Fairy tales are an integral part of childhood. There is hardly a person who, being small, did not listen to many different stories. Having matured, he retells them to his children, who understand them in their own way, drawing images in their imagination. acting characters and experiencing the emotions that the tale conveys.

What are fairy tales? These are the questions we will try to answer next.

Definition

According to the scientific definition in literature, a fairy tale is "an epic literary genre, a story about some magical or adventurous events, which has a clear structure: beginning, middle and ending." From any fairy tale, the reader must learn some lesson, a moral. Depending on the type, the fairy tale also performs other functions. There are many genre classifications.

The main types of fairy tales

What are fairy tales? Each of us will agree that fairy tales about animals should be singled out as a separate species. The second type is fairy tales. And finally, there are the so-called household tales. All species have their own characteristics, which become clear through their comparative analysis. Let's try to understand each of them in more detail.

What are animal stories?

The existence of such stories is quite justified, because animals are creatures that live with us in close proximity. It was this fact that influenced the fact that folk art uses images of animals, and the most diverse ones: both wild and domestic. At the same time, attention should be paid to the fact that the animals found in fairy tales are presented not as typical animals, but as special animals endowed with human features. They live, communicate and behave like real people. Such artistic techniques make it possible to make the image understandable and interesting, while filling it with a certain meaning.

In turn, animal tales can also be divided into tales involving wild or domestic animals, objects or objects of inanimate nature. Often literary critics, speaking about what genres of fairy tales are, classify them into magical, cumulative and satirical. Also included in this classification is the genre of the fable. You can divide fairy tales about animals into works for children and for adults. Often in a fairy tale there is a person who can perform a dominant or minor role.

Usually children get acquainted with fairy tales about animals at the age of three to six years. They are most understandable to young readers, as they meet with constant characters: a cunning fox, a cowardly hare, a gray wolf, a smart cat, and so on. As a rule, the main feature of each animal is its characteristic feature.

What are the constructions of fairy tales about animals? The answer is very different. Cumulative fairy tales, for example, are selected according to the principle of plot connection, where the same characters meet, just in different circumstances. Often stories have names in a diminutive form (Fox-Sister, Bunny-Runner, Frog-Quakushka, and so on).

The second kind is a fairy tale

What are literary fairy tales about magic? The main characteristic feature of this species is the magical, fantastic world in which the main characters live and act. The laws of this world are different from the usual, everything is not as it really is, which attracts young readers and makes this type of fairy tale undoubtedly the most beloved among children. The magical surroundings and plot allow the author to use all his imagination and use as many appropriate artistic techniques as possible, in order to create a work specifically for a children's audience. It is no secret that children's imagination is limitless, and it is very, very difficult to satisfy it.

In most cases, this type of fairy tale has a typical plot, certain characters and happy ending. What are fairy tales about magic? These can be stories about heroes and fantastic creatures, tales of unusual objects and various trials that are overcome thanks to magic. As a rule, in the finale, the characters get married and live happily ever after.

Note that the heroes of fairy tales embody many of the main themes of this literary genre - the struggle between good and evil, the struggle for love, truth and other ideals. It must be present which will be defeated in the final. The structure of the fairy tale is the usual - the beginning, the main part and the ending.

Household fairy tales

Such stories tell about the events of ordinary life, highlighting various social problems and human characters. In them, the author ridicules negative ones. Such tales are social and satirical, with elements of a fairy tale, and many others. Here are ridiculed negative qualities rich and vain people, while the representatives of the people embody positive features. Everyday fairy tales show that the main thing is not money and strength, but kindness, honesty and intelligence. Literary critics claim - and this is a fact - that they were written at a time when people were going through social crises and were striving to change the structure of society. Among the popular artistic techniques, satire, humor, and laughter stand out here.

What types of fairy tales are there?

In addition to the above classification, fairy tales are also divided into author's and folk. Already from the names it is clear that author's are fairy tales that were written by a specific well-known storyteller, and folk are those that do not have one author. Folk tales are passed from mouth to mouth from generation to generation, and the original author is no one. Let's consider each of the types separately.

Folk tales

Folk tales are rightfully considered a powerful source historical facts, information about the life and social structure of a certain people. Each of the peoples in their history has come up with a huge number of instructive stories for adults and children, passing on their experience and wisdom to the next generations.

