Subtext is a special kind of information transfer. The meaning of the word subtext in the dictionary of literary terms

Dictionary of linguistic terms

subtext

Verbally unexpressed, implied meaning of the statement.

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

subtext

hidden, other than direct meaning utterances, the meaning that is restored on the basis of the context, taking into account the non-speech situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor through intonation, pause, facial expressions, and gesture.

Rb: language. Visual and expressive means +

structure of a dramatic work.

Genre: psychological drama, psychological novel

Ass: context

* "Subtext prepares the reader for further development action, to sharp, turning points plot. It is thanks to the subtext that the denouement, no matter how unexpected it may seem, is always artistically conditioned, truthful. The subtext for the psychological novel is especially characteristic, psychological novel, psychological drama (L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, G. Ibsen, T. Mann, E. Hemingway) "(D.L. Chavchanidze). *

Gasparov. Entries and extracts

subtext

♦ What is enough to reveal the subtext? So that two points coincide: a word and a word, a word and a rhythm, etc. It is already possible to draw one straight line through two points - and, by the way, there are a lot of curves (Yu. Levin agreed.) NN. instead, he takes many points and draws many parallel lines through them, for example, to Rozanov: a pattern, but not the same.

♦ (With Yu. Shcheglov.) The acmeistic game of subtexts is nothing but the former humor freed from comedy (like Mayakovsky's punning rhyme). At the beginning of evolution there were montages of platitudes in the mouths of Chekhov's heroes, at the end - postmodernist absurdities and L. Rubinstein. " Soviet humor was on quotes that revealed the deadness of official clichés, especially mutually exclusive ones, also like Mayakovsky's: "learn from the classics of the accursed past."

♦ Subtext - and when, in fact, did this word come into the language? Ushakov doesn't have it yet.

♦ When Oleg strokes and pats the horse's neck, is there any subtext from Derzhavin "a grain of sand can be a pearl: stroke me and pat me", and if so, what does this add to the meaning of Pushkin?

♦ Batenkov has a line “And feeling will not understand feelings”, which Mandelstam copies in “And the heart of the heart be ashamed”, although under Mandelstam this text by Batenkov was not yet published. (Noted by M. Shapir). The ancients call this: there was a common Hellenistic source. - Yazykov has the lines “Blessed is the divine poet: the world puts into his science a diverse ear will give birth ..”, but Nekrasov did not read them: the message “A. M. Yazykov” (1828) publ. only in 1913. - R. Thorpusman, translating Catullus, found in the Poem of the Air side by side two reminiscences from Cat. 46: praetrepidans pre-chill of bliss and aequinoctianus at the storm of the equinox. Tsvetaeva did not know Latin. - In Tsvetaeva herself in "Phaedra" the pre-final maid's line "It's not a pity to hang yourself on a good tree" copies the last line of the parabasis in "The Frogs" 736 in the lane. Piotrovsky, published only later: "And it's not a pity to hang yourself on a good tree!" (It is unlikely that Piotrovsky, while preparing the book published in 1930, had time to get acquainted with Sovr. Zap. 1928). I did not find their common Hellenistic source somewhere in Dahl's proverbs.

♦ Akhmatova: "Do not look back, for the fire of Sodom is behind you" - a phrase from M. Schwob. "Happy new year, new grief" - the phrase was in Shengeli's letters to Shkapskaya (1920s). And their common subtext is Severyanin 1908: "With the new year of the world of grief, With new grief ahead! Oh, don't expect happiness, joy, or sympathy! .." resin on the logs like a tear."

♦ Even the serial cover of the Guild of Poets (and the first one by Akhmatova) is a copy from Bryusov's Urbi et orbi. That's why Akhmatova hated Bryusov.

♦ …And unconscious protest

I was looking for a different subtext in everything.

(A. Parpara, "Deed", 1984, 17)

♦ I told R. Timenchik that the "black sun" long before Nerval and others was in the 9th satire of Horace, where the hero's eyes darkened from the annoying interlocutor; he replied: "We have already stopped collecting these subtexts." Nevertheless, here is another one: "The Black Sun (Stories of a Tramp)" by Alexander Voznesensky, M., 1913 This is Voznesensky (real name Brodsky), who worked in the cinema after the revolution; accidentally meeting him, Mayakovsky called him: "Well, Voznesensky, read your poems!" - "Why, Vl. Vl., you do not like poetry?" - "I do not like poetry, but I love poetry" (RGALI).

♦ The most perfect example of the use of subtext is the anecdote about a Jew who reduced the text of a telegram (or sign) to zero.

