What genres of Russian folk art exist. Types and genres of folk songs

The word "folklore", which often refers to the concept of "oral folk art", comes from the combination of two English words: folk - "people" and lore - "wisdom". The history of folklore goes back to ancient times. Its beginning is connected with the need of people to realize the natural world around them and their place in it. This awareness was expressed in the inextricably merged word, dance and music, as well as in works of fine, primarily applied, art (ornaments on dishes, tools, etc.), in jewelry, objects of religious worship ... From the depths of centuries they came to us and myths that explain the laws of nature, the secrets of life and death in a figurative and plot form. The richest soil of ancient myths still nourishes both folk art and literature.

Unlike myths, folklore is already an art form. Ancient folk art was characterized by syncretism, i.e. indivisibility of different types of creativity. In a folk song, not only words and melody could not be separated, but also the song could not be separated from the dance, the ritual. The mythological background of folklore explains why the oral work did not have a first author. With the advent of "author's" folklore, we can talk about modern history. The formation of plots, images, motives took place gradually and over time was enriched and improved by the performers.

The outstanding Russian philologist Academician A. N. Veselovsky in his fundamental work “Historical Poetics” claims that the origins of poetry lie in the folk ritual. Initially, poetry was a song performed by a choir and invariably accompanied by music and dancing. Thus, the researcher believed, poetry arose in the primitive, ancient syncretism of the arts. The words of these songs were improvised on a case-by-case basis until they became traditional, more or less stable. In primitive syncretism, Veselovsky saw not only a combination of art forms, but also a combination of genres of poetry. “The epic and lyric,” he wrote, “appeared to us as the consequences of the decomposition of the ancient ritual choir” 1 .

1 Veselovsky A. N. Three chapters from "Historical poetics" // Veselovsky A.N. Historical poetics. - M., 1989. - S. 230.

It should be noted that these conclusions of the scientist in our time represent the only consistent theory of the origin of verbal art. "Historical Poetics" by A. N. Veselovsky is still the largest generalization of the gigantic material accumulated by folklore and ethnography.

Like literature, folklore works are divided into epic, lyrical and dramatic. Epic genres include epics, legends, fairy tales, historical songs. Lyrical genres include love, wedding, lullabies, funeral lamentations. To dramatic ones - folk dramas (with Petrushka, for example). The original dramatic performances in Russia were ritual games: seeing off Winter and meeting Spring, elaborate wedding ceremonies, etc. One should also remember about small genres of folklore - ditties, sayings, etc.

Over time, the content of the works underwent changes: after all, the life of folklore, like any other art, is closely connected with history. The essential difference between folklore and literary works is that they do not have a permanent, once and for all established form. For centuries, storytellers and singers have perfected the skill of performing works. Note that today children, unfortunately, usually get acquainted with the works of oral folk art through a book and much less often - in a live form.

Folklore is characterized by natural folk speech, striking with richness. means of expression, melodiousness. Well-developed laws of composition with stable forms of the beginning, the development of the plot, and the ending are typical for a folklore work. His style gravitates towards hyperbole, parallelisms, constant epithets. Its internal organization has such a clear, stable character that even changing over the centuries, it retains its ancient roots.

Any work of folklore is functional - it was closely connected with one or another circle of rituals, performed in a strictly defined situation.

The whole set of rules of folk life was reflected in oral folk art. The folk calendar accurately determined the order of rural work. The rituals of family life contributed to harmony in the family, and included the upbringing of children. The laws of the life of the rural community helped to overcome social contradictions. All this is captured in various types of folk art. An important part of life is holidays with their songs, dances, games.

Oral folk art and folk pedagogy. Many genres of folk art are quite accessible to the understanding of young children. Thanks to folklore, the child more easily enters the world around him, more fully feels the charm of his native land.

childbirth, assimilates people's ideas about beauty, morality, gets acquainted with customs, rituals - in a word, along with aesthetic pleasure, absorbs what is called the spiritual heritage of the people, without which the formation of a full-fledged personality is simply impossible.

Since ancient times, there have been many folklore works specially intended for children. This type of folk pedagogy has played a huge role in the upbringing of the younger generation for many centuries and up to the present day. Collective moral wisdom and aesthetic intuition worked out the national ideal of man. This ideal harmoniously fits into the global circle of humanistic views.

Children's folklore. This concept fully applies to those works that are created by adults for children. In addition, this includes works composed by the children themselves, as well as passed on to children from the oral creativity of adults. That is, the structure of children's folklore is no different from the structure of children's literature.

By studying children's folklore, one can understand a lot in the psychology of children of a particular age, as well as reveal their artistic preferences and level of creative abilities. Many genres are associated with the game, in which the life and work of the elders are reproduced, therefore, the moral attitudes of the people, their national traits, features of economic activity.

In the system of genres of children's folklore, a special place is occupied by "nurturing poetry", or "mother's poetry". These include lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, jokes, fairy tales and songs created for the little ones. Let us first consider some of these genres, and then other types of children's folklore.

Lullabies. At the center of all "maternal poetry" is the child. He is admired, he is cherished and cherished, decorated and amused. Essentially, it is the aesthetic object of poetry. In the very first impressions of a child, folk pedagogy lays a sense of the value of one's own personality. The baby is surrounded by a bright, almost ideal world, in which love, goodness, and universal consent reign and win.

Gentle, monotonous songs are necessary for the transition of the child from wakefulness to sleep. From this experience, a lullaby was born. Here the innate maternal feeling and the sensitivity to the peculiarities of age, organically inherent in folk pedagogy, affected. In lullabies, everything that a mother usually lives in is reflected in a softened playful form - her joys and worries, her thoughts about the baby, dreams about his future. In her songs for the baby, the mother includes what is understandable and pleasant to him. This is a "gray cat", "red shirt", " a piece of cake and a glass of milk"," crane-

face "... There are usually few words-concepts in a choduel room - you

Fundamental;! Gsholpptok;

without which the primary knowledge of the surrounding world is impossible. These words also give the first skills of native speech.

The rhythm and melody of the song were obviously born from the rhythm of the rocking of the cradle. Here the mother sings over the cradle:

How much love and ardent desire to protect your child is in this song! Simple and poetic words, rhythm, intonation - everything is directed to an almost magical spell. Often a lullaby was a kind of spell, a conspiracy against evil forces. One can hear in this lullaby echoes of both ancient myths and the Christian faith in the Guardian Angel. But the most important thing in the lullaby for all time remains the poetically expressed care and love of the mother, her desire to protect the child and prepare for life and work:

A frequent character in a lullaby is a cat. He is mentioned along with fantastic characters - Dream and Sandman. Some researchers believe that the mention of it is inspired by ancient magic. But the point is also that the cat sleeps a lot - so he should bring the baby sleep.

Often mentioned in lullabies, as well as in other children's folklore genres, and other animals and birds. They speak and feel like people. Giving an animal human qualities is called anthropomorphism. Anthropomorphism is a reflection of ancient pagan beliefs, according to which animals were endowed with a soul and mind and therefore could enter into a meaningful relationship with a person.

Folk pedagogy included in the lullaby not only good helpers, but also evil, scary, sometimes not even very understandable ones (for example, the sinister Buku). All of them needed to be appeased, conjured, "taken away" so that they would not harm the little one, and maybe even help him.

A lullaby has its own system of expressive means, its own vocabulary, its own compositional structure. Short adjectives are frequent, complex epithets are rare, there are many transfers.

Baiushki bye! save you

From every cry, From all sorrows, From all misfortunes: From the crowbar, From the evil man - the Adversary.

And have mercy on you, your Angel - your Guardian, From every eye,

You will live and live, Do not be lazy to work! Bayushki-bayu, L yulyushki-lyul yu! Sleep sleep at night

Yes, grow by the clock, You will grow big - You will begin to walk in St. Petersburg, Wear silver and gold.

owls of stresses from one syllable to another. Prepositions, pronouns, comparisons, whole phrases are repeated. It is assumed that the ancient lullabies did without rhymes at all, - the “bayush-naya” song kept its smooth rhythm, melody, and repetitions. Perhaps the most common type of repetition in a lullaby is alliteration, i.e., the repetition of identical or consonant consonants. It should also be noted the abundance of petting, diminutive suffixes - not only in words addressed directly to the child, but also in the names of everything that surrounds him.

Today we have to speak with regret about the oblivion of tradition, about the ever-increasing narrowing of the circle of lullabies. This is mainly because the inseparable unity of "mother-child" is broken. Yes, and medical science raises doubts: is motion sickness useful? So the lullaby goes out of the life of babies. Meanwhile, a connoisseur of folklore V.P. Anikin appreciated her role very highly: “The lullaby is a kind of prelude to the musical symphony of childhood. By singing songs, the baby's ear is taught to distinguish the tonality of words, the intonational structure of native speech, and the growing child, who has already learned to understand the meaning of some words, also masters some elements of the content of these songs.

Pestushki, nursery rhymes, jokes. Like lullabies, these works contain elements of the original folk pedagogy, the simplest lessons in behavior and relationships with the outside world. Pestushki(from the word "nurture" - educate) are associated with the earliest period of a child's development. The mother, undressing him or freeing him from clothes, strokes the little body, unbends the arms and legs, saying, for example:

Sweating goose ki - sips ki, Across - fat women, And in the legs - walkers, And in the hands - grabs, And in the mouth - a talker, And in the head - intelligence.

Thus, pestles accompany physical procedures, necessary for the child. Their content is associated with specific physical actions. The set of poetic means in pests is also determined by their functionality. Pestushki are concise. “The owl is flying, the owl is flying,” they say, for example, when they wave the child’s hands. “The birds flew, sat on their heads,” the child’s arms fly up to their heads. Etc. There is not always a rhyme in pests, and if there is, then most often a pair. The organization of the text of pestles as a poetic work is also achieved by repeated repetition of the same word: “Geese flew, swans flew. Geese flew, swans flew ... "To the pestles

peculiar playful conspiracies are close, for example: "Water from a goose, and thinness from Yefim."

Nursery rhymes - a more developed game form than pestles (although they also have enough elements of the game). Rhymes entertain the baby, create a cheerful mood in him. Like pestles, they are characterized by rhythm:

Tra-ta-ta, tra-ta-ta, A cat married a cat! Kra-ka-ka, kra-ka-ka, He asked for milk! Dla-la-la, dla-la-la, The cat didn’t give!

Sometimes nursery rhymes only entertain (like the one above), and sometimes they instruct, give the simplest knowledge about the world. By the time the child can perceive meaning, and not just rhythm and musical mode, they will bring him the first information about the plurality of objects, about the account. A small listener gradually extracts such knowledge from a game song. In other words, it presupposes a certain mental tension. So thought processes begin in his mind.

Forty, forty, the first - porridge,

White-white-sided, Second - mash,

Cooked porridge, Third - beer,

She invited guests. The fourth - wine,

Porridge on the table, And the fifth got nothing.

And the guests - to the yard. Shu, shoo! She flew away, sat on her head.

Perceiving the initial score through such a rhyme, the child is also puzzled by why the fifth did not get anything. Maybe because he doesn't drink milk? That's because the goat butts for it - in another nursery rhyme:

Who does not suck on a pacifier, Who does not drink milk, Togo - boo! - care! I'll put it on the horns!