Folk tales reflect human relationships and change moral principles, show that the basic values ​​remain unchanged, teach to draw a clear line between good and evil, joy and sorrow, love and hate, truth and falsehood.

A feature of folk tales is that in a simple and easy readable text hides the deepest social meaning. In addition, they preserve the richness of the vernacular. What folk tales are there? They can be both magical and household. Many folk tales tell about animals.

The question often arises of when the first Russian folk tale was invented. This will surely remain a mystery, and one can only speculate. It is believed that the first "heroes" of fairy tales were natural phenomena - the Sun, the Moon, the Earth, and so on. Later, they began to obey man, and images of people and animals entered the tales. There is an assumption that all Russian folk narratives have a real basis. In other words, some event was retold in the form of a fairy tale, changed over the centuries and came to us in the form to which we are accustomed. What are Russian folk tales, figured out. It's time to talk about fairy tales whose authors are well known to readers.

Author's tales

Usually the author's work is a subjective processing of a folk story, however, new stories are quite common. Specific traits author's fairy tale- psychologism, lofty speech, bright characters, the use of fairy tale clichés.

Another feature of this genre is that it can be read at different levels. Thus, the same story is perceived differently by representatives of different age groups. Charles Perrault's children's tales seem to a child an innocent story, while an adult will find in them serious problems and morality. Often, books that are originally aimed at a young reader are interpreted by adults in their own way, just as fantasy stories for adults are to the taste of children.

Who are the storytellers? Surely everyone has heard of "The Tales of My Mother Goose" by Charles Perrault, the tales of the Italian Gozzi, the works German writer Brothers Grimm and Danish storyteller Hans Christian Andersen. We must not forget about the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin! Their stories are adored by children and adults around the world. Entire generations grow up on these fairy tales. At the same time, all author's works are interesting from the point of view of literary criticism, they all fall under a certain classification, have their own artistic features and author's techniques. According to the most famous and beloved fairy tales, films and cartoons are made.

Conclusion

So, we figured out what fairy tales are. Whatever the fairy tale is - author's, folk, social, magical or telling about animals - it will definitely teach the reader something. The most interesting thing is that it does not matter at all who reads the story. Both adults and children will definitely learn something useful from it. The fairy tale will make everyone think, convey the wisdom of the people (or the author) and leave an indelible good impression in the minds of readers. The effect is by no means exaggerated. There are even so-called therapeutic tales who are able to re-educate and wean from a variety of bad habits!

The classification of fairy tales. Characteristic features of each species

The most important ideas, the main problems, the plot cores and, most importantly, the alignment of forces that carry out good and evil, in fact, are the same in fairy tales. different peoples. In this sense, any fairy tale knows no boundaries, it is for all mankind.

Folkloristics has devoted a lot of research to the fairy tale, but defining it as one of the genres of oral folk art still remains an open problem. The heterogeneity of fairy tales, the vast thematic range, the variety of motifs and characters contained in them, the innumerable number of ways to resolve conflicts really make the task of genre definition of a fairy tale very difficult.

And yet, the divergence in views on the fairy tale is associated with what is regarded in it as the main thing: an orientation towards fiction or the desire to reflect reality through fiction.

The essence and vitality of a fairy tale, the secret of its magical being is in the constant combination of two elements of meaning: fantasy and truth.

On this basis, a classification of types of fairy tales arises, although not quite uniform. Thus, with a problem-thematic approach, fairy tales dedicated to animals, fairy tales about unusual and supernatural events, adventure fairy tales, social and everyday life, fairy tales-jokes, shifting fairy tales and others are distinguished.

The groups of fairy tales do not have sharply defined boundaries, but despite the fragility of the distinction, such a classification allows the child to start a substantive conversation about fairy tales within the framework of a conditional "system" - which, of course, facilitates the work of parents and educators.

To date, the following classification of Russian folk tales has been adopted:

1. Tales about animals;

2. Fairy tales;

3. Household fairy tales.

Let's take a closer look at each type.

Animal Tales

Folk poetry embraced the whole world, its object was not only man, but also all life on the planet. Depicting animals, the fairy tale gives them human features, but at the same time fixes and characterizes habits, "way of life", etc. Hence the lively, tense text of fairy tales.