♦ The logical limit has been reached: L. F. Katsis declares Dahl's dictionary as the subtext of "The Unknown Soldier" (De visu, 1994, 5).

♦ 5-st. the anapaest of "905" - not from the frozen verse of "The Rupture", as I thought before, but from the romance of S. Safonov: "It was a long time ago ... I don't remember when it was ... They swept like visions, and sunk into eternity of the year. The weary heart has now forgotten about the past, etc.

♦ "Under Nizami, to become a poet, one had to know by heart 40,000 lines of classics and 20,000 lines of contemporaries." It turns out that it was also said: to know by heart 10,000 lines and forget them. So that they generate subtext.

♦ L. Okhitovich translated into "Atta Troll" a paraphrase from Schiller with a paraphrase from Bryusov "Maybe everything in life is a means For melodious-bright stanzas", D.S. Usov doubted whether it was worth it (archive of the State Academy of Arts).

♦ Folk Russian song (M. Ozhegova) "I lost my ring" comes from Barberina's aria "I lost my pin".

♦ "Every honest cliche dreams of ending his life in famous poetry" - quoted in C. Kelly, 220.

♦ "Reveal the subtexts of one's own erudition."

Subtext in a work of art

Introduction

The text as a whole has become an object linguistic research only in the second half of the twentieth century, thanks to the works of V. Dressler, H. Isenberg, P. Hartman, G.A. Zolotova, I.R. Galperin, G.Ya. Solganika and others. However, in various fields humanitarian knowledge, scientific (philosophy, literary criticism, etc.) and practical (literature, theater, legal practice), gradually accumulated experience in working with the text, made observations on its structure and patterns of functioning. After the text was comprehended as a linguistic unit (a unit of language or speech), and not just as a set of such units, it became necessary to comprehend the whole set of already accumulated data in linguistic terms, include them in the system of linguistic knowledge. One of such concepts of "pre-linguistic textual science", generated by literary and theatrical practice, was the concept of subtext. For the first time, it was required to explain the innovative poetics of A.P. Chekhov and their adequate representation on the stage. Therefore, it is not surprising that one of the first this term began to use such great innovators of the theater of the twentieth century as K.S. Stanislavsky and E.V. Vakhtangov. The latter, for example, explained the meaning of this word to the actors in this way: “If someone asks you what time it is, he can ask this question under various circumstances with different intonations. The one who asks may not want ... to know what time it is , but he wants, for example, to let you know that you have stayed too long and that it is already late. Or, on the contrary, you are waiting for the doctor, and every minute ... the road ... you need to look for the subtext of each phrase "(Conversations ... 1940, 140). From the above explanation it is clear that E.V. Vakhtangov calls subtext both implicit information that does not follow directly from the text of the utterance, and the situation in which the phenomenon of the "multidimensional" meaning of the phrase arises. Such a syncretic, undifferentiated idea of ​​the essence of a phenomenon is natural and typical for practical knowledge, however, does not meet the criteria of scientific knowledge. That is why the researchers who made the text the object of their study faced the problem scientific definition subtext essence. The first step in determining the status of subtext as a linguistic concept was to find out which side of the text as a sign should be described using this term. In the literature on the text, one can come across points of view according to which the subtext can be considered both as a fact of the formal structure of the text, and as a semantic phenomenon, and as a pragmatic phenomenon, and even as a "semiological phenomenon, including both adjacent parts of a given part of the text, and the situation, thanks to which a new meaning arises" (Myrkin 1976, 87). The last definition, which combines the semantics and the form of the text, seems to bear traces of pre-scientific syncretism, and therefore it is not surprising that it did not become generally accepted; moreover, V.Ya. Myrkin literally immediately gives the following definition: "This second meaning of the text, which is more important than the first, is called the subtext" (Myrkin 1976, 87), thereby attributing the subtext to the semantic structure of the text. Considering subtext as part semantic structure text is the most common in the works of linguists studying the text. This point of view will be analyzed in the first part of the abstract. However, it seems appropriate to analyze alternative concepts in order to take into account the possibilities for describing the subtext provided by these points of view and ignored by the dominant concept. This will be the subject of the second part of this work. The third part will consider the question of whether subtext should be considered a special category of text. Finally, the fourth part will briefly characterize the currently known ways of expressing subtext.