The instructive meaning of the nursery rhyme is usually emphasized by intonation, gestures. The child is also involved. Children of the age to whom the nursery rhymes are intended cannot yet express in speech all that they feel and perceive, therefore they strive for onomatopoeia, for repetitions of the words of an adult, for a gesture. Thanks to this, the educational and cognitive potential of nursery rhymes is very significant. In addition, in the mind of the child there is a movement not only to master the direct meaning of the word, but also to the perception of rhythmic and sound design.

In nursery rhymes and pestushkas, there is invariably such a trope as metonymy - the replacement of one word with another based on the connection of their meanings by adjacency. For example, in famous game“Okay, okay, where have you been? - At the grandmother's, with the help of synecdoche, the child's attention is drawn to his own hands 1.

joke they call a small funny work, a statement or just a separate expression, most often rhymed. Entertaining rhymes and jokes exist outside the game (unlike nursery rhymes). The joke is always dynamic, filled with energetic actions of the characters. We can say that in the joke, the basis of the figurative system is precisely the movement: “Knocks, strums along the street, Foma rides a chicken, Timoshka rides a cat - there along the path.”

The age-old wisdom of folk pedagogy is manifested in its sensitivity to the stages of human maturation. The time of contemplation, almost passive listening, passes. To replace her time goes by active behavior, the desire to interfere in life - this is where the psychological preparation of children for study and work begins. And the first funny assistant is a joke. It encourages the child to act, and some of its reticence, innuendo causes the child to have a strong desire to think, fantasize, i.e. awakens thought and imagination. Often jokes are built in the form of questions and answers - in the form of a dialogue. So it is easier for the baby to perceive the switching of action from one scene to another, to follow the rapid changes in the relationships of the characters. Other artistic techniques in jokes are also aimed at the possibility of quick and meaningful perception - composition, imagery, repetitions, rich alliterations and onomatopoeia.

Fables, shifters, absurdities. These are varieties of the joke-exact genre. Thanks to shifters, children develop a sense of the comic precisely as an aesthetic category. This type of joke is also called the "poetry of paradox." Its pedagogical value lies in the fact that by laughing at the absurdity of the fable, the child is strengthened in the correct idea he has already received about the world.

Chukovsky devoted a special work to this type of folklore, calling it "Stupid absurdities." He considered this genre extremely important for stimulating the child's cognitive attitude to the world and very well substantiated why children like absurdity so much. The child constantly has to systematize the phenomena of reality. In this systematization of chaos, as well as randomly acquired scraps, fragments of knowledge, the child reaches virtuosity, enjoying the joy of learning.

1 The pens that visited my grandmother are an example of a synecdoche: this is a kind of metonymy when a part is named instead of the whole.

niya. Hence his increased interest in games and experiments, where the process of systematization, classification is put forward in the first place. A changeling in a playful way helps the child to establish himself in the already acquired knowledge, when familiar images are combined, familiar pictures are presented in a ridiculous mess.

A similar genre exists among other peoples, including the British. The name "Stupid absurdities" given by Chukovsky corresponds to the English "Topsy-turvy rhymes" - literally: "Poems upside down".

Chukovsky believed that the desire to play shifters is inherent in almost every child at a certain stage of his development. Interest in them, as a rule, does not fade away even among adults - then it is no longer the cognitive, but the comic effect of “stupid absurdities” that comes to the fore.

Researchers believe that fairy tales-shifters moved into children's folklore from buffoon, fair folklore, in which an oxymoron was a favorite artistic device. This is a stylistic device consisting in the combination of logically incompatible, opposite in meaning concepts, words, phrases, as a result of which a new semantic quality arises. In adult absurdities, oxymorons usually serve to expose, ridicule, while in children's folklore, with their help, they do not ridicule, do not ridicule, but deliberately seriously narrate about a notorious unbelievable story. The tendency of children to fantasies finds its use here, revealing the proximity of an oxymoron to the thinking of a child.

A barn burns in the middle of the sea. The ship runs across the open field. The men on the street are stabbing 1, They are stabbing - they are catching fish. A bear flies through the skies, waving its long tail!

A technique close to an oxymoron that helps the shifter to be entertainingly funny is perversion, i.e. permutation of the subject and object, as well as the attribution to subjects, phenomena, objects of signs and actions that are obviously not inherent in them:

Look, the gates are barking from under the dog... Children on calves,

The village was passing by a peasant,

In a red sundress

Because of the forest, because of the mountains, Uncle Yegor is riding:

Servants on ducks...

Don, don, dilly don,

Himself on a horse, In a red hat, Wife on a ram,

The cat's house is on fire! A chicken runs with a bucket, It floods the cat's house ...

Zakoly- fences for catching red fish.

The absurd shifters attract with the comedy of scenes, the ridiculous depiction of life's incongruities. This entertaining genre turned out to be necessary for folk pedagogy, and it widely used it.

Rhymes. This is another small genre of children's folklore. Rhythms are called funny and rhythmic rhymes, under which they choose a leader, start the game or some stage of it. Rhyming rhymes were born in the game and are inextricably linked with it.

Modern pedagogy assigns the game an extremely important role in the formation of a person, considers it a kind of school of life. Games not only develop dexterity and ingenuity, but also teach to obey generally accepted rules: after all, any game takes place according to predetermined conditions. The game also establishes the relationship of co-creation and voluntary submission to the game roles. The authoritative here is the one who knows how to follow the rules accepted by all, does not bring chaos and confusion into children's lives. All this is working out the rules of behavior in the future adult life.

Who does not remember the counting rhymes of his childhood: “White hare, where did you run?”, “Eniki, beniki, ate dumplings ...” - etc. The very possibility of playing with words is attractive to children. This is the genre in which they are most active as creators, often bringing new elements to ready-made rhymes.

In the works of this genre, nursery rhymes, pestles, and sometimes elements of adult folklore are often used. Perhaps it is in the internal mobility of the counting rhymes that the reason for their wide distribution and vitality lies. And today you can hear very old, only slightly modernized texts from playing children.

Researchers of children's folklore believe that the counting in the counting rhyme comes from pre-Christian "magic" - conspiracies, spells, encryption of some magic numbers.

G.S. Vinogradov called the rhymes of counting rhymes tender, fervent, a true decoration of counting poetry. The rhyme is often a chain of rhyming couplets. The methods of rhyming here are the most diverse: paired, cross, ring. But the main organizing principle of counting rhymes is rhythm. A rhyme-rhyme often resembles the incoherent speech of an agitated, offended, or struck by something child, so that the apparent incoherence or meaninglessness of the rhymes is psychologically explainable. Thus, the rhyme both in form and in content reflects the psychological characteristics of age.

Tongue Twisters. They belong to the genre of amusing, entertaining. The roots of these works of oral art also lie in ancient times. This is a word game that was part of the compound

join the fun festive entertainment of the people. Many of the tongue twisters that meet the aesthetic needs of the child and his desire to overcome difficulties have become entrenched in children's folklore, although they clearly came from an adult.

The cap is sewn, but not in a cap style. Who would have put the cap on Pereva?

Tongue twisters always include a deliberate accumulation of hard-to-pronounce words, an abundance of alliterations ("There was a ram, white-faced, all the rams were white-faced"). This genre is indispensable as a means of developing articulation and is widely used by educators and physicians.

Undershirts, teasers, sentences, refrains, chants. All these are works of small genres, organic for children's folklore. They serve the development of speech, intelligence, attention. Thanks to the poetic form of a high aesthetic level, they are easily remembered by children.

Say two hundred.

Head in the test!

(Undercoat.)

Rainbow-arc, Don't give us rain, Give us a red sun Kol outskirts!

(Invocation.)

Mishka-pod, Near the ear - a bump.

(Teaser.)

Calls in origin are associated with the folk calendar and pagan holidays. This also applies to sentences close to them in meaning and use. If the former contain an appeal to the forces of nature - the sun, wind, rainbow, then the latter - to birds and animals. These magic spells passed into children's folklore due to the fact that children early joined the work and cares of adults. Later chants and sentences already acquire the character of entertaining songs.

In games that have survived to this day and include incantations, sentences, refrains, traces of ancient magic are clearly visible. These are games held in honor of the Sun (Kolya

dy, Yarila) and other forces of nature. In the chants and choruses accompanying these games, the faith of the people in the power of the word was preserved.

But many game songs are simply cheerful, entertaining, usually with a clear dance rhythm:

Let's move on to larger works of children's folklore - songs, epics, fairy tales.

Russians folk songs play a big role in shaping children's musical ear, taste for poetry, love for nature, for their native land. In the children's environment, the song exists from time immemorial. Children's folklore also included songs from adult folk art - usually children adapted them to their games. There are ritual songs (“And we sowed millet, sowed ...”), historical (for example, about Stepan Razin and Pugachev), lyrical. Nowadays, children often sing songs that are not so much folklore as author's. There are also songs in the modern repertoire that have long lost their authorship and are naturally drawn into the element of oral folk art. If there is a need to turn to songs created many centuries, or even millennia ago, then they can be found in folklore collections, as well as in educational books by K. D. Ushinsky.

Epics. This is the heroic epic of the people. It is of great importance in the education of love for the native history. Epics always tell about the struggle of two principles - good and evil - and about the natural victory of good. The most famous epic heroes - Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich - are collective images that capture the features of real people whose lives and exploits became the basis of heroic narratives - epics (from the word "true") or old. Epics are a grandiose creation of folk art. The artistic conventionality inherent in them is often expressed in fantastic fiction. The realities of antiquity are intertwined in them with mythological images and motifs. Hyperbole is one of the leading devices in epic narration. It gives the characters monumentality, and their fantastic exploits - artistic persuasiveness.

It is important that the fate of the motherland is dearer to the heroes of epics than life, they protect those in trouble, uphold justice, and are full of self-esteem. Taking into account the heroic and patriotic charge of this ancient folk epic, K.D.Ushinsky and L.N.Tolstoy included in children's books excerpts even from those epics that, in general, cannot be attributed to children's reading.

Baba sowed peas -

Baba stood on her toe, And then on her heel, She began to dance Russian, And then squat!

Jump jump, jump jump! The ceiling collapsed - Jump-jump, jump-jump!

The inclusion of epics in children's books is hampered by the fact that they are not completely understandable to children without an explanation of events and vocabulary. Therefore, to work with kids, it is better to use literary retellings of these works, for example, I.V. Karnaukhova (collection "Russian heroes. Epics") and N. P. Kolpakova (collection "Epics"). For an older age, the collection "Epics" compiled by Yu. G. Kruglov is suitable.

Fairy tales. They originated in ancient times. For example, the following fact speaks of the antiquity of fairy tales: in the unprocessed versions of the famous "Teremok", the mare's head, which the Slavic folklore tradition endowed with many wonderful properties, acted as a teremok. In other words, the roots of this tale go back to Slavic paganism. At the same time, fairy tales testify not at all to the primitiveness of the people's consciousness (otherwise they could not have existed for many hundreds of years), but to the ingenious ability of the people to create a single harmonious image of the world, linking everything that exists in it - heaven and earth, man and nature, life and death. Apparently, the fairy-tale genre turned out to be so viable because it is perfect for expressing and preserving fundamental human truths, the foundations of human existence.

Telling fairy tales was a common hobby in Rus', they were loved by both children and adults. Usually the narrator, narrating about events and heroes, reacted vividly to the attitude of his audience and immediately made some corrections to his narration. That is why fairy tales have become one of the most polished folklore genres. They also meet the needs of children in the best way, organically corresponding to child psychology. The craving for goodness and justice, faith in miracles, a penchant for fantasies, for the magical transformation of the world around - all this the child joyfully meets in a fairy tale.