Man has long felt a kinship with nature, he really was a part of it, fighting with it, seeking protection from it, sympathizing and understanding. The later introduced fable, parable meaning of many fairy tales about animals is also obvious.

In fairy tales about animals, fish, animals, birds act, they talk to each other, declare war on each other, reconcile. Such tales are based on totemism (belief in a totem beast, the patron of the clan), which resulted in the cult of the animal. For example, the bear, which became the hero of fairy tales, according to the ideas of the ancient Slavs, could predict the future. Often he was thought of as a terrible, vindictive beast, not forgiving offenses (the fairy tale "The Bear"). The further the faith in that goes, the more confident a person becomes in his abilities, the more possible his power over the animal, the "victory" over him. This happens, for example, in the fairy tales "The Man and the Bear", "The Bear, the Dog and the Cat". Fairy tales differ significantly from beliefs about animals - in the latter, fiction associated with paganism plays a large role. The wolf in beliefs is wise and cunning, the bear is terrible. The fairy tale loses its dependence on paganism, becomes a mockery of animals. Mythology in it turns into art. The fairy tale is transformed into a kind of artistic joke - a criticism of those creatures that are meant by animals. Hence the proximity of such tales to fables ("The Fox and the Crane", "The Beasts in the Pit").

Tales about animals stand out in a special group according to their character. actors. They are divided into types of animals. Tales about plants, inanimate nature (frost, sun, wind), about objects (bubble, straw, bast shoes) adjoin here.

In fairy tales about animals, man:

1) plays a secondary role (the old man from the fairy tale "The Fox steals fish from the cart");

2) occupies a position equivalent to an animal (a man from the fairy tale "Old bread and salt is forgotten").

Possible classification of the fairy tale about animals.

First of all, the animal tale is classified according to the main character (thematic classification). Such a classification is given in the index of fairy tale plots of world folklore compiled by Arne-Thomson and in the "Comparative Index of Plots. East Slavic Fairy Tale":

1. Wild animals.

Other wild animals.

2. Wild and domestic animals

3. Man and wild animals.

4. Pets.

5. Birds and fish.

6. Other animals, objects, plants and natural phenomena.

The next possible classification of the fairy tale about animals is the structural-semantic classification, which classifies the fairy tale according to genre. There are several genres in the fairy tale about animals. V. Ya. Propp singled out such genres as:

1. Cumulative fairy tale about animals.

3. Fable (apologist)

4. Satirical tale

E. A. Kostyukhin singled out genres about animals as:

1. Comic (household) fairy tale about animals

2. Magic fairy tale about animals

3. Cumulative Animal Tale

4. Novelistic tale about animals

5. Apologist (fable)

6. Joke.

7. Satirical tale about animals

8. Legends, stories, everyday stories about animals

9. Fables

Propp, in the basis of his classification of the fairy tale about animals by genre, tried to put a formal sign. Kostyukhin, on the other hand, partly based his classification on a formal feature, but basically the researcher divides the genres of fairy tales about animals according to content. This allows a deeper understanding of the diverse material of the fairy tale about animals, which demonstrates the variety of structural constructions, the diversity of styles, and the richness of content.

A third possible classification of animal tales is that of the target audience. Allocate fairy tales about animals to:

1. Children's fairy tales.

Fairy tales told for children.

Tales told by children.

2. Adult fairy tales.

This or that genre of fairy tale about animals has its own target audience. The modern Russian fairy tale about animals mainly belongs to the children's audience. Thus, fairy tales told for children have a simplified structure. But there is a genre of fairy tale about animals that will never be addressed to children - this is the so-called. A "naughty" ("cherished" or "pornographic") tale.

About twenty plots of fairy tales about animals are cumulative tales. The principle of such a composition is the repeated repetition of a plot unit. Thompson, S., Bolte, J. and Polivka, I., Propp identified fairy tales with cumulative composition as a special group of fairy tales. Cumulative (chain-like) composition is distinguished:

1. With endless repetition:

Boring tales like "About the white bull".

A unit of text is included in another text ("The priest had a dog").

2. With End Repeat:

- "Turnip" - plot units grow into a chain until the chain breaks.

- "Cockerel choked" - the chain is untwisted until the chain breaks.

- "For a little duck" - the previous unit of text is denied in the next episode.