1. Semantic concepts of subtext.

For concepts that relate to the semantic approach in the interpretation of subtext, it is typical to use the terms "meaning", "content", "information", as well as the characteristics "deep", "hidden", "indefinite", "vague" and other : "Subtext - hidden meaning statements arising from the relation verbal meanings with context and especially - speech situation"(Khalizev 1968, 830); "Subtext is ... that true (author's, deep) meaning of the statement (text), which is not fully expressed in the "fabric" of the text, but which is present in it, can be revealed and understood when referring to concrete analysis and to the whole situation of communication, the structure of communication"" (Kozhina 1975, 63); "Subtext, or the implicit content of an utterance, is content that is not directly embodied in the usual lexical and grammatical meanings linguistic units that make up the statement, but is extracted or can be extracted during its perception" (Dolinin 1983, 40). In all the above definitions, subtext is defined as implicit information (the terms "sense", "content" in this case act as synonyms, although there the point of view that these terms should be divorced: "The meaning of the text is a generalization, this is the generalized content of the text, the essence of the text, its main idea, what it was created for. The content of the text is the manifestation of this essence in its specific referential form, in the form of its language expression" (Referovskaya 1989, 157). One way or another, these definitions interpret subtext as that aspect of the semantic structure of the text that is intended for intellectual perception, which, according to V.A. enclosed in the directly perceived structure of the object, another, hidden, coming from model of a given object of information" (Zvegintsev 1976, 298). It should be noted that it does not follow from the above definitions that the meaning that forms the subtext differs in any way from the explicit meaning of the text: this difference refers only to the mode of expression (and, consequently, the mode of perception). The subtext in the concept of I.R. Galperin, which has become one of the most popular text concepts in Russian linguistics. The researcher starts with a fairly traditional definition of subtext as additional information , "which arises due to the reader's ability to see the text as a combination of linear and supralinear information", and considers subtext as such an organization of SPU, "which excites a thought that is not organically related to presupposition or implication" (Galperin 1981, 47). Although in this case, I.R. Galperin speaks about the organization of the text, which may lead to the assumption that he considers the subtext as an aspect of the formal organization of the text, but the researcher has in mind the semantic structure, the interaction of the meanings of the parts of the statement. However, further I.R. Galperin introduces the concept of "content-subtext information" (SPI), as opposed to the concepts of "content-factual" and "content-conceptual information" (SFI and SCI, respectively): "SFI is a description of facts, events, scenes, time of this action, the author's reasoning, the movement of the plot ... SKI ... is an expression of the author's worldview, the main idea of ​​​​the work. SPI, on the other hand, is the second message plan, hidden, optional information arising from the interaction of SFI and SKI: "subtext is a kind of" dialogue "between the content-factual and content-conceptual sides of information; two streams of messages running in parallel - one, expressed by linguistic signs , the other, created by the polyphony of these signs - at some points they converge, complement each other, sometimes come into conflict" (Galperin 1981, 48). This theoretical solution raises several questions. First of all, the researcher, introducing the term "content-subtext information", actually separates the subtext as part of the semantic structure of the text, the method of organizing the text content plan, and the information transmitted in this way - the STS itself. Perhaps such a distinction is expedient, but in this case, the possibility of including factual, conceptual and subtextual information in one conceptual series is doubtful, since the first two concepts are opposed primarily on a qualitative basis (this opposition can be considered as the implementation of a general linguistic (and even general semiotic) opposition " denotative \ significative meaning), while subtext information is opposed to them primarily by the way it is presented in the text as implicit information - explicit. It seems more reasonable to consider the oppositions "factual \ conceptual" and "explicit \ implicit" as independent characteristics of the content of the text, which in The result is a classification grid of four cells. Such a solution is all the more convenient, since it allows describing subtext information in terms of "factual" \ "conceptual", which seems quite natural, but was impossible when opposing STS to other types of information. The mechanism by which subtext arises is not entirely clear. If in one place the subtext is defined as a "dialogue" between SFI and SPI, in another it is possible that SFI may arise in connection only with "facts, events reported earlier"; in general, the role of SCI in generating subtext is described indistinctly. Another ambiguity in the concept of I.R. Halperin lies in the fact that the researcher is inconsistent in determining by whose efforts the subtext is created. On the one hand, when describing the subtext of I.R. Galperin points to a special organization of the text (more precisely, parts of the text - SPU or sentences, since "the subtext exists only in relatively small segments of the utterance"), which means that it arises due to the actions of the speaker. This point of view on subtext as "encoded" content created by the addresser and only guessed by the addressee is quite traditional - it is enough to point to the above definition of subtext given by M.I. Kozhina. At the same time, the researcher defines subtext as information "that arises due to the reader's ability to see the text as a combination of linear and supralinear information", and thus transfers the function of generating subtext to the addressee. This point of view also has its supporters - suffice it to point to another definition of subtext given at the beginning of this chapter - the definition belonging to K.A. Dolinin. However, these points of view, obviously, contradict each other, and they can be combined only if such an understanding of the process of generation and perception of the text is found, which will allow, to some extent, to identify the positions of the speaker and the listener. Unfortunately, in the work of I.R. Galperin does not have such a new understanding, and therefore the inconsistency in the interpretation of the sources of subtext raises questions that remain unanswered. Nevertheless, the work of I.R. Galperin today still remains one of the most complete and profound studies of the problem of text in general and subtext in particular. Particularly valuable points of his conception are the distinction between factual and conceptual information, the distinction (though not always observed by the researcher himself) of the subtext as part of the semantic structure of the text and "subtext" (implicit) information, and the description of some methods of generation (or still decoding? ) subtext.