In a fairy tale, truth and goodness certainly triumph. A fairy tale is always on the side of the offended and oppressed, no matter what it tells. It clearly shows where the correct life paths of a person go, what is his happiness and unhappiness, what is his retribution for mistakes, and how a person differs from a beast and a bird. Each step of the hero leads him to the goal, to the final success. You have to pay for mistakes, and having paid, the hero again gets the right to good luck. In such a movement of fairy-tale fiction, an essential feature of the worldview of the people is expressed - a firm belief in justice, in the fact that a good human principle will inevitably defeat everything that opposes it.

In a fairy tale for children, there is a special charm, some secrets of the ancient worldview are revealed. They find in the fairy tale narrative on their own, without explanation, something very valuable for themselves, necessary for the growth of their consciousness.

An imaginary, fantastic world turns out to be a reflection of the real world in its main foundations. A fabulous, unusual picture of life gives the baby the opportunity to compare it with reality, with the environment in which he himself, his family, people close to him exist. This is necessary for developing thinking, as it is stimulated by the fact that a person compares and doubts, checks and convinces. The fairy tale does not leave the child an indifferent observer, but makes him an active participant in what is happening, experiencing every failure and every victory together with the characters. The tale accustoms him to the idea that evil in any case must be punished.

Today, the need for a fairy tale seems especially great. The child is literally overwhelmed by an ever-increasing flow of information. And although the susceptibility of the psyche in babies is great, it still has its limits. The child becomes overtired, becomes nervous, and it is the fairy tale that frees his mind from everything unimportant, unnecessary, concentrating on the simple actions of the characters and thoughts about why everything happens this way and not otherwise.

For children, it doesn’t matter at all who the hero of the fairy tale is: a person, an animal or a tree. Another thing is important: how he behaves, what he is - handsome and kind or ugly and angry. The fairy tale tries to teach the child to evaluate the main qualities of the hero and never resorts to psychological complication. Most often, the character embodies one quality: the fox is cunning, the bear is strong, Ivan is lucky as a fool, and fearless as a prince. The characters in the tale are contrasting, which determines the plot: the diligent, reasonable sister Alyonushka was not obeyed by brother Ivanushka, he drank water from a goat's hoof and became a goat - he had to be rescued; the evil stepmother plots against the good stepdaughter... Thus, a chain of actions and amazing fairy-tale events arises.

The tale is built on the principle of a chain composition, which, as a rule, includes three repetitions. Most likely, this technique was born in the process of storytelling, when the narrator again and again provided the listeners with the opportunity to experience a vivid episode. Such an episode is usually not just repeated - each time there is an increase in tension. Sometimes the repetition is in the form of a dialogue; then children, if they play a fairy tale, it is easier to transform into its heroes. Often a fairy tale contains songs, jokes, and children remember them first of all.

The fairy tale has its own language - concise, expressive, rhythmic. Thanks to the language, a special fantasy world is created in which everything is presented large, convex, remembered immediately and for a long time - the characters, their relationships, the surrounding characters and objects, nature. There are no halftones - there is a glu

side, bright colors. They attract a child to them, like everything colorful, devoid of monotony and everyday dullness. /

“In childhood, fantasy,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “is the predominant ability and strength of the soul, its main agent and the first mediator between the spirit of the child and the outside world of reality.” Probably, this property of the child's psyche - a craving for everything that miraculously helps to bridge the gap between the imaginary and the real - explains this interest of children in a fairy tale, which has not been quenched for centuries. Moreover, fairy-tale fantasies are in line with the real aspirations and dreams of people. Let's remember: flying carpet and modern air liners; a magic mirror showing distant distances, and a TV.

And yet most of all attracts children fairy tale hero. Usually this is an ideal person: kind, fair, beautiful, strong; he necessarily achieves success, overcoming all sorts of obstacles, not only with the help of wonderful assistants, but primarily thanks to his personal qualities - intelligence, fortitude, dedication, ingenuity, ingenuity. This is what every child would like to become, and the ideal hero of fairy tales becomes the first role model.

According to the theme and style, fairy tales can be divided into several groups, but usually researchers distinguish three large groups: fairy tales about animals, fairy tales and household (satirical) ones.

Tales about animals. Young children are usually attracted to the world of animals, so they really like fairy tales in which animals and birds act. In a fairy tale, animals acquire human features - they think, speak, and act. In essence, such images bring the child knowledge about the world of people, not animals.

In this kind of fairy tales, there is usually no distinct division of characters into positive and negative ones. Each of them is endowed with any one trait, an inherent feature of his character, which is played out in the plot. So, traditionally, the main feature of the fox is cunning, so it is usually about how she fools other animals. The wolf is greedy and stupid; in a relationship with a fox, he will certainly get into a mess. The bear has a not so unambiguous image, the bear can be evil, but it can also be kind, but at the same time it always remains a klutz. If a person appears in such a fairy tale, then he invariably turns out to be smarter than the fox, and the wolf, and the bear. Reason helps him to win over any opponent.

Animals in a fairy tale observe the principle of hierarchy: everyone recognizes the strongest and the main one. Is it a lion or a bear. They are always at the top of the social ladder. This brings the story closer

ki about animals with fables, which is especially evident from the presence in both of them of similar moral conclusions - social and universal. Children easily learn: the fact that a wolf is strong does not at all make him fair (for example, in a fairy tale story about seven kids). The sympathy of the listeners is always on the side of the just, not the strong.

There are among the tales about animals and quite scary. The bear eats the old man and the old woman because they cut off his paw. An angry beast with a wooden leg, of course, seems terrible to the kids, but in fact he is the bearer of just retribution. The story gives the child the opportunity to understand a difficult situation.

Magic tales. This is the most popular and favorite genre of children. Everything that happens in a fairy tale is fantastic and significant in its task: its hero, falling into one or the other dangerous situation, saves friends, destroys enemies - fights not for life, but for death. The danger seems especially strong, terrible because its main opponents are not ordinary people, but representatives of the supernatural. dark forces: Serpent Gorynych, Baba Yaga, Koshey the Immortal, etc. By winning victories over this evil spirit, the hero, as it were, confirms his high human principle, proximity to the light forces of nature. In the struggle, he becomes even stronger and wiser, makes new friends and gets the full right to happiness - to the great satisfaction of little listeners.

In the plot of a fairy tale, the main episode is the beginning of the hero's journey for the sake of one or another important task. On his long journey, he meets with insidious opponents and magical helpers. Very effective means are at his disposal: a flying carpet, a wonderful ball or mirror, or even a talking animal or bird, a swift horse or wolf. All of them, with some conditions or without them at all, in the blink of an eye fulfill the requests and orders of the hero. They do not have the slightest doubt about his moral right to order, since the task assigned to him is very important and since the hero himself is impeccable.

The dream of the participation of magical helpers in people's lives has existed since ancient times - since the time of the deification of nature, faith in the Sun God, in the ability to invoke light forces with a magic word, witchcraft and ward off dark evil from oneself. " "

Household (satirical) fairy tale is closest to everyday life and does not even necessarily include miracles. Approval or condemnation is always given in it openly, the assessment is clearly expressed: what is immoral, what is worthy of ridicule, etc. Even when it seems like the characters are just fooling around,

amuse listeners, their every word, every action is filled with significant meaning, connected with important aspects of human life.

The constant heroes of satirical tales are "simple" poor people. However, they invariably prevail over the "difficult" - rich or noble person. Unlike the heroes of a fairy tale, here the poor achieve the triumph of justice without the help of wonderful helpers - only thanks to intelligence, dexterity, resourcefulness, and even fortunate circumstances.

For centuries, the everyday satirical tale has absorbed the characteristic features of the life of the people and their relationship to those in power, in particular to judges and officials. All this, of course, was passed on to the little listeners, who were imbued with the healthy folk humor of the narrator. Fairy tales of this kind contain the "vitamin of laughter" that helps the common man to maintain his dignity in a world ruled by bribe-taking officials, unrighteous judges, stingy rich people, arrogant nobles.

In everyday fairy tales, animal characters sometimes appear, and perhaps the appearance of such abstract characters as Truth and Falsehood, Woe-Misfortune. The main thing here is not the selection of characters, but a satirical condemnation of human vices and shortcomings.

Sometimes such a specific element of children's folklore as a changeling is introduced into a fairy tale. In this case, a shift in the real meaning arises, prompting the child to the correct arrangement of objects and phenomena. In a fairy tale, the changeling becomes larger, grows up to an episode, and is already part of the content. Displacement and exaggeration, hyperbolization of phenomena give the baby the opportunity to both laugh and think.

So, a fairy tale is one of the most developed and beloved genres of folklore by children. It is more complete and brighter than any other kind of folk art, it reproduces the world in all its integrity, complexity and beauty. The fairy tale provides the richest food for children's imagination, develops the imagination - this most important feature of the creator in any sphere of life. And the exact, expressive language of a fairy tale is so close to the mind and heart of a child that it is remembered for a lifetime. No wonder interest in this type of folk art does not dry out. From century to century, from year to year, classical recordings of fairy tales and literary adaptations of them are published and republished. Fairy tales are heard on the radio, broadcast on television, staged in theaters, filmed.

However, one cannot fail to say that the Russian fairy tale has been subjected to persecution more than once. The church struggled with pagan beliefs, and at the same time with folk tales. So, in the 13th century, Bishop Sera-Pion of Vladimir forbade "baying fables", and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1649 drew up a special letter with the requirement

Animation to put an end to "telling" and "buffoonery". Nevertheless, already in the XII century, fairy tales began to be recorded in handwritten books, included in the annals. And from the beginning of the 18th century, fairy tales began to appear in “front pictures” - publications where heroes and events were depicted in pictures with captions. But still, this century was severe in relation to fairy tales. Known, for example, are sharply negative reviews of the "peasant's tale" by the poet Antioch Cantemir and Catherine II; largely lie in agreement with each other, they were guided by Western European culture. The 19th century also did not bring the folk tale recognition of the officials of the protective direction. Thus, A. N. Afanasiev’s famous collection “Russian Children’s Tales” (1870) provoked the claims of a vigilant censor as allegedly presenting to the children’s mind “pictures of the most rude self-serving cunning, deceit, theft and even cold-blooded murder without any moralizing notes.”

And not only censorship fought the folk tale. From the middle of the same 19th century, well-known teachers took up arms against her. The fairy tale was accused of being “anti-pedagogical”, they were assured that it retards the mental development of children, frightens them with the image of the terrible, weakens the will, develops gross instincts, etc. Essentially the same arguments were advanced by opponents of this type of folk art both in the last century and in Soviet time. After the October Revolution, leftist educators added that a fairy tale takes children away from reality, arouses sympathy for those who should not be treated - for all sorts of princes and princesses. Some authoritative public figures, such as N. K. Krupskaya, also made similar accusations. Reasoning about the dangers of fairy tales stemmed from the general denial of the value of cultural heritage by revolutionary theorists.

Despite the difficult fate, the fairy tale lived, always had ardent defenders and found its way to children, connected with literary genres.

The influence of the folk tale on the literary tale comes through most clearly in the composition, in the construction of the work. The well-known folklore researcher V.Ya.Propp (1895-1970) believed that a fairy tale strikes not even with fantasy, not with miracles, but with the perfection of composition. Although the author's tale is freer in plot, in its construction it obeys the traditions of the folk tale. But if genre features it is used only formally, if there is no organic perception of them, then the author will fail. It is obvious that mastering the laws of composition that have evolved over the centuries, as well as conciseness, concreteness and the wise generalizing power of a folk tale, means for a writer to reach the heights of authorial art.

