will not have the former realism, strength and persuasiveness. Masaccio acquired knowledge of the anatomy of the human body by working with nature and studying works of classical sculpture; he abandoned in his work the decorativeness and conventionality inherent in Gothic art.

Masaccio is characterized by a rational, three-dimensional, space built according to the rules of perspective, light and shade processing of the form, making it convex and voluminous, strengthening the plasticity of the form through color. The figures, the three-dimensionality of which is conveyed through powerful light-and-shadow modeling, are correlated in scale with the landscape around them, painted taking into account the light-air perspective.

Masaccio was a great master who understood the essence of painting, he was highly enlightened by the ability to convey tactile value in artistic images. The concept of the artist is expressed by the statement of one of his contemporaries: a fresco or a painting is a window through which we see the world.

Conclusion

In the Renaissance, painting was expected to depict new people, destined for great purposes. The object of close attention of historians is still one of the main centers of Renaissance culture - Florence. After all, it was in it earlier than in other city-states that the preconditions for a change in cultural epochs were formed, Renaissance humanistic ideas were born, and writers, artists, architects, and sculptors created their greatest creations. And in it, social life pulsated unusually intensely, drawing in almost the entire adult male population, for whom the concerns of education, upbringing, and culture were far from the last.

The psychological climate of urban life influenced the worldview guidelines of the Italian Renaissance culture. New maxims began to prevail in merchant morality oriented towards secular affairs - the ideal of human activity, energetic personal efforts, without which it was impossible to achieve professional success, and this step by step led away from church ascetic ethics, which sharply condemned the desire for hoarding. The lower urban environment was the most conservative, it was in it that the traditions of medieval folk culture were firmly preserved, which had a certain impact on the culture of the Renaissance.

Giotto's innovation manifested itself in three main features of his work, which his followers then continued to develop. On the one hand, the beauty of the lines was improved, various fusions of colors were used. On the other hand, the narrative element is of great importance. Likewise, figures and scenes borrowed from life are associated with a poetic understanding of the whole, and thus many realistic motives also flow from this source, such as truthfulness in the depiction of nature, etc. Giotto's very understanding of man was in harmony with nature. For Giotto, the image of movement and action is important. The grouping of figures and their gestures are completely subordinate to the meaning of the depicted. With a line and chiaroscuro, expressing the full significance of the event, with gazes turned to the sky or lowered, gestures that speak without words, based on the simplest painting technique, without knowledge of anatomy, Giotto gives an image of movement.

Masaccio is like Giotto, but Giotto was born a century later and found himself in favorable artistic conditions. He showed Florentine painting the path along which it went until its decline. This path lies in the ability to distribute light and shadows, in creating a clear spatial composition, in the power with which he conveys volume, Masaccio is far superior to Giotto. In the painting of a later time one can find a greater perfection of detail, but it will not have the former realism, strength and persuasiveness.

Masaccio took the next decisive step after Giotto in creating a collective image of a person who is now freed from the religious and ethical background and imbued with a new, truly secular worldview. He used the possibilities of chiaroscuro in a new way, simulating a plastic form.

In general, the Renaissance phenomenon is a very multifaceted phenomenon in the cultural development of Europe, the core of which was a new worldview, a new self-awareness of man. During this period, art develops as rapidly as it has never developed before. Each artist adds something of his own, his own unique feature to the development of painting of this period. Therefore, great works of art, created even in a distant era, not only do not lose their significance, but acquire new shades in understanding their content, moral and ethical issues. Artistic forms, understood from the standpoint of modern times, the universal values ​​contained in them, excite at all times.

Bibliography:

Argan Dis. K. History of Italian Art Per. with it. In 2 t. Under scientific ed. V.D. Daisina - M: Ed. Rainbow, 1990.- 319p.

Berestovskaya D.S. Artistic culture of the Renaissance. - Simf., 2002.- 143 p.

Bernson B. Painters of the Italian Renaissance, trans. from English. Belousova N. A., Teplyakova I. P. - M.; Ed. B.S.G.-Press, 2006.-

Bragina L.M. Italian humanism- M.: Higher. School, 1977.- 252 p.

Burkhard J. Culture of Italy in the Renaissance.

Gukovsky M.A. Italian Renaissance. - L.: LSU, 1990.-618 p.

Dvorak M., History of Italian Art in the Renaissance. T.1. – M.: Ed. Art, 1971. - 392 p.

Dmitrieva I. A., Short story arts. – M.: Ed. Art. - 1991. - 318 p.