The subtext of the work is special variety allegory, artistic allusion. To understand a "phrase with subtext" means to perceive not only what is said directly, literally, but also what the author meant, what he kept silent about. Disclosing the subtext thus implies the indispensable active co-creation of the reader, thinking, conjecture. Figuratively speaking, the reader must guess the picture by a few strokes that guide his imagination, fill in art space, which the author deliberately left blank. So, for example, behind Akhmatov's "I'm on right hand put on / The glove on the left hand "we feel the tremendous emotional tension of the heroine of the poem, we recreate her psychological state, although not a word is directly said about it, but only a hint is given - an external, everyday detail.

Hemingway compared literary work with an iceberg that has only one-seventh of it on the surface and everything else is hidden. But in order for the reader to be able to reveal the subtext of the work, his imagination must be appropriately excited and directed. Subtext is possible only when the text itself has received a certain organization. In what is written, the reader must feel the inconsistency, the inexhaustibility of the meaning, and at the same time find enough milestones and dashes to unravel the hint correctly, to create in his imagination the image that the writer is counting on.

The subtext of the work enriches the visual and expressive possibilities artistic word, allows you to vividly and visibly present in the work those life phenomena that are impossible or inappropriate to speak directly. That is why it is most often needed for the image mental life person, to recreate complex psychological states. Direct naming of psychological processes often deprives them of subtlety and originality, coarsens and straightens the internal state. Subtext avoids this danger.

For example, in Simonov's novel The Living and the Dead, the commander, talking with Serpilin, constantly looks him straight in the face, and the moment when he left the encirclement, he recalls, "for the first time, looking not in front of him, but to the side" . With this inconspicuous detail, Simonov very clearly shows us how hard it was for people in the environment, how hard it is for the commander to remember this now, and how much this memory, as they say, “stuck into the soul” - in essence, you always experience it alone with yourself, even if there is an interlocutor nearby; you experience it as something deeply personal, and you even involuntarily avert your eyes, plunging into these memories. Psychological drawing too complex to designate it with exhaustive clarity; the subtext of the work often turns out to be artistically more convincing and emotionally impressive than the direct image.

Particularly relevant psychological image with the help of subtext in a drama where the narrator's speech is absent. If the hero himself tells us about his inner state, this most often does not give the impression of authenticity, but sometimes it may sound completely comical. Epikhodov or Ranevskaya in Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard can say to themselves that they are suffering - this produces a comic impression corresponding to the author's intention. But Lopakhin, for example, or Varya cannot talk about their suffering aloud - this would destroy the psychological appearance of these characters and change author's attitude to them, - but behind their everyday, outwardly calm dialogue, we feel precisely suffering - deeply hidden and that is why it arouses sincere sympathy.

Sometimes subtext in literature is used not only to convey internal state, but also to create plot episodes or external pictures. Here, for example, is how the heroine's suicide is depicted in Pushkin's poem " Prisoner of the Caucasus”: “Suddenly the waves rustled dully, / And a distant groan is heard ... / He goes out onto the wild shore, / Looks back, the shores cleared up / And, plump, turned white; / But there is no young Circassian woman / Neither by the shores, nor under the mountain. ../ Everything is dead... on the shores of the sleeping ones/ Only a light sound is heard of the wind,/ And in the moonlight splashing in the waters/ The streaming circle disappears.

This is an example of the use of subtext in plot construction works. And here is a landscape picture drawn by Tvardovsky with the help of subtext: "The Christmas tree has become more noticeable in the forest."

Here the subtext has a slightly different function. In the first case, he creates a romantic flavor, an enlightened elegiac mood, removing excessive detail and naturalism that would run counter to the general romantic structure of poetry. In the second case, the subtext creates a bright poetic image that instantly rises before the eyes, “refreshing” the perception. autumn forest, yellow trees, against which a green Christmas tree stands out sharply.