It was folk tales that became the basis of the famous poetic tales of Pushkin, Zhukovsky, Ershov, fairy tales in prose

(V.F. Odoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Tolstoy, A.M. Remizov, B.V. Shergin, P.P. Bazhov and others), as well as dramatic tales (S.Ya. Marshak, E. L. Schwartz). Ushinsky included fairy tales in his books "Children's World", "Native Word", believing that no one can compete with the pedagogical genius of the people. Later, Gorky, Chukovsky, Marshak and our other writers spoke passionately in defense of children's folklore. They convincingly confirmed their views in this area by modern processing of ancient folk works and writing literary versions based on them. Excellent collections of literary fairy tales, created on the basis of or under the influence of oral folk art, are published in our time by a variety of publishing houses.

Not only fairy tales, but also legends, songs, epics have become a model for writers. Individual folklore themes and plots have merged into literature. For example, the folk narrative of the 18th century about Yeruslan Lazarevich was reflected in the image of the main character and some episodes of Pushkin's Ruslan and Lyudmila. Lullabies created by folk motives, Lermontov (“Cossack lullaby”), Polonsky (“The Sun and the Moon”), Balmont, Bryusov and other poets have. In essence, “By the Bed” by Marina Tsvetaeva, “The Tale of the Stupid Mouse” by Marshak, and “Lullaby to the River” by Tokmakova are lullabies. There are also numerous translations of folk lullabies from other languages ​​made by famous Russian poets.

Results

Oral folk art reflects the entire set of rules of folk life, including the rules of education.

The structure of children's folklore is similar to the structure of children's literature.

All genres of children's literature have experienced and are experiencing the influence of folklore.

Folklore. Genres of folklore

Folklore(from English folk- people, lore- wisdom) - oral folk art. Folklore arose before the advent of writing. Its most important feature is that folklore is the art of the spoken word. This is what distinguishes it from literature and other forms of art. Another important distinguishing feature of folklore is the collectivity of creativity. It arose as a mass creativity and expressed the ideas of the primitive community and clan, and not of an individual.

In folklore, as in literature, there are three types of works: epic, lyrical and dramatic. At the same time, epic genres have a poetic and prose form (in literature, the epic genre is represented only by prose works: a story, a story, a novel, etc.). Literary genres and folklore genres differ in composition. In Russian folklore, epic genres include epics, historical songs, fairy tales, legends, legends, tales, proverbs, sayings. Lyrical folklore genres are ritual, lullaby, family and love songs, lamentations, ditties. Dramatic genres include folk dramas. Many folklore genres have entered literature: song, fairy tale, legend (for example, Pushkin's fairy tales, Koltsov's songs, Gorky's legends).

Folklore genres each have their own content: epics depict the feats of arms of heroes, historical songs - events and heroes of the past, family songs describe the everyday side of life. Each genre has its own heroes: heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich act in epics, Ivan Tsarevich, Ivan the Fool, Vasilisa the Beautiful, Baba Yaga act in fairy tales, wife, husband, mother-in-law in family songs.

Folklore differs from literature in a special system of expressive means. For example, the composition (construction) of folklore works is characterized by the presence of such elements as the sing-along, the beginning, the saying, the slowing down of the action (retardation), the trinity of events; for style - constant epithets, tautologies (repetitions), parallelisms, hyperbole (exaggerations), etc.

The folklore of different peoples has much in common in terms of genres, artistic means, plots, types of heroes, etc. This is explained by the fact that folklore, as a form of folk art, reflects the general laws of the social development of peoples. Common features in the folklore of different peoples may arise due to the proximity of culture and life or long-term economic, political and cultural ties. A large role is also played by the similarity of historical development, geographical proximity, movement of peoples, etc.

The genres of folk art are diverse. Folklore includes epic, lyrics and drama. Every nation has genres that are common to all world folklore (fairy tales, ballads, proverbs, sayings, riddles, etc.). But some genres of each people have special features inherent only to this people (for example, the heroic epic has the form of a prose narrative with poetic inserts among a number of peoples; among the Russians - an epic song - an epic; among the Spaniards - the form of a romance, etc. ). This determines the originality of the genre composition of national folklore.

Russian folklore includes predominantly epic and lyrical genres; The dramatic genres developed among many peoples (for example, among the Czechs and Slovaks, Chinese, Indonesians, etc.) are relatively poorly represented in Russian folklore.

The main place in the Russian historical epic is occupied by heroic and novelistic songs of ancient Rus' - epics telling about the life of the Russian people mainly in the 11th-16th centuries. They are joined by historical songs, which, in the process of development, are becoming more and more close to folk lyrics. From the middle of the XVI century. up to the 19th and 20th centuries. historical songs passed big way and have changed a lot.

Among the works of folk prose, the main place in Russian folklore is occupied by fairy-tale genres. The Russian fairy tale does not differ in genre composition from the fairy tales of other peoples; the difference lies in a greater or lesser share in the fairy tale repertoire of certain types of fairy tales, as well as in the specifics that are determined by the characteristics of Russian life and life, imprinted in a fairy tale. So, only the existence until the middle of the XIX century. serfdom in Russia can be explained a large number of satirical tales directed against the bar; features religious life people explain Russian legends about saints, anti-priest tales, etc.

Along with fairy tales, a prominent place in Russian folklore is occupied by tales and legends - an epic that tells about the events of real life. It also doesn't stay the same; his path is complex and lengthy - from the saved ancient Russian chronicle legends of Kievan and Novgorod Rus to modern tales, which are difficult to distinguish from the story.

Ritual poetry, subdivided into calendar and family, associated with working life and domestic relations of the Russian village, includes a whole group of genres: songs, lamentations, incantations, proverbs, etc. Some of these genres gravitate towards lyrics, others towards epic.

Actually, lyrical poetry in Russian folklore is represented by the genres of folk songs and ditties. Lyrical genres, different in formal features, comprehensively reveal the personal life of a Russian person over a number of centuries.

Russian folklore is rich in proverbs, sayings, and riddles. These genres, figuratively and aptly characterizing the phenomena of life, summarizing the experience of the people, instructing and instructing a person, occupy a prominent place in creativity.

Russian folklore, as can be seen from what has been said, is very rich in various genres. Folklore genres are a historical and non-class category. Each genre includes works, content

harboring various class tendencies, since genres were used in various social environments to propagate and affirm various moods and ideas. Within the same genre, folk and anti-folk works could be created.

Genres do not exist forever and invariably: they arise, develop and in some cases die off, being replaced by others. So, calendar and family ritual poetry could only arise as an expression of existing beliefs, as an aspiration to magically use the power of word and action. With the disappearance of beliefs, ritual poetry inevitably dies. The heroic epic about the struggle against the Tatar yoke naturally arises in ancient Rus', and subsequently is preserved as an artistic heritage. Genres of working folklore arose and developed in Russia only from the 18th century. in the process of the formation of the working class in the course of its revolutionary struggle. In post-reform Russia, a ditty genre is born that meets the needs of a quick reflection in song poetry of current life. Whatever genre of folk art we take, we will see that it goes through periods of emergence, development, and with a change in the conditions of existence - destruction, oblivion, disappearance. This is a common feature for both folklore and literature. The disappearance of some traditional genres from oral use, however, does not give grounds to talk about the impoverishment of art. With the development of literature, numerous new genres appear, the interaction of which with the traditional re-emerging genres of folklore enriches the art of the artistic word. Changes in the genre composition of folklore and literature are a natural consequence of the process of development of artistic collective and individual creativity.

Genres of Russian folklore

Fairy tales, songs, epics, street performances - all these are different genres of folklore, folk oral and poetic creativity. You can't confuse them, they are different specific features, their role in folk life is different, they live differently in modern times. At the same time, all genres of verbal folklore are characterized by common signs: all of them are works of art of the word, in their origins they are associated with archaic forms of art, they exist mainly in oral transmission, they are constantly changing. This determines the interaction in them of the collective and individual principles, a peculiar combination of traditions and innovation. Thus, the folklore genre is a historically emerging type of oral poetic work. Anikin V.P. gave his characteristics to folklore. Childbirth: epic, lyrics, drama

Types: song, fairy tale, non-fairy prose, etc.

Genres: epic, lyrical, historical song, legend, etc.

Genre is the basic unit of study of folklore. In folklore, genre is a form of exploration of reality. Over time, depending on changes in everyday life, social life people the system of genres developed.

There are several classifications of folklore genres:

Starting to analyze each genre of folklore, let's start with fairy tales.

Fairy tales - ancient genre oral folk art. She teaches a person to live, instills optimism in him, affirms faith in the triumph of goodness and justice.

The tale represents a great public value, consisting in its cognitive, ideological, educational and aesthetic values, which are inextricably linked. Like other peoples (the Russians, perhaps brighter), a fairy tale is an objectified contemplation of the heart of the people, a symbol of his suffering and dreams, the hieroglyphs of his soul. All art is generated by reality. This is one of the foundations of materialistic aesthetics. This is the case, for example, with a fairy tale, the plots of which are caused by reality, i.e. era, social and economic relations, forms of thinking and artistic creativity, psychology. It, as well as all folklore in general, reflected the life of the people, their worldview, moral, ethical, socio-historical, political, philosophical, artistic and aesthetic views. She is closely associated with folk life and rites. Traditional Russian fairy tales were created and circulated mainly among the peasantry. Their creators and performers were usually people with great life experience, who traveled a lot in Rus', who had seen a lot. The lower the level of education of people, the more they talk about the phenomena of social life at the level of everyday consciousness. Maybe that's why the world reflected in fairy tales is formed at the level of everyday consciousness, on people's everyday ideas about beauty. Each new era brings fairy tales of a new type, new content and new form. The folktale changes along with the historical life of the people; its changes are conditioned by the changes in the very life of the people, because it is the product of the history of the people; it reflects the events of history and features folk life. Illumination and understanding of the history and life of the people in folklore change along with the changes. folk performances, views and psychology. In fairy tales, traces of several eras can be found. In the era of feudalism, social themes occupied an increasing place, especially in connection with the peasant movement: anti-serfdom sentiments were expressed in fairy tales. The XVI-XYII centuries are characterized by the rich development of fairy tales. It reflects both historical motifs (tales about Ivan the Terrible), social (tales about judges and priests) and everyday tales (tales about a peasant and a wife). In the fairy tale genre, satirical motifs are greatly enhanced.

XYIII - the first half of the XIX century. - Final stage the existence of a feudal society. This time is characterized by the development of capitalist relations and the disintegration of the feudal system. The tale acquires an even more vivid social aspect. It includes new characters, primarily a smart and cunning soldier. In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, during which the ever more rapid and widespread development of capitalism in Russia falls, great changes take place in folklore. The satirical motives and the critical orientation of the tale are intensifying; The basis for this was the exacerbation social contradictions; the purpose of satire is increasingly becoming the denunciation of the power of money and the arbitrariness of the authorities. A greater place was occupied by autobiography, especially in fairy tales about going to the city to earn money. The Russian fairy tale becomes more realistic, acquires a closer connection with modernity. The coverage of reality, the ideological essence of works, also become different.

The cognitive significance of the fairy tale is manifested, first of all, in the fact that it reflects the features of the phenomena of real life and gives extensive knowledge about the history of social relations, work and life, as well as an idea of ​​the worldview and psychology of the people, about the nature of the country. The ideological and educational significance of the tale is that it is inspired by the desire for good, the protection of the weak, the victory over evil. In addition, a fairy tale develops an aesthetic sense, i.e. sense of beauty .