Another genre form of a fairy tale about animals is the structure of a fairy tale ("The wolf and the seven kids", "The cat, the rooster and the fox").

The leading place in fairy tales about animals is occupied by comic tales - about the tricks of animals ("A fox steals fish from a sleigh (from a cart)," A wolf at an ice-hole "," A fox smears his head with dough (sour cream), "The beaten unbeaten one is lucky", "The midwife fox ", etc. e) that affect others fairy tale genres animal epic, especially the apologist (fable). The plot core of a comic fairy tale about animals is a chance meeting and a trick (deception, according to Propp). Sometimes they combine several meetings and tricks. The hero of a comic tale is a trickster (one who performs tricks). The main trickster of the Russian fairy tale is the fox (in the world epic - the hare). Its victims are usually a wolf and a bear. It has been observed that if the fox acts against the weak, it loses, if against the strong, it wins. It comes from archaic folklore. In the modern animal tale, the victory and defeat of the trickster often receives a moral assessment. The trickster in the tale is opposed to the simpleton. It can be a predator (wolf, bear), and a person, and a simpleton animal, like a hare.

A significant part of animal tales is occupied by an apologist (fable), in which there is not a comic principle, but a moralizing, moralizing one. At the same time, the apologist does not have to have a moral in the form of an ending. Morality follows from the plot situations. Situations must be unambiguous in order to easily form moral conclusions. Typical examples of an apologist are fairy tales where contrasting characters collide (Who is more cowardly than a hare?; Old bread and salt is forgotten; A splinter in the paw of a bear (lion). An apologist can also be considered such plots that have been known in a literary fable since ancient times (Fox and sour grapes, the crow and the fox, and many others). moral standards have already decided and are looking for a suitable form for themselves. In fairy tales of this type, only a few plots with the tricksters' tricks were transformed, part of the plots of the apologist (not without the influence of literature) he worked out himself. The third way for the development of an apologist is the growth of paremia (proverbs and sayings. But unlike paremia, in an apologist the allegory is not only rational, but also sensitive.

Next to the apologist is the so-called short story about animals, singled out by E. A. Kostyukhin. A short story in an animal tale is a story about unusual cases with a fairly developed intrigue, with sharp turns in the fate of the characters. The trend towards moralization determines the fate of the genre. It has a more definite morality than in the apologist, the comic beginning is muted, or completely removed. The mischief of the comic fairy tale about animals is replaced in the short story with a different content - entertaining. Classic example novelistic fairy tale about animals - this is "Grateful animals". Most of the plots of a folklore short story about animals are formed in literature, and then pass into folklore. The easy transition of these plots is due to the fact that they themselves literary plots based on folklore.

Speaking about satire in fairy tales about animals, it must be said that literature once gave impetus to the development of a satirical fairy tale. The condition for the appearance of a satirical tale arises in the late Middle Ages. The satirical effect in a folklore tale is achieved by the fact that social terminology is put into the mouths of animals (Fox confessor; Cat and wild animals). The plot "Ruff Ershovich", which is a fairy tale of book origin, stands apart. Having appeared late in a folk tale, satire did not gain a foothold in it, since social terminology can easily be removed from a satirical tale.

So in the 19th century, a satirical tale is unpopular. The satire within the animal tale is only an accent in an extremely small group of animal stories. And the laws of the animal fairy tale with trickster tricks influenced the satirical tale. The satirical sound was preserved in fairy tales, where the trickster was in the center, and where there was a complete absurdity of what was happening, then the fairy tale became a fiction.

Fairy tales

Fairy tales of the magical type include magical, adventure, heroic. At the heart of such fairy tales lies a wonderful world. The wonderful world is an objective, fantastic, unlimited world. Thanks to unlimited fantasy and the wonderful principle of organizing material in fairy tales with wonderful world possible "transformation", striking in its speed (children grow by leaps and bounds, every day they become stronger or more beautiful). Not only the speed of the process is unreal, but also its very character (from the fairy tale "The Snow Maiden". "Look, the Snow Maiden's lips turned pink, her eyes opened. Then she shook off the snow and left the snowdrift live girl"Conversion" in fairy tales of the miraculous type, as a rule, takes place with the help of magical creatures or objects.

Basically, fairy tales are older than others, they bear traces of a person's primary acquaintance with the world around him.