In the subtext, especially expressing the psychological state, it is very important that the author's hint be sufficiently understandable, and on the other hand, it should not be revealed too easily and prosaically. It is equally bad when a simple state, easily accessible to a direct image, is masked by subtext, and when the meaning is so encrypted that it is not clear what, in fact, is behind the author's hint and whether there is anything at all. Both cause a feeling of pretentiousness, prettiness, false significance, which, of course, greatly reduces artistic value works.

The topic of my essay is connected with the desire to explore how the subtext expresses the author's intention in the work of A.P. Chekhov. I was also interested in the opinion of well-known Russian critics about how, in their opinion, this technique helps the writer to reveal the main ideas of his works.

In my opinion, the study of this topic is interesting and relevant. I think it is important to know exactly how A.P. Chekhov built his works, “encrypting” the main thoughts in the subtext. To understand this, you need to analyze the work of Chekhov.

How can the author convey his intention with the help of subtext? I will investigate this issue in this work, based on the content of some of the works of A.P. Chekhov and the point of view of literary critics, namely: Zamansky S.A. and his work “The Power of Chekhov’s Subtext”, the monograph by Semanova M.L. “Chekhov - artist", the book of Chukovsky K. I. "About Chekhov", as well as research

M. P. Gromov "The Book of Chekhov" and A. P. Chudakov "Poetics and Prototypes".

In addition, I will analyze the composition of the story "The Jumper" in order to understand how the subtext affects the structure of the work. And also on the example of the story "The Jumper", I will try to find out what other artistic techniques the writer used in order to most fully realize his idea.

It is these questions that are of particular interest to me, and I will try to cover them in the main part of the essay.

First, let's define the term "subtext". Here is the meaning of this word in various dictionaries:

1) subtext - the inner, hidden meaning of any text, statement. (Efremova T.F. "Explanatory Dictionary").

2) subtext - internal, hidden meaning of the text, statements; content that is embedded in the text by the reader or artist. (Ozhegov S.I. "Explanatory Dictionary").

3) subtext - in literature (mainly fiction) - a hidden meaning, different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context, taking into account the situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor with the help of intonation, pause, facial expressions, and gesture. ("Encyclopedic Dictionary").

So, summarizing all the definitions, we come to the conclusion that the subtext is the hidden meaning of the text.

S. Zalygin wrote: “Subtext is good only if there is an excellent text. Understatement is appropriate when a lot has been said. Literary critic M. L. Semanova in the article “Where there is life, there is poetry. About Chekhov's titles" in the work of A.P. Chekhov says: "The well-known words of Astrov at the map of Africa in the finale of Uncle Vanya ("And it must be in this very Africa now it's hot - a terrible thing") cannot be understood in their hidden sense, if readers, viewers do not see the dramatic state of Astrov, a talented, large-scale person, whose opportunities are curtailed by life and not realized. The psychological implication of these words should become clear only “in the context” of Astrov’s previous state of mind: he learned about Sonya’s love for him and, not responding to her feelings, can no longer stay in this house, especially since he unwittingly hurt Voynitsky, carried away by Elena Andreevna, who happened to be a witness to her meeting with Astrov.

The subtext of the words about Africa is also guessed in the context of Astrov’s momentary state: he had just parted forever with Elena Andreevna, perhaps he had just realized that he was losing dear people(Sonya, Voinitsky, nanny Marina) that ahead is a series of bleak, agonizing, monotonous years of loneliness. Astrov is emotionally disturbed; he is embarrassed, sad, does not want to express these feelings, and he hides them behind a neutral phrase about Africa (you should pay attention to the author's remark to this action: "There is a map of Africa on the wall, apparently, no one here needs it").

By creating such a stylistic atmosphere in which hidden connections, unsaid thoughts and feelings can be adequately perceived by the author's intention by the reader, the viewer, awakening the necessary associations in them, Chekhov increased the reader's activity. “In understatement,” writes the famous Soviet film director

G. M. Kozintsev about Chekhov, - lies the possibility of creativity that arises in readers.

The well-known literary critic S. Zamansky speaks about the subtexts in the work of A.P. Chekhov: “Chekhov's subtext reflects the hidden, latent, additional energy of a person. Often this energy has not yet been determined enough to break out, to manifest itself directly, directly ... But always, in all cases, the “invisible” energy of the hero is inseparable from those of his specific and completely precise actions that make it possible to feel these latent forces. .. And Chekhov's subtext is read well, freely, not by the arbitrariness of intuition, but on the basis of the logic of the hero's actions and taking into account all the accompanying circumstances.