It is characterized by the disclosure of beauty in nature and man, the unity of aesthetic and moral principles, the combination of real and fiction, vivid depiction and expressiveness.

Fairy tale - very popular genre oral folk art, genre epic, plot. From other prose genres (traditions and legends), the fairy tale differs in a more developed aesthetic side, which is manifested in the installation of attractiveness. The aesthetic beginning, in addition, is manifested in the idealization of goodies, a vivid image of the "fantastic world", amazing creatures and objects, miraculous phenomena, and romantic coloring of events. M. Gorky drew attention to the expressions in fairy tales of folk dreams of a better life: “Already in ancient times, people dreamed of the opportunity to fly through the air - this is what the fairy tale says, about the magic carpet. They dreamed of accelerating the movement on the ground - a fairy tale about boots-walkers ... ".

In science, it is generally accepted to divide fairy tale texts into three categories: fairy tales, short stories (household) tales and fairy tales about animals.

Fairy tales were very popular among the people. Fiction in fairy tales has the character of fantasy. The beginning of the magical contains the so-called remnant moments and, above all, the religious and mythological view of primitive man, his spiritualization of things and natural phenomena, the attribution of magical properties to these things and phenomena, various religious cults, customs, rituals. Fairy tales are full of motifs containing belief in the existence of the other world and the possibility of returning from there, the idea of ​​death enclosed in some material object (egg, flower), of a miraculous birth (from drunk water), of the transformation of people into animals, birds. The fantastic beginning of the tale, on the other hand, grows on a spontaneous materialistic basis, remarkably correctly captures the patterns of development of objective reality.

This is what M. Gorky called "instructive fiction - the amazing ability of human thought to look ahead of the fact." The origin of fantasy has its roots in the peculiarities of the way of life and in people's dream of dominating nature. All these are just traces of mythological ideas, since the formation classical form fairy tale ended far beyond the historical boundaries of primitive communal society, in a much more developed society. The mythological worldview only provided the basis for the poetic form of the fairy tale.

The important point is that the plots of fairy tales, the miracles of which they speak, have a vital basis. This is, firstly, a reflection of the peculiarities of the work and life of people of the tribal system, their relationship to nature, often their powerlessness in front of it. Secondly, a reflection of the feudal system, especially early feudalism (the king is the enemy of the hero, the struggle for inheritance).

The character of fairy tales is always the bearer of certain moral qualities. The hero of the most popular fairy tales is Ivan Tsarevich. He helps animals and birds, who are grateful to him for this and, in turn, help him. He is presented in fairy tales as a folk hero, the embodiment of the highest moral qualities - courage, honesty, kindness. He is young, handsome, smart and strong. This is a type of bold and strong hero.

A significant place in fairy tales is occupied by female heroines, who embody the folk ideal of beauty, intelligence, kindness, and courage. The image of Vasilisa the Wise reflects the remarkable features of a Russian woman - beauty, majestic simplicity, soft pride in herself, a remarkable mind and a deep heart full of inexhaustible love. The consciousness of the Russian people was just such a female beauty.

The serious meaning of some fairy tales gave grounds for judgments on the most important issues of life. So, in some fairy tales, the freedom-loving aspiration and struggle of the Russian people against arbitrariness and oppressors is embodied. The composition of a fairy tale determines the presence in them of characters hostile to positive characters. The hero's victory over hostile forces is the triumph of goodness and justice. Many researchers have noted the heroic side of the fairy tale, its social optimism. A.M. Gorky said: “It is very important to note that pessimism is completely alien to folklore, despite the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard, their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal life was powerless and defenseless. But with all this, the collective, as it were, is characterized by the consciousness of its immortality and confidence in victory over all forces hostile to it. Fairy tales in which social and domestic relations are at the center of the action are called social and domestic. In this type of fairy tales, the comedy of actions and verbal comedy is well developed, which is determined by their satirical, ironic, humorous nature. The theme of one group of tales is social injustice, the theme of another is human vices, they ridicule the lazy, stupid, stubborn. Depending on this, two varieties are distinguished in social and everyday fairy tales. According to researchers, social fairy tales arose in two stages: everyday - early, with the formation of a family and family life during the decomposition of the tribal system, and social - with the emergence of a class society and the aggravation of social contradictions in the period of early feudalism, especially during the decomposition of the serfdom and during the period of capitalism. The growing lack of rights and poverty of the masses caused discontent and protest, were the soil social criticism. Positive hero social everyday fairy tales- socially active, critical person. Hard work, poverty, darkness, marriage often unequal in age and property status caused complications in family relations and determined the appearance of plots about an evil wife and a stupid and lazy husband. Socially everyday fairy tales are distinguished by a sharp ideological orientation. This is reflected, first of all, in the fact that the stories mainly have two important social themes: social injustice and social punishment. The first theme is realized in plots where a master, a merchant or a priest rob and oppress a peasant, humiliate his personality. The second theme is realized in plots where a smart and quick-witted peasant finds a way to punish his oppressors for centuries of lack of rights, makes them look ridiculous. In social and everyday fairy tales, the aspirations and expectations of the people, the dream of a socially just, happy and peaceful life are much more clearly expressed. “In these tales, one can see the life of the people, their domestic life, their moral concepts and this crafty Russian mind, so inclined towards irony, so simple-hearted in its cunning.”

In fairy tales, as well as in some other genres of folk prose, reflecting strong and weak sides peasant psychology, expressed the centuries-old dream of a happy life, of a kind of "peasant kingdom". The search for "another kingdom" in fairy tales is a characteristic motif. Fairy tale social utopia draws folk material well-being, full contentment; the peasant eats and drinks to his heart's content, and makes a "feast for the whole world." N. G. Chernyshevsky noted: “The poverty of real life is the source of life in fantasy.” The peasant judges about a “happy” life for himself by the model of those wealth owned by kings and landowners. The peasants had a very strong faith in the "good king", and the fairy-tale hero becomes just such a king in many fairy tales. At the same time, the fairy-tale king in his behavior, way of life, and habits is likened to a simple peasant. The royal palace is sometimes depicted as a rich peasant household with all the attributes of a peasant economy.

Animal Tales is one of ancient species folklore. Going back to the ancient forms of reflection of reality on early stages human consciousness, fairy tales about animals expressed a certain degree of knowledge of the world.

The truth of fairy tales is that although they talk about animals, similar human situations are reproduced. The actions of animals more openly reveal the inhumane aspirations, thoughts, and causes of acts committed by people. Animal stories are all stories in which there is a place not only for fun, but also for expressing a serious meaning. In fairy tales about animals, birds and fish, animals and plants also act. Each of these stories has meaning. For example, in the fairy tale about the turnip, the meaning turned out to be that no, even the smallest force in the matter is not superfluous, and it happens that it is not enough to achieve a result. With the development of human ideas about nature, with the accumulation of observations, fairy tales include stories about the victory of man over animals and about domestic animals, which was the result of their instructions. The identification of similar features in animals and humans (speech - cry, behavior - habit) served as the basis for combining their qualities in the images of animals with the qualities of a person, animals speak and behave like people. This combination led to the typification of the characters of animals, which became the embodiment of certain qualities (fox - cunning, etc.). So fairy tales acquired an allegorical meaning. Under the animals began to understand people of certain characters. Animal images have become a means of moral teaching. In fairy tales about animals, not only negative qualities (stupidity, laziness, talkativeness) are ridiculed, but oppression of the weak, greed, and deceit for profit are also condemned. The main semantic aspect of fairy tales about animals is moral. Tales about animals are characterized by bright optimism, the weak always get out of difficult situations. The connection of the tale with the ancient period of her life is found in the motives of the fear of the beast, in overcoming fear of him. The beast has strength, cunning, but no human mind. The images of animals at a later stage in the life of a fairy tale acquire the significance of social types. In such variants, in the image of a cunning fox, wolf and others, one can see human characters that arose in the conditions of a class society. Behind the image of the animal in them you can guess social relations of people. For example, in the fairy tale "About Ersh Ershovich and his son Shchetinnikov" a complete and true picture of the ancient Russian legal proceedings is given. In the tales of every nation, universal themes receive a kind of national incarnation. In Russian folk tales certain social relations are revealed, the life of the people, their domestic life, their moral concepts, the Russian look, the Russian mind are shown - everything that makes the fairy tale nationally original and unique. The ideological orientation of Russian fairy tales is manifested in the reflection of the struggle of the people for a beautiful future. Thus, we saw that the Russian fairy tale is a generalized, evaluative and purposeful reflection of reality, which expresses the consciousness of a person, and in particular the consciousness of the Russian people. The old name of the tale - fable - indicates the narrative nature of the genre. In our time, the name "fairy tale" and the term "fairy tale", which began to come into circulation from the 17th century, are used among the people and in scientific literature. A fairy tale is a very popular genre of oral folk art, a genre of epic, prose, plot. It is not sung like a song, but is told. The tale is distinguished by its strict form, the obligatory nature of certain moments. Fairy tales have been known in Rus' since ancient times. In ancient writing there are plots, motifs and images reminiscent of fairy tales. Telling fairy tales is an old Russian custom. In the manuscripts of the XVI - XVII centuries. records of the fairy tales "About Ivan Ponamarevich" and "About the Princess and Ivashka the White Shirt" have been preserved. In the XVIII century. in addition to handwritten collections of fairy tales, printed editions began to appear. Several collections of fairy tales appeared, which included works with characteristic compositional and stylistic fairy-tale features: "The Tale of the Thief Timoshka" and "The Tale of the Gypsy" in V. Levshin's collection "Russian Tales" (1780-1783), "The Tale of Ivan the Bogatyr , a peasant's son "in the collection of P. Timofeev" Russian fairy tales "(1787). In the 60s of the XIX century. A.N. Afanasiev published a collection of "Treasured Tales", which included satirical tales about bars and priests. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. a number of important, well-prepared collections of fairy tales appear. They gave an idea about the distribution of works of this genre, about its state, put forward new principles for collecting and publishing. After October revolution the collection of fairy tales, as well as the collection of works of folklore in general, took on organized forms.

Mikhailova O. S. Considered: fairy tales about animals. Historical roots of the fairy tale about animals (animistic, anthropomorphic, totemic representations, folk beliefs). The evolution of the genre. Heroes of fairy tales about animals. Style. Absence of abstract fable allegorism. The satirical function of parables. Irony. Plot paradox. Dialogical. Compositional features. Cumulative tales. Magic tales. Miracle, magic as a fabulous plot basis of fairy tales. Historical roots of fairy tales (mythological representations, folk demonology, folk rituals, everyday taboos, magic, etc.). Poetic convention of fairy tales. The main ideas of fairy tales. compositional features. Features of the author's word. Dialogical. fairy tales. Heroes and their functions. Fairy tale chronotope. household tales. The proximity of everyday fairy tale to the short story. Ways of the formation of the genre of the novelistic fairy tale. Typology of everyday fairy tales (family and household, about masters and servants, about the clergy, etc.). Poetics and style (everyday "grounding", entertaining plot, hyperbolization in the depiction of characters, etc.).

One cannot but agree with the opinion of V.P. Anikin that fairy tales seem to have subjugated time, and this applies not only to fairy tales. In each era, they live their own special life. Where does the fairy tale have such power over time? Let us think about the essence of the similarity that fairy tales have with equally stable, as it were, “timeless” truths expressed by proverbs. The fairy tale and the proverb are brought together by the extraordinary breadth of the artistic generalization contained in them. Perhaps this property is most clearly revealed in allegorical tales.