Lazarev V.N., General history of arts. - T. 3. - M.: Ed. Art. - 1962. - 510 p.

Lazarev V.N. Beginning of the Early Renaissance in Italian art. - M.: Ed. Art, 1979. - 200 p.

Longhi R., From Cimabue to Morandi. – M.: Ed. Rainbow. - 1984. - 352 p.

Nesselshtraus G. Ts., History of Art of Foreign Countries. Middle Ages. Renaissance. – M.: Ed. Art, 1982. - 418 p.

Stepanov A.V., Art of the Renaissance. Italy XIV-XV century. -SPb.: Ed. The alphabet is a classic. - 2003. - 500 p.

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Appendix 1. Giotto "Kiss of Judas".

Fresco.

Appendix 2. Giotto "Lamentation of Christ"

Fresco.
Scrovegni Chapel (Capella del Arena), Padua

Appendix 3. Masaccio "The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise."

Fresco.

Appendix 4. Masaccio "The Miracle with the Stater"

Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine (Brancacci Chapel), Florence

www.school.edu.ru

Appendix 5. Masaccio "Madonna and Child with Angels"

Wood, tempera.
National Gallery, London

www.school.edu.ru

Appendix 6. Masaccio "Trinity"

Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence

www.school.edu.ru

Appendix 7. Masaccio "Saint Peter healing with his shadow"

Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine (Brancacci Chapel), Florence

www.school.edu.ru

Appendix 8. Giotto "The Baptism of Christ"

Fresco.
Scrovegni Chapel (Capella del Arena), Padua

www.school.edu.ru

1. Art era Renaissance (4)

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Abstract on the topic: " Art era Renaissance" Performed by a student of the EK group - ... - XIII - XIII-XIV centuries), Early rebirth(quattrocento XIV-XV centuries.), High ... surrealists. The largest master of the Northern Renaissance in pictorial art was Albrecht Dürer. ...

2. Culture of the era Renaissance renaissance

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   Giovanni Pisano. to the begining ART EARLY REVIVAL In the first decades of the 15th century, art Italy is going strong... , almost portrait. it typical feature art early Renaissance conditioned by the desire of the artist to free himself from...

3. Culture of the era Renaissance XIV-XVI XVII centuries.

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   ... art Early Renaissance was complex, contradictory, and this contradiction led him forward. AT art Early Renaissance, ... improved oil technique. Venetian art completes the development art early

Everyone knows that it was Italy that was the heart of the entire Renaissance period. Great masters of the word, brush and philosophical thought appeared in each of the culture in Italy demonstrates the emergence of traditions that will develop in subsequent centuries, this period became the starting point, the beginning great era development of creativity in Europe.

Briefly about the main

The art of the Early Renaissance in Italy covers the period from approximately 1420 to 1500, preceding and completing the Proto-Renaissance. As with any transitional period, these eighty years are characterized by both ideas that preceded and new ones, which, nevertheless, are borrowed from the distant past, from the classics. Gradually, the creators got rid of medieval concepts, shifting their attention to ancient art.

However, despite the fact that for the most part they sought to return to the ideals of a forgotten art, both in general and in particular, ancient traditions were nevertheless intertwined with new ones, but to a much lesser extent.

Italian architecture during the early renaissance

The main name in the architecture of this period is, of course, Filippo Brunelleschi. He became the personification of Renaissance architecture, organically embodying his ideas, he managed to turn projects into something bewitching, and, by the way, until now, his masterpieces have been carefully guarded for many generations. One of his main creative achievements It is customary to consider buildings located in the very center of Florence, the most remarkable of which are the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore and the Pitti Palace, which became the starting point of Italian architecture of the Early Renaissance.

To others important achievements the Italian Renaissance also applies which is located near the main square of Venice, the palaces in Rome by the hands of Bernardo di Lorenzo and others. During this period, the architecture of Italy seeks to organically combine the features of the Middle Ages and the Classics, striving for the logic of proportions. An excellent example of this statement is the Basilica of San Lorenzo, again by Filippo Brunelleschi. In other European countries, the Early Renaissance did not leave such striking examples.

Artists of the Early Renaissance

Results

The culture of the Early Renaissance in Italy, although striving for the same thing - to display the classics through the prism of naturalness, but the creators follow different paths, leaving their names in the Renaissance culture. Many great names ingenious masterpieces and a complete rethinking of not only artistic, but also philosophical culture - all this was brought to us by a period that foreshadowed other stages of the Renaissance, in which established ideals found their continuation.