After analyzing the articles on the role of subtext in Chekhov's works, we can conclude that with the help of the veiled meaning of his works, Chekhov actually reveals to readers inner world each of the characters, helps to feel the state of their souls, their thoughts, feelings. In addition, the writer awakens certain associations and gives the reader the right to understand the experiences of the characters in his own way, makes the reader a co-author, awakens the imagination.

In my opinion, elements of subtext can also be found in the titles of Chekhov's works. Literary critic M. L. Semanova in her monograph on the work of A. P. Chekhov writes: “The titles of Chekhov indicate not only the object of the image (“The Man in the Case”), but also convey the angle of view of the author, hero, narrator, on whose behalf ( or “in the tone” of which) the narration is being conducted. In the titles of works there is often a coincidence (or discrepancy) author's assessment portrayed and assessed by the narrator. "Joke", for example, is the name of the story, which is conducted on behalf of the hero. This is his understanding of what happened. The reader, on the other hand, guesses another - the author's - height of understanding: the author is not at all funny about the desecration of human trust, love, hope for happiness; for him, what happened to the heroine is not a “joke” at all, but a hidden drama.

So, having studied the articles of literary critics on the work of A.P. Chekhov, we see that the subtext can be found not only in the content of Chekhov's works, but in their titles.

Literary critic M. P. Gromov, in an article devoted to the work of A. P. Chekhov, writes: “Comparison in mature Chekhov's prose is as common as in early<…>". But his comparison is “not just a stylistic move, not decorating rhetorical figure; it is meaningful because it is subordinate common plan- and in separate story, and in general the structure of Chekhov's narrative.

Let's try to find comparisons in the story "The Jumper": "He himself is very handsome, original, and his life, independent, free, alien to everything worldly, like the life of a bird (about Ryabovsky in Chapter IV). Or: “They would ask Korostelev: he knows everything and it’s not for nothing that he looks at his friend’s wife with such eyes, as if she is the main, real villainess , and diphtheria is only her accomplice ”(Chapter VIII).

M. P. Gromov also says: “Chekhov had his own principle of describing a person, which was preserved with all genre variations of the narrative in a separate story, in the whole mass of stories and short stories that form a narrative system ... This principle, apparently, can be defined as follows: the more fully the character's character is coordinated and merged with the environment, the less human is in his portrait ... ".

As, for example, in the description of Dymov at death in the story "The Jumper": " Silent, resigned, incomprehensible creature, depersonalized by its meekness, spineless, weak from excessive kindness, suffered deafly somewhere there on the couch and did not complain. We see that the writer, with the help of special epithets, wants to show readers the helplessness, weakness of Dymov on the eve of his imminent death.

After analyzing the article by M. P. Gromov on artistic techniques in Chekhov's works and considering examples from Chekhov's story "The Jumper", we can conclude that his work is based primarily on such figurative and expressive means of language as comparisons and special ones, peculiar only to A P. Chekhov epithets. It was these artistic techniques that helped the author create subtext in the story and realize his idea.

Let's draw some conclusions about the role of subtext in the works of A.P. Chekhov and put them in the table.

In my work, I examined and analyzed the questions that interest me, related to the theme of subtext in the work of A.P. Chekhov, and discovered a lot of interesting and useful things for myself.

So, I got acquainted with a new technique for me in literature - a subtext that can serve the author to embody his artistic intention.

In addition, having carefully read some of Chekhov's stories and studied the articles literary critics, I was convinced that the subtext has a great influence on the reader's understanding of the main idea of ​​the work. This is primarily due to giving the reader the opportunity to become a "co-author" of Chekhov, develop their own imagination, "think out" what is left unsaid.

I discovered that subtext affects the composition of a piece. On the example of Chekhov's story "The Jumper" I became convinced that at first glance, insignificant, small details can contain a hidden meaning.

Also, after analyzing the articles of literary critics and the content of the story "The Jumper", I came to the conclusion that the main artistic devices in the work of A.P. Chekhov are comparisons and vivid, figurative, accurate epithets.

These findings are reflected in the final table.

So, having studied the articles of literary critics and having read some of Chekhov's stories, I tried to highlight the issues and problems that I stated in the introduction. Working on them, I enriched my knowledge about the work of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.

1. Viduetskaya I. P. In the creative laboratory of Chekhov. - M .: "Nauka", 1974;

2. Gromov MP The book about Chekhov. - M.: "Contemporary", 1989;

3. Zamansky S. A. The power of Chekhov's subtext. - M.: 1987;

4. Semanova M. L. Chekhov - artist. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1971;

5. Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (4th ed.) - M .: “ Soviet Encyclopedia", 1990;

6. Schoolchildren's reference book on literature. - M .: "Eksmo", 2002;

7. Chekhov A. P. Stories. Plays. - M .: "AST Olympus", 1999;

8. Chudakov A. P. In the creative laboratory of Chekhov.- M .: "Nauka",

9. Chukovsky K. I. About Chekhov. - M .: "Children's Literature", 1971;

Word " symbol " derived from Greek word symbolon, which means "conditional language". In ancient Greece, this was the name given to halves of a stick cut in two, which helped their owners to recognize each other, wherever they were. Symbol- an object or word conditionally expressing the essence of a phenomenon.