The next genre is epic. The word "epic" is raised to the word "reality"; it means a story about what once happened, happened, what was believed in the reality. The word "epic" as a term denoting folk songs with a certain content and a specific artistic form. The epic is the fruit of fiction and the poetic rise of fantasy. But fiction and fantasy are not a distortion of reality. Epics always contain deep artistic and life truth. The content of the epic is extremely diverse. Basically - this is the song of the "epic", i.e. narrative nature. The main core of the epic are songs of heroic content. The heroes of these songs are not looking for personal happiness, they perform feats in the name of the interests of the Russian land. The main characters of the Russian epic are warriors. But type heroic epic- not the only one, although the most characteristic of the Russian epic. Along with the heroic, there are epics of a fabulously heroic or purely fabulous nature. Such, for example, are epics about Sadko and his stay in the underwater kingdom. Epic narration can also have a social or family character (novelistic epics). Some of these epics can be singled out as a special group of ballad songs. It is not always possible to draw a line between epic and ballad songs.

In folklore collections, epics of a heroic, fairy-tale, and short story nature are usually placed side by side. Such an association gives a correct idea of ​​the breadth and scope of Russian epic creativity. Together, all this material makes up a single whole - Russian folk epic. At present, we have a huge amount of epic material, and the epic can be well studied. From the end of the seventeenth century epic stories (“Ilya and the Nightingale the Robber”, “Mikhailo Potyk”, etc.) penetrate the handwritten story and are presented under the title “History”, “Word” or “Tale” as entertaining reading material [9]. Some of these stories are very close to the epic and can be divided into verses, others are the result of complex literary processing under the influence of the old worldly literature, fairy tales, Russian and Western European adventure novel. Such "histories" were very popular, especially in cities where the original epic in the XVII - XVIII centuries. was little known. The first collection containing epics in the proper sense is the “Collection of Kirsha Danilov”, first published by A.F. Yakubovich in 1804 under the title “Ancient Russian Poems”. It was created, most likely, in Western Siberia. The manuscript contains 71 songs, notes are given for each text. There are about 25 epics here. Most of the songs were recorded from the voice, the recordings are very accurate, many features of the singers' language are preserved, the texts are of great artistic value. Traditionally, Kirsha Danilov is considered the creator of the collection, but who he is and what his role is in compiling this first collection of epics and historical songs in Russia is unknown. The first collector of epics was Peter Vasilyevich Kireevsky (1808 - 1856). Kireevsky collected songs not only himself, but encouraged his friends and relatives to this work. Among the employees and correspondents of Kireevsky was the poet Yazykov (his main assistant), Pushkin, Gogol, Koltsov, Dal, scientists of that time. Epics were published as part of ten issues of "Songs collected by P.V. Kireevsky (1860 - 1874). The first five issues contain epics and ballads, the second half is devoted mainly to historical songs. The collection contains records of epics made in the Volga region, in some central provinces of Russia, in the North and in the Urals; These records are especially interesting in that many of them were made in places where epics soon disappeared and were no longer recorded. One of the most remarkable collections of epics is a collection published by Pavel Nikolaevich Rybnikov (1832 - 1885). Being exiled to Petrozavodsk, traveling around the province as secretary of the statistical committee, Rybnikov began to write down the epics of the Olonets region. He wrote down about 220 texts of epics. The collection was published under the editorship of Bessonov in four volumes "Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov" in 1861 - 1867. In addition to epics, this collection contains a number of wedding songs, lamentations, fairy tales, etc. The appearance of Rybnikov's collection was a great event in social and literary life. Together with the Kireevsky collection, it opened new area science. Ten years after the appearance of Rybnikov's collection, Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding went to the same places specifically for the purpose of recording epics. He managed to write down more than 300 texts in two months. Some epics were recorded by him later, from singers who came to St. Petersburg. Collected songs entitled "Onega epics, recorded by Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding in the summer of 1871" were published in one volume. There are 318 texts in total. Songs are arranged by regions, villages and performers. The texts are written down with all possible care and accuracy for the collector. From now on, the arrangement of material by performers entered the practice of publishing epics and fairy tales and is still holding on. The sixties were years of special attention to the poetry of the peasants. During these years, “Russian Folk Tales” by A.N. Afanasyev (1855 - 1864), “Great Russian Tales” by I.A. Khudyakov (1863), “Proverbs of the Russian people” by V.I. Dahl (1861) were published. With the onset of reaction in the 1980s, interest in folk poetry fell for some time. Only in 1901, A.V. Markov published a small collection of "Belomorskie epics". Markov moved to the extreme north and visited the eastern shore of the White Sea. In total, the collection contains 116 epics. The plot, style and form of existence of epics turned out to be significantly different here than in the Onega region. Several new stories have been found. In all respects, Markov's collection significantly expanded the ideas about the epic that were available in science. One of the largest and most significant expeditions was the expedition of A.D. Grigoriev to the Arkhangelsk province, which lasted three years. For three years of collecting work, he recorded 424 texts, which were subsequently published in three volumes under the title "Arkhangelsk epics and historical songs" (1904 - 1910). As a result, Grigoriev's collection became the largest and one of the most interesting in Russian folklore. Recordings are highly accurate. For the first time, the recording of epic tunes on a phonograph was widely used. Attached to each volume music book. A detailed map of the North is attached to the entire publication, indicating the places where the epics were recorded. In 40 - 60 years. 19th century in Altai, the remarkable ethnographer Stepan Ivanovich Gulyaev wrote down epics. Siberian records are of great importance, as they often retain a more archaic form of plot than in the North, where epics have changed more. Gulyaev recorded up to 50 epics and other epic songs. His entire collection was published only in Soviet times. During the summer months of 1908 - 1909. brothers Boris and Yuri Sokolov made a folklore expedition to the Belozersky region of the Novgorod province. It was a well organized scientific expedition. Its purpose was to cover the entire folklore of the given region with records. Fairy tale and song turned out to be the predominant genres, but epics were also unexpectedly found. 28 texts were recorded. Epics were collected not only in the North, in Siberia and the Volga region. Their existence in the XIX - XX centuries. was found in the places of Cossack settlements - on the Don, on the Terek, among the Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg Cossacks.

The largest collector of Don Cossack songs was A.M. Listopadov, who devoted fifty years of his life to this work (starting from 1892 - 1894). As a result of repeated trips to the Cossack villages, Listopadov recorded a huge number of songs, including more than 60 epics; his notes give an exhaustive idea of ​​the Don epic in its form in which it was preserved by the beginning of the 20th century. The value of Listopadov's materials is especially enhanced by the fact that not only texts, but also tunes are recorded.

As a result of the collecting work, it became possible to determine the features of the content and form of the Cossack epic, its plot structure, the manner of execution, to present the fate of the Russian epic in the Cossack regions. The merit of Russian scientists in the field of collecting epics is extremely great. Their labors saved one of the best assets of Russian national culture from oblivion. The work of collecting epics was entirely carried out by individual enthusiasts who, sometimes overcoming various and very difficult obstacles, selflessly worked on recording and publishing monuments of folk poetry.

After the October Revolution, the work of collecting epics took on a different character. Now it is beginning to be carried out systematically and systematically by the forces of research institutions. In 1926-1928. State Academy art sciences in Moscow, she equipped an expedition under the slogan "In the footsteps of Rybnikov and Hilferding." The epics of the Onega region belong to the best, and the Onega region - to the richest in the epic tradition. As a result of planned and systematic work, 376 texts were recorded, many of them in excellent preservation.

Long-term and systematic work was carried out by the Leningrad scientific institutions. In 1926 -1929. The State Institute of Art History equipped complex art history expeditions to the North, which included folklorists. In 1931 - 1933 work on the creation of folklore was carried out by the folklore commission of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences in Petrozavodsk. A total of 224 texts were published in the collection. The publication is distinguished by a high scientific level. For each of the epics, salts are given for all variants known in science. In subsequent years, expeditions were also organized to study the epic genre. Intensive and fruitful was the collecting work of Russian scientists both in pre-revolutionary and Soviet times. Much is stored in the archives and is still waiting for its publication. The number of published epics can be determined at approximately 2500 song units.

The concept of epics was also considered by V. V. Shuklin.

Epics and myths, the ancient epic genre of epics (Northern Russian people called them old men) took shape in the 10th century. The word epic, i.e. "reality". "act". Occurs in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. Its author begins his song "according to the epics of this time, and not according to Boyan's reflection." The appearance of epics under Prince Vladimir is not accidental. His warriors performed their feats not in distant campaigns, but in the fight against nomads, i.e. in plain sight, so they became available for epic chanting.

More Anikin V.P. said that among the oral works there are those by which, first of all, the significance of folklore in folk life is judged. For the Russian people, these are epics. Only fairy tales and songs stand side by side with them, but if we remember that ballads were both said and sung at the same time, then their predominance over other types of folklore becomes clear. Epics differ from songs by their solemnity, and from fairy tales by the grandiosity of the plot action. Bylina is both a story and a stately song speech. The combination of such properties became possible because epics arose in ancient times, when storytelling and singing were not yet separated as decisively as it happened later. Singing gave solemnity to storytelling, and storytelling to singing - a resemblance to the intonations of human speech. The solemnity of the tone corresponded to the glorification in the epics of a heroic deed, and the singing put the story into measured lines so that not a single detail would disappear from people's memory. Such is the epic, the song story.

It is also worth noting one of the genres of folklore "legends" about which Zueva T.V. and Kirdant B.P. spoke.

Legends are prose works in which fantastic interpretations of events associated with the phenomena of inanimate nature, with the world of plants, animals, as well as people (planet, people, individuals); co supernatural beings(God, saints, angels, unclean spirits). The main functions of legends are explanatory and moralizing. The legends are associated with Christian ideas, but they also have a pagan basis. In legends, a person turns out to be immeasurably higher than evil spirits.

Legends existed both in oral and written form. The term "legend" itself came from medieval writing and translated from Latin means "what should be read".

The following genres can be combined into one whole. Since they have a lot in common, these are proverbs and sayings. Kravtsov N. I. and Lazutin S. G. said that the proverb is a small non-lyrical genre of oral creativity; a form of saying that has entered into speech circulation, fits into one grammatically and logically complete sentence, often rhythmized and supported by rhyme. It is characterized by extreme brevity and simplicity.

Sayings are closely related to proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings belong to small genres of folklore. In most cases, they are even shorter than proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings are not specially performed (they are not sung or told), but are used in live colloquial speech. At the same time, sayings differ significantly from proverbs both in terms of the nature of the content, and in form, and in terms of the functions performed in speech.