A fairy tale is based on a complex composition, which has an exposition, plot, plot development, climax and denouement.

The plot of a fairy tale is based on a story about overcoming a loss or shortage, with the help of miraculous means, or magical helpers. In the exposition of the tale, there are consistently 2 generations - the older (the king with the queen, etc.) and the younger - Ivan with his brothers or sisters. Also in the exposition there is an absence of the older generation. An enhanced form of absence is the death of parents. The plot of the story is that main character either the heroine discovers a loss or shortage, or there are motives for the prohibition, violation of the prohibition and subsequent trouble. Here is the beginning of opposition, i.e. sending a hero from home.

The development of the plot is a search for the lost or missing.

The climax of the fairy tale is that the protagonist or heroine fights an opposing force and always defeats it (the battle equivalent is solving difficult problems that are always solved).

Resolution is overcoming a loss or lack. Usually the hero (heroine) at the end "reigns" - that is, acquires a higher social status than he had at the beginning.

V.Ya. Propp reveals the monotony of a fairy tale at the plot level on a purely syntagmatic plane. It reveals the invariance of a set of functions (the actions of actors), the linear sequence of these functions, as well as a set of roles distributed in a certain way between specific characters and correlated with functions. Functions are distributed among seven characters:

Antagonist (pest)

Donor

Assistant

Princess or her father

sender

False hero.

Meletinsky, singling out five groups of fairy tales, tries to solve the problem of the historical development of the genre in general, and plots in particular. The tale contains some motifs characteristic of totemic myths. The mythological origin of the universally widespread fairy tale about marriage with a wonderful "totem" creature, which temporarily shed its animal shell and assumed a human form, is quite obvious ("Husband is looking for a disappeared or kidnapped wife (wife is looking for a husband)", "The Frog Princess", " The Scarlet Flower"etc.). A fairy tale about visiting other worlds to free the captives who are there ("Three Underground Kingdoms", etc.). Popular fairy tales about a group of children falling into the power of an evil spirit, a monster, a cannibal and escaping thanks to the resourcefulness of one of them ("The Witch's Thumb Boy", etc.), or about the murder of a mighty snake - a chthonic demon ("The Conqueror of the Serpent", etc. .). In a fairy tale, a family theme is actively developed ("Cinderella", etc.). For a fairy tale, a wedding becomes a symbol of compensation for the socially disadvantaged ("Sivko-Burko"). Socially disadvantaged hero younger brother, stepdaughter, fool) at the beginning of the tale, endowed with all the negative characteristics from his environment, is endowed with beauty and intelligence at the end ("Humpbacked Horse"). The distinguished group of fairy tales about wedding trials draws attention to the story of personal destinies. The novelistic theme in a fairy tale is no less interesting than the heroic one. Propp classifies the genre of fairy tale by the presence in the main test of "Battle - Victory" or by the presence of "Hard task - Solving a difficult task". The household fairy tale became a logical development of a fairy tale.

Household fairy tales

A characteristic sign of everyday fairy tales is the reproduction in them everyday life. The conflict of everyday fairy tales often consists in the fact that decency, honesty, nobility under the guise of rusticity and naivety oppose those personality traits that have always caused sharp rejection among the people (greed, anger, envy).

As a rule, in everyday fairy tales there is more irony and self-irony, since Good triumphs, but the accidental or singularity of its victory is accentuated.

The diversity of everyday fairy tales is characteristic: social-everyday, satirical-everyday, novelistic and others. Unlike fairy tales, everyday fairy tale contains a more significant element of social and moral criticism, it is more definite in its social preferences. Praise and condemnation in everyday fairy tales sound stronger.

AT recent times in methodological literature information began to appear about a new type of fairy tales - about fairy tales of a mixed type. Of course, fairy tales of this type have existed for a long time, but they were not given much importance, since they forgot how much they can help in achieving educational, educational and developmental goals. In general, fairy tales of a mixed type are fairy tales of a transitional type.

They combine the features inherent in both fairy tales with a wonderful world, everyday fairy tales. Elements of the miraculous also appear in the form of magical objects around which the main action is grouped.

A fairy tale in various forms and scales strives to embody the ideal of human existence.