Symbol contains a figurative meaning, in this it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Metaphor is a more direct assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another. Symbol much more complex in structure and meaning. The meaning of the symbol is ambiguous and it is difficult, often impossible to fully reveal. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint, allowing only to guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much with reason as with intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world of the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination. An explicit, objective plan and a hidden, deep meaning coexist in the symbolist image. The symbolists are especially fond of the spiritual spheres. They seek to penetrate them.

subtext - implicit meaning, which may not coincide with the direct meaning of the text; hidden associations based on the repetition, similarity or contrast of individual elements of the text; emerges from the context.

Detail - an expressive detail in a work that carries a significant semantic and emotional load. Artistic details: furnishings, appearance, landscape, portrait, interior.

1.10. Psychologism. Nationality. Historicism.

In any work of art, the writer one way or another tells the reader about the feelings, experiences of a person. But the degree of penetration into the inner world of the individual is different. The writer can only record some feeling of the character (“he got scared”), without showing the depth, shades of this feeling, the reasons that caused it. This depiction of a character's feelings cannot be considered psychological analysis. Deep penetration into the inner world of the hero, a detailed description, analysis of various states of his soul, attention to the shades of experiences is called psychological analysis in literature(often called simply psychologism ). Psychological analysis appears in Western European literature in the second half of the 18th century (the era sentimentalism when epistolary and diary forms are especially popular. At the beginning of the 20th century, in the works of Z. Freud and C. Jung, the foundations of the depth psychology of the personality were developed, the conscious and unconscious beginnings were discovered. These discoveries could not but influence literature, in particular, the work of D. Joyce and M. Proust.

First of all, they talk about psychologism when analyzing an epic work, since it is here that the writer has the most means of depicting the inner world of the hero. Along with the direct statements of the characters, there is the speech of the narrator, and you can comment on this or that remark of the hero, his act, reveal the true motives of his behavior. This form of psychology is called summarily denoting .

In cases where the writer depicts only the features of the behavior, speech, facial expressions, appearance of the hero. it indirect psychologism, since the inner world of the hero is shown not directly, but through external symptoms, which may not always be unambiguously interpreted. The methods of indirect psychologism include various details of a portrait (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), a landscape (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), an interior (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), etc. Psychological methods also include default. Analyzing in detail the behavior of the character, the writer at some point does not say anything at all about the experiences of the hero and thus forces the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself. For example, Turgenev's novel "The Nest of Nobles" ends like this: "They say Lavretsky visited that remote monastery where Lisa had hidden - he saw her. Moving from choir to choir, she walked close past him, walked with the even, hastily-submissive gait of a nun - and did not look at him; only the eyelashes of the eye turned to him quivered a little, only she tilted her emaciated face even lower - and the fingers of her clenched hands, intertwined with a rosary, pressed even more tightly to each other. What did they both think they felt? Who will know? Who will say? There are such moments in life, such feelings ... You can only point at them - and pass by. Liza's gestures make it difficult to judge her feelings, it is only obvious that she has not forgotten Lavretsky. How Lavretsky looked at her remains unknown to the reader.

When the writer shows the hero "from the inside", as if penetrating into the consciousness, the soul, directly showing what happens to him at one time or another. This type of psychology is called direct . The forms of direct psychologism can include the speech of the hero (direct: oral and written; indirect; internal monologue), his dreams. Let's consider each in more detail.

In a work of art, the speeches of the characters are usually given a significant place, but psychologism arises only when the character detail talks about his experiences, expresses his views on the world. For example, in the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky's heroes begin to speak extremely frankly with each other, as if confessing everything. It is important to remember that characters can communicate not only verbally, but also in writing. Written speech is more thoughtful, there are much less violations of syntax, grammar, logic. All the more they are significant, if appear. For example, a letter from Anna Snegina (the heroine of the poem of the same name by S.A. Yesenin) to Sergei is outwardly calm, but at the same time unmotivated transitions from one thought to another are striking. Anna actually confesses her love to him, because she writes only about him. She does not speak directly about her feelings, but transparently hints at it: "But you are still dear to me, / Like a homeland and like spring." But the hero does not understand the meaning of this letter, therefore he considers it "unreasonable", but intuitively understands that Anna, perhaps, has been in love with him for a long time. It is no coincidence that after reading the letter the refrain changes: at first, “We are all in these years loved, // But they didn't love us enough”; then “We all loved during these years, // But, it means, // They loved us too.”