The collection and study of proverbs went simultaneously with the collection and study of proverbs. N. P. Kolpakova, M. Ya. Melts and G. G. Shapovalova believed that the term "proverb" began to be used to denote the type of folk poetry only from the end of the 17th century. Earlier proverbs were called "parables". However, the existence of proverbs as special sayings expressing people's judgments in a figurative form can be noted in very remote times. folklore fairy tale epic riddle

In proverbs found echoes of many concrete historical events ancient Rus'. However, the historical value of the proverb is not only in this, but mainly in the fact that it has preserved many historically developed views of the people, for example, ideas about the unity of the army and the people: “The world stands before the army, and the army stands before the world”; about the strength of the community: “The world will stand up for itself”, “The world cannot be pulled over”, etc. . It is impossible not to emphasize the opinion of N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina. deep respect for work, skill, skill, intelligence, courage, truth, honesty. Many proverbs have been created on these topics: “Without labor you cannot catch a fish from a pond”, “On arable land and brush”, “A craft is not without fishing”, “Cause is time, fun hour”,“ An unattractive face and a good mind ”,“ Learning is better than wealth ”,“ Truth is more precious than gold ”,“ Poverty and honesty are better than profit and shame. And, on the contrary, the proverb denounces laziness, deceit, drunkenness and other vices: “Laziness does not do good, dine without salt”, “Give him a flaky testicle”, “Spreads like a leaf, but aims to bite” (about duplicity), “Drunk on honey , drunk with tears ", etc. .

IN AND. Dahl also gave his own definition of the proverb. A proverb is a roundabout expression, figurative speech, a simple allegory, a bluff, a way of expression, but without a parable, without judgment, conclusion, application; this is one first half of the proverb.

Another major genre of folklore is the "mystery". The object of the folk riddle is the diverse world of objects and phenomena surrounding a person.

The folk riddle also draws images from the world of everyday objects and phenomena surrounding a person that the worker encountered in the course of his activity.

The usual form of a riddle is a short description or short story. Each riddle includes a hidden question: who is it? what is this? etc. In a number of cases, the riddle is expressed in a dialogic form: “Crookedly crafty, where did you run? - Green, curly, guard you” (fence).

The riddle is characterized by a two-part structure, it always involves a guess.

Many of the riddles have rhyming endings; in some the first part rhymes, while the second part retains the meter. Some riddles are built on the rhyming of words alone; the riddle rhymes with the answer: “What is the matchmaker in the hut?” (grip); "What's in the hut for Samson?" (barrier).

The riddle is still preserved among the people not only as a means of entertainment, but also as a means of education, development of children's ingenuity, resourcefulness. The riddle answers the child's questions: what comes from? what is made of what? what do they do? what is good for what?

The systematic collection of Russian folk riddles began only in the second half of the 19th century. By the 17th century include only records made by amateur collectors.

Proverbs and sayings

The collection and publication of proverbs began as early as the 17th century. However, in the oldest collections, along with folk proverbs, proverbs of book origin were also included. Folk proverbs, hostile to religion and authorities, were rejected by the compilers. The most democratic tendencies in the selection and publication of folk proverbs were manifested in N. Kurganov's Letter Book (1769), where the compiler included 908 proverbs.

In 1848, I. M. Snegirev published "Russian folk proverbs and parables." Genuine folk proverbs prevailed in his collection. Following Snegirev, in 1854. F. I. Buslaev published proverbs. In a special article "Russian Life and Proverbs" he commented on them from the point of view of mythological theory. In 1861 V. I. Dahl’s great work “Proverbs of the Russian people” was published, which included about 30,000 proverbs, sayings and other small genres of folk poetry. The most important collections of proverbs of the second half of XIX in. and the beginning of the 20th century. there were collections: “Winged words” by S. V. Maksimov (1890), “Accurate and walking words” by M. I. Mikhelson (1894), “The life of the Russian people in its proverbs and sayings” by I. I. Illustrov (1915). Kravtsov N. I., Lazutin S. G. They believed that both proverbs and sayings and riddles belong to small (aphoristic) genres of folklore.

Riddles have much in common with proverbs and sayings in content and in art form. However, they also have specific features independent genre folklore.

The term "mystery" is of ancient origin. AT Old Russian the word "guess" meant "think", "think". This is where the word "mystery" comes from. In a riddle, a subject description of some phenomenon is given, the recognition of which requires considerable thought. Most often, riddles are allegorical in nature. Anikin V.P. said that the riddle emphasizes the variety of forms, the brightness of the colors of the world around the peasant: “Red, round, oblong leaves” (rowan). Some riddles create a sound image: “I listen, I will listen: sigh after sigh, but not a soul in the hut,” says the riddle about the dough, which makes a sound like a sigh during fermentation. Especially often, sound images arose in riddles about peasant work.

The world around a person is presented in a riddle in constant motion: “Grayish, toothy, prowling around the field, looking for calves, looking for guys” (wolf); “The little, hunchbacked one crossed the whole field, read all the pens” (reap); “Five lambs eat up a stack, five lambs run away” (hands and tows).

I would like to say a little about “tradition.” Folklorists have not yet given a sufficient, satisfactory and substantiated definition of legends. It is not uncommon for scientific literature to confuse traditions and legends, although this various genres. This is due to the proximity, as well as the presence of transitional forms, some of which are closer to legends, while others are closer to legends.

Traditions are popularly called "byly" and "byly". They have historical themes. The legends are close to historical songs, but they have a prose form, not a poetic one.

Legends - epic, i.e. narrative genre. The collection of Russian folk traditions was not carried out systematically.

It is also impossible to miss such a genre of folklore as "chastushki". Zueva T.V. and Kirdant B.P. emphasize that the most developed genre of late traditional folklore is ditties.

Chastushki are short rhymed lyrical songs that were created and performed as a lively response to various life phenomena, expressing a clear positive or negative assessment. In many ditties there is a joke or irony. The earliest ditties had six lines. The main type - four-line - was formed in the second half of the 19th century, it was performed to the dance and without it. Four-line ditties are also proper dance ditties, which are performed only to the dance (for example, to the quadrille).

In addition, there are two-line ditties: “suffering” and “Semenovna”.

Chastushkas have varied, but repetitive, steady tunes, both drawn out and fast. The performance of many texts on one tune is characteristic. In living life, ditties are sometimes characterized by recitativity.

Chastushki finally took shape in the last quarter of the 19th century. Simultaneously in different parts Russia: in the center, middle and lower Volga region, in the northern, eastern and southern provinces.

Chastushki is main genre peasant lyrics in later traditional folklore. And finally, I would like to consider a few more genres of folklore, these are all varieties of “songs”. Which are described in detail by S.V. Alpatov, V.P. Anikin, T.B. Dianova, A.A. Ivanova, A.V. Kulagin. The definition of the genre and the issue of limiting the term "historical song". The difference between a historical song and an epic. Continuity links between historical songs and epics. Historical song as a stage in the development of epic creativity. Principles of selective interested depiction of events and persons in historical songs. Historical song as a work relevant for its time and the question of the subsequent transformation of its meaning and images. Early samples of historical songs: a song about Avdotya Ryazanochka, about the murder of Shchelkan Dudentevich, Polonyanka (“Mother meets her daughter in Tatar captivity”, etc.). Differences in style of early historical songs and the question of later changes in them. A cycle of songs about Ivan the Terrible and the events of his reign (“The Capture of Kazan”, “Temryuk-Mastryuk”, “Ivan the Terrible's Wrath on his Son”, “The Raid of the Crimean Khan”, etc.), about Yermak (“Ermak in the Cossack Circle”, etc. .), about the Time of Troubles (“Grishka Otrepiev”, “Lament of Ksenia Godunova”, “Skopin-Shuisky”, “Minin and Pozharsky”), etc. People's view of historical figures and understanding of the meaning of their activities. Cossack historical songs about Stepan Razin (“Razin and the Cossack circle.” “Razin's Campaign to Yaik”, “Sonny”, “Razin near Astrakhan”, “Song of Razin”. “Esaul reports the execution of Razin”). Poetization of Razin as the leader of the Cossack freemen. Condemnation of Razin by the Cossack circle. The lyrical beginning as a factor transforming the epic narrative. Special lyrical-epic song structure. Historical songs about Peter the Great and the events of his reign (“The Tsar judges the archers.” “On the beginning of the Northern War”, “Well done is going to Poltava”, “Tsar Peter on the ship”, etc.). Historical songs about events Patriotic War 1812 (“Napoleon writes a letter to Alexander”, “Kutuzov calls to defeat the French”, “Napoleon in Moscow”, “Cossack Platov”, etc.). Question about songwriters. Reflection in songs of thoughts and feelings of soldiers. The idea of ​​defending the fatherland. New themes in the soldiers' and Cossacks' historical songs in comparison with the songs of other cycles. Types of characters in historical songs: folk hero, king, commander. The image of the people. Poetics and style of historical songs. Genre varieties: epic songs (with a detailed plot, one-episode songs), lyrical-epic songs. Collections of historical songs of the XIII - XIX centuries. four books published in the series “Monuments of Russian Folklore”, Institute of Russian Literature Ak. Sciences, 19601973 . Ballad songs. The term "ballad" and its history (Provencal dance songs of the 11th-17th centuries; Anglo-Scottish ballads; literary romantic ballads). Folk Russian names of ballad songs: “verse”, “song”. Definition of the genre, its features. The most important properties ballad songs: epic, family themes, psychological drama, the art of the tragic. Origin of ballad songs. The question of the time of their occurrence is debatable: a look at the appearance of ballads in the era of the decomposition of ancient syncretism (A. N. Veselovsky), in early period written history (N. P. Andreev), during the Middle Ages (V. M. Zhirmunsky, D. M. Balashov, B. N. Putilov, V. P. Anikin). Ballad songs about the Tatar (later Turkish) captivity: “The girl was taken prisoner by the Tatars”, “The Russian girl in the captivity of the Tatars”, “The red girl runs from the captivity”, “Rescue of the Polonyanka”, “Prince Roman and Marya Yurievna”, “Two slaves ”, “Escape of slaves from captivity”. Later adaptations of ballads about polonyanka: “Young khancha”, “Pan brings a Russian polonyanka to his wife”. Plots of ballad songs of the 14th-16th centuries: “Vasily and Sophia”, “Dmitry and Domna”, “Ryabinka”, “Prince Mikhailo”, “Children of the Widow”, etc. Love ballads: “Dmitry and Domna”, “Cossack and Shinkarka ”, “The abduction of a girl”, “A girl defends her honor”, ​​“A nun drowns a child”. Family-everyday ballads: “Prince Roman lost his wife”, “Husband ruined his wife”, “Ryabinka”; “Fyodor Kolyshatoy”, “Alyosha and the sister of two brothers”, “Brother, sister and lover”, “Poisoning sister”, “Daughter of the thousandth”, “Forcible tonsure”. The theme of incest: “The hunter and his sister”, “Brother married his sister”, “Ivan Dorodorovich and Sofya-tsarevna” and others. and sister”, “Robber's wife”, etc. The crisis of the traditional ballad genre. Appearance at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. new ballads. Ballads: o social inequality: “Well done and the princess”, “Prince Volkonsky and Vanya the key keeper”, “The princess and the chamber footman”, “The girl is dying from the love of the voivodship son”; about poverty and grief: “Woe”, “Well done and grief”, “Well done and the Smorodina River”, etc. Features of the composition and plot of ballads: an open course of action, a predicted fatal outcome, tragic recognition. The role of monologues and dialogues. Drama. Single conflict. The dynamics of the development of action. Characteristics of the characters: the destroyer, the victim. Fantastic motifs: metamorphosis, werewolf, talking animals and birds, magical (living and dead water as a means of healing). The art of psychological imaging. Poetic language, allegory. Connections of ballads with epics, historical songs, spiritual poems, lyrical songs). New ballads, their connections with the old ones (plot-thematic commonality and differences). History of collecting ballads. Collection of N. P. Andreev and V. I. Chernyshev, collection of D. M. Balashov.