When a hero communicates with someone, questions often arise: to what extent is he frank, does he pursue some goal, does he want to make the right impression, or vice versa (like Anna Snegina) hide his feelings. When Pechorin tells Princess Mary that he was originally good, but he was spoiled by society, and as a result, two people began to live in him, he tells the truth, although at the same time, perhaps, he thinks about the impression that his words will make on Mary.

In many works of the 19th century, individual thoughts of the hero are found, but this does not mean that the writer deeply and fully reveals his inner world. For example, Bazarov, during a conversation with Odintsova, thinks: “You are flirting<...>, you miss me and tease me because I have nothing to do, but to me ... ”The hero’s thought breaks off“ at the most interesting place, ”what exactly he is experiencing remains unknown. When the detailed reflection of the hero is shown, natural, sincere, spontaneous, internal monologue , which preserves the character's speech style. The hero thinks about what worries him most, when he needs to make some important decision. are revealed main topics, problems internal monologues of a character. For example, in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace, Prince Andrei often reflects on his place in the world, on great people, on public problems, and Pierre - about the structure of the world as a whole, about what truth is. Thoughts are subject to the internal logic of the character, so you can trace how he came to a particular decision, conclusion. This technique was called N.G. Chernyshevsky the dialectic of the soul : “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts spill out of others, it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arises from this provision or impressions, subject to the influence of memories and the power of the combinations represented by the imagination, pass into other senses, return again to the same point, and again and again wander, changing, along the whole chain of memories; like a thought born first sensation, leads to other thoughts, gets carried away further and further, merges dreams with real sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.

Distinguish from internal monologue mindflow , when the thoughts and experiences of the hero are chaotic, not ordered in any way, there is absolutely no logical connection, the connection here is associative. This term was introduced by W. James, the most bright examples its use can be seen in the novel by D. Joyce "Ulysses", M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time". It is believed that this technique was discovered by Tolstoy, using it in special occasions when the hero is half asleep, half delirious. For example, through a dream, Pierre hears the word “harness”, which he turns into “conjugate”: “The most difficult thing (Pierre continued to think or hear in a dream) is to be able to combine the meaning of everything in his soul. Connect everything? Pierre said to himself. No, don't connect. You can't combine thoughts, but match all these thoughts - that's what you need! Yes, need to match, need to match! Pierre repeated to himself with inner delight, feeling that with these, and only with these words, what he wants to express is expressed, and the whole question that torments him is resolved.

- Yes, you need to pair, it's time to pair.

- It is necessary to harness, it is time to harness, Your Excellency! Your Excellency, - repeated a voice, - it is necessary to harness, it's time to harness ... ”(Vol. 3. Part 3, Ch. IX.)

In "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky dreams Raskolnikov help to understand the change in his psychological state throughout the novel. First, he has a dream about a horse, which is a warning: Raskolnikov is not a superman, he is able to show sympathy.

In the lyrics, the hero directly expresses his feelings and experiences. But the lyrics are subjective, we see only one point of view, one look, but the hero can tell in great detail and sincerely about his experiences. But in the lyrics, the feelings of the hero are often indicated metaphorically.

In a dramatic work, the state of the character is revealed primarily in his monologues, which resemble lyrical statements. However, in the drama of the XIX-XX centuries. the writer pays attention to the facial expressions, gestures of the character, captures the shades of intonation of the characters.

HISTORICISM OF LITERATURE- the ability of fiction to convey a living image historical era in concrete human images and events. In a narrower sense, the historicism of a work is related to how faithfully and subtly the artist understands and depicts the meaning of historical events. “Historicism is inherent in all truly artistic works, regardless of whether they depict the present or the distant past. An example is “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg” and “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin ”(A.S. Suleimanov). "The lyric is historical, its quality is determined by the specific content of the era, it draws the experiences of a person of a certain time and environment" ( L. Todorov).

NATIONALITY of literature - the conditionality of literary works by the life, ideas, feelings and aspirations of the masses, the expression in literature of their interests and psychology. Picture of N.l. largely determined by what content is invested in the concept of "people". “The nationality of literature is associated with the reflection of essential folk features, the spirit of the people, its main national characteristics” (L.I. Trofimov). “The idea of ​​nationality opposes the isolation, the elitism of art and orients it towards the priority of universal human values” ( Yu.B.Borev).