Lyric songs. Determination of the genre features of non-ritual songs as a type of folk lyrics: their freedom from ritual, relative untimedness at the time of performance, the predominance of poetic functions over pragmatic ones, the use of a kind of metaphorical and symbolic language for versatile life content and disclosure of the inner world of man. The possibility of the inclusion of lyrical non-ritual songs into the composition of rituals and labor cycles and the diversity of folk terminology explained by this. Genetic connection of non-ritual songs with ritual lyrics (spells, lamentations, lamentations, play songs) and ballads. Continuity and processing of artistic traditions in the process of style formation. Problems of classification of non-ritual lyrical songs. A variety of systematization principles: by subject (love, family, recruiting, remote), by the social environment of creation and existence (soldiers, barges, coachmen, Cossacks, etc.), by the predominant composition of performers (male and female), by forms of melody and intrasyllabic chanting (frequent and lingering), in connection with the movement (stepping, marching, dancing), according to the emotional dominant (comic, satirical). The combination of several principles in the creation of scientific classifications (V. Ya. Propp, N. P. Kolpakova, T. M. Akimova, V. I. Eremina). The system of artistic images of non-ritual lyrics. The variety of folk characters and social types in the songs, the image of versatile relationships between people. Images of nature, life, social phenomena. The place of conditionally generalized images of love, longing, grief, will, separation, death and others in the artistic system of folk lyrics. Characteristic features of the connection of diverse images in the creation of symbolic paintings that form the subject-content basis of non-ritual songs. Techniques for depicting characters: idealization, humor, satire. Features of the composition of non-ritual songs. Their structure by belonging to the lyrical family. Figurative-symbolic parallelism and its forms (A. N. Veselovsky), the method of stepwise narrowing of images (B. M. Sokolov), the principle of chain-associative connection (S. G. Lazutin), the juxtaposition of autonomous thematic-style formulas (G. I. . Maltsev). N. P. Kolpakova, N. I. Kravtsov about the main types and forms of composition. Poetic language of non-ritual lyrics: functions constant epithets, comparisons, metaphors, antitheses. Stereotypical stable verbal complexes in songs. The peculiarity of the rhythmic-syntactic structure of the folk song verse (the system of repetitions, syllabic breaks, intra-syllable chants, stanza, meter). The use of lexical and phonetic expressiveness of oral speech in lyrics. Collection of folk songs. Activities of P. V. Kireevsky. Folk lyrics as part of the collection of P. V. Shein, a collection of folk songs by A. I. Sobolevsky “Great Russian Folk Songs”. Types of editions of songs of local traditions.

Spiritual verses. The definition of spiritual poetry as a complex of epic, lyrical-epic and lyrical works, the unifying beginning of which is the concept of "spiritual", religious-Christian, opposed to worldly, secular. Folk names of the genre: “poems”, “old times”, “psalms”, “kants”. The origin of spiritual verses and sources: the books of Holy Scripture (Old and New Testament), Christian canonical and apocryphal literature, which penetrated into Rus' after Baptism from the end of the 10th century. (life, biblical stories, moralizing stories, etc.), church sermons and liturgy. Senior spiritual verses (epic) and junior (lyric). The creators and performers of spiritual verses Kaliki (cripples) are passers-by, pilgrims to holy places. Folk rethinking of biblical and gospel themes, lives, apocrypha. “Spiritual verses are the result of the people's aesthetic assimilation of the ideas of Christian dogma” (F. M. Selivanov). The main idea of ​​spiritual verses: assertion of the superiority of the spiritual over the material, bodily, glorification of asceticism, martyrdom for the faith, denunciation of sinfulness, non-observance of God's commandments. Reflection in the older spiritual verses of cosmogonic ideas. Main themes and plots: poems about the universe (“Pigeon Book”); on biblical Old Testament stories (“Osip the Beautiful”, “Lament of Adam”); gospel (“Nativity of Christ”, “Massacre of the Innocents”, “Dream of the Virgin”, “Crucifixion of Christ”, “Ascension”); about snake-fighting heroes (“Fyodor Tiron”, “Egoriy and the Serpent”), martyrs (“Egoriy and Demyanishche”, “Kirik and Ulita”, “Galaktion and Epistimia”, “On the Great Martyr Barbara”), ascetics (“Josaf and Varlaam ", "Alexey god man”); miracle workers (“Mykola”, “Dmitry of Thessalonica”); the righteous and sinners (“Two Lazarus”, “About Mary of Egypt”, “About the Prodigal Son”, “Anika the Warrior); about the end of the world and the Last Judgment (“Mikhailo the archangel the terrible judge”, “Archangels Mikhailo and Gabriel - carriers across the fiery river”). Echoes of pagan beliefs in verses about mother damp earth (“Cry of the earth”, “Unforgivable sin”, “Rite of farewell to the earth before confession”). Edifying verses about worldly temptations and salvation in the wilderness, the need for repentance (“Friday and the Hermit”, “A Poem about Laziness”, “Basil of Caesarea”). Poems based on plots from ancient Russian history (“Boris and Gleb”, “Alexander Nevsky”, “Mikhail and Fedor of Chernigov”, “Dmitry Donskoy”). Younger spiritual verses (psalms, cants) on themes from the Old Believer history (XVIIХ1Х centuries): “About Nikon”, “A Verse about the Antichrist”, “Mount Athos” and songs of sectarian mystics (eunuchs, whips). Poetics. General folklore properties of spiritual poems, allowing them to be correlated with epics, ballads, historical and lyrical songs. The influence of literary Christian style, the widespread use of Church Slavonicisms. Spatio-temporal characteristic artistic world spiritual verses. The specifics of the miraculous, connected in them with Christ and the saints (healing of the sick, invulnerability under torture, resurrection from the dead, etc.). Composition (a chain of episodes of an event or character's life). Monologue verses (“Lament of Joseph the Beautiful”), the role of dialogues (“Dream of the Virgin”). Poetic language (epithets, parallelisms, comparisons). The image of the earth after doomsday. Description of the parting of the soul with the body, crossing the fiery river, etc. The history of the gathering (P. V. Kireevsky, V. G. Varentsov, T. S. Rozhdestvensky and M. I. Uspensky). The study of spiritual verses. Mythological direction (F. I. Buslaev, A. N. Afanasiev, O. F. Miller); cultural and historical direction (research by A. N. Veselovsky, A. I. Kirpichnikov, V. P. Adrianova); historical and domestic (“Materials on the history of the study of Russian sectarianism and schism (Old Believers)”, edited by V. D. Bonch-Bruevich (St. Petersburg, 1908-1911), four issues). Resumption of research in the early 70s of the twentieth century. : articles by Yu. A. Novikov, S. E. Nikitina, F. M. Selivanov and others.

Oral folk art is the richest heritage of every country. Folklore was even before the emergence of written speech, it is not literature, but a masterpiece of oral literature. The types of folklore creativity were formed in the pre-literary period of art on the basis of ritual and ritual actions. The first attempts to comprehend literary genres date back to the era of antiquity.

Genera of folklore creativity

Folklore is represented by three genera:

1. Epic literature. This genus is represented in prose and poetry. Russian folklore genres of the epic kind are represented by epics, historical songs, fairy tales, sayings, legends, parables, fables, proverbs and sayings.

2. Lyric literature. At the heart of all lyrical works there are thoughts and feelings lyrical hero. Examples of folklore genres of the lyrical direction are represented by ritual, lullabies, love songs, ditties, bayats, haivkas, Easter and Kupala songs. In addition, there is separate block- "Folklore lyrics", which includes literary songs, romances.

3. Dramatic Literature. This is a kind of literature that combines epic and lyrical ways of depiction. The basis of a dramatic work is a conflict, the content of which is revealed through the play of actors. Dramatic works have a dynamic plot. Folklore genres dramatic kind are represented by family-ritual, calendar songs, folk dramas.

Individual works may contain features of lyrical and epic literature, therefore, a mixed genus is distinguished - lyric epic, which in turn is subdivided into:

Works with heroic characters, lyrical-epic content (epic, thought, historical song).

Non-heroic works (ballad, chronicle song).

Folklore for children is also distinguished (lullaby, nursery rhyme, comfort, pestle, fairy tale).

Genres of folklore

Folklore genres of folk art are represented by two directions:

1. Ritual works of UNT.

Performed during the ceremonies:

Calendar (carols, Shrovetide actions, stoneflies, Trinity songs);

Family and household (birth of a child, wedding celebrations, celebration of national holidays);

Occasional works - came in the form of conspiracies, rhymes, incantations.

2. Non-ritual works of UNT.

This section includes several subgroups:

Drama (folklore) - nativity scenes, religious works, "Petrushki" theater.

Poetry (folklore) - epics, lyrical, historical and spiritual songs, ballads, ditties.

Prose (folklore), in turn, is divided into fabulous and non-fabulous. The first includes fairy tales about magic, animals, everyday and cumulative tales, and the second is associated with famous heroes and heroes of Rus' who fought witches (Baba Yaga) and other demonological creatures. Also, legends, mythological stories are referred to non-fairytale prose.

Speech folklore is represented by proverbs, sayings, chants, riddles, tongue twisters.

Folklore genres carry their own individual plot and semantic load.

Images of military battles, exploits of heroes and folk heroes are observed in epics, bright events of the past, everyday life and memories of heroes from the past can be found in historical songs.

The stories about the actions of the heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich are epic. The folklore genre of the tale tells about the actions of Ivan Tsarevich, Ivan the Fool, Vasilisa the Beautiful and Baba Yaga. Family songs are always represented by such characters as mother-in-law, wifey, hubby.

Literature and folklore

Folklore differs from literature in a unique system of construction of works. Its characteristic difference from literature is that the genres of folklore works have melody, beginnings, sayings, retardation, trinity. Also, the use of epithet, tautology, parallelism, hyperbole, synecdoche will be significant differences in style compositions.

Just as in oral folk art (UNT), folklore genres in literature are represented by three types. This is epic, lyric, drama.

Distinctive Features of Literature and CNT

Large works of literature, represented by novels, stories, stories, are written in calm, measured tones. This allows the reader, without looking up from the reading process, to analyze the plot and draw appropriate conclusions. Folklore contains sayings, beginnings, sayings and singing. The technique of tautology is the basic principle of storytelling. Hyperbolas, exaggerations, synecdoches and parallelisms are also very popular. Such figurative actions are not allowed in the literature of the whole world.

Small folklore genres as a separate block of works by UNT

This system included mainly works for children. The relevance of these genres remains to this day, because every person gets acquainted with this literature even before he starts speaking.

The lullaby became one of the first works of folklore. The presence of partial conspiracies and amulets is a direct proof of this fact. Many believed that otherworldly forces were operating around a person, if the baby saw bad things in a dream, this would never happen again in reality. This is probably why the lullaby about the “gray top” is popular even today.

Another genre is amusement. To understand what exactly such works are, you can equate it to a sentence song or a song with simultaneous actions. This genre contributes to the development of fine motor skills and emotional health in a child; plots with the game of fingers "Magpie-crow", "Ladushki" are considered the key point.

All of the above small folklore genres are necessary for every person. Thanks to them, kids for the first time learn what is good and what is bad, they are taught to order and hygiene.

Folklore of peoples

An interesting fact is that different nationalities in their culture, traditions and customs have common points of contact in folklore. There are so-called universal desires, thanks to which songs, rituals, legends, and parables appear. Many nations hold celebrations and chanting for a rich harvest.

From the foregoing, it becomes obvious that different peoples often turn out to be close in many areas of life, and folklore combines customs and traditions into a single structure of folk art.