Fairy tale belief in the self-worth of the noble human qualities, the uncompromising preference for the Good is also based on the call for wisdom, activity, for true humanity.

Fairy tales broaden horizons, arouse interest in the life and work of peoples, instill a sense of trust in all the inhabitants of our Earth, engaged in honest work.

Fairy tales, their features; fabulous images.

Russian folk tales about animals. Features of this genre, examples of works.

Young children are usually attracted to the world of animals, so they really like fairy tales in which animals and birds act. In a fairy tale, animals acquire human features - they think, speak, and act. In essence, such images bring the child knowledge about the world of people, not animals.

In this kind of fairy tales, there is usually no distinct division of characters into positive and negative ones. Each of them is endowed with any one trait, an inherent feature of his character, which is played out in the plot. So, traditionally the main feature of the fox is cunning, the wolf is greedy and stupid. The bear has a not so unambiguous image, the bear can be evil, but it can also be kind, but at the same time it always remains a klutz. If a person appears in such a fairy tale, then he invariably turns out to be smarter than the fox, and the wolf, and the bear. Animals in a fairy tale observe the principle of hierarchy: everyone recognizes the strongest and the main one. Is it a lion or a bear. They are always at the top of the social ladder. This brings animal tales closer to fables, which is especially evident from the presence in both of them of similar moral conclusions - social and universal. These stories have a moral. Linear composition (1 story line) The plot, the climax, the denouement. Lots of action, humor, emotions, songs.

There are among the tales about animals and quite scary. The bear eats the old man and the old woman because they cut off his paw. An angry beast with a wooden leg, of course, seems terrible to the kids, but in fact he is the bearer of just retribution. The story gives the child the opportunity to understand a difficult situation.

The child must believe in a miracle - fantasize, imagine. Fairy tale is one of the favorite genres among the people, which arose on the basis of myths, legends, observations of real life. Fairy tales depict the most diverse aspects of life, tell about the most diverse people, talk about animals, and it is the fairy tale that best meets the needs of children, corresponds to child psychology.

Faith in miracles, craving for goodness, faith in magic that transforms the world. A fairy tale shows a person the right path, shows happiness and unhappiness, which can happen due to a perfect mistake. But nevertheless, after a mistake, the main character gets a second chance, the right to good luck. The main feature of the tale is the belief in justice. child compares real world and fictionalized, it singles out the thought, the idea that the fairy tale carries.

Features of the fairy tale genre

It doesn't matter who the hero is, what matters is who he is.

· Often the heroes have a straightforward character (positive and negative). The fox is cunning, the wolf is evil or narrow-minded - the fairy tale teaches to evaluate the main qualities.

· The contrast of positive and negative characters is easy to distinguish.

Linear composition (triple repetitions)

· Songs, jokes are repeated, included in the fairy tale.

The language of the fairy tale is concise, expressive, rhythmic

Fairy tale world: everything is big (no small parts, drawings), everything is remembered immediately and for a long time.

Most often, the colors are bright, there are no halftones (the caftan is red, the chambers are white stone)

Fairy-tale hero is an ideal person (kind, sympathetic, they believe him)

A special world is created in a fairy tale, in which everything is unusual (even the name), I am present magic items, transformations, talking animals. The child is interested in all this - develops imagination.

· The struggle of dark and light forces. The danger seems to be the most terrible when there is evil spirits - Baba Yaga, Serpent Gorynych.

Actions often take place in the family

Ethical motivations: injustice is a source of suffering and misfortune

No irreparable situations

A fairy tale teaches to evaluate the actions and deeds of people

Linear composition

Heroes remain true to their characters (do not change until the end of the tale)

・Availability of travel

The presence of a ban (what will happen after the violation of the ban, errors)

In difficult times, helpers come, but initially they check the hero

The characters may include children

· There are fabulous stable formulas (once upon a time, in a certain kingdom, soon a fairy tale will tell), as well as proverbs, epithets, hyperbole.

In a fairy tale, a different, special, mysterious world appears before the listener than in fairy tales about animals. It has extraordinary fantastic heroes, goodness and truth defeat darkness, evil and lies.

"This is a world where Ivan Tsarevich rushes through a dark forest on a gray wolf, where the deceived Alyonushka suffers, where Vasilisa the Beautiful brings a scorching fire from Baba Yaga, where a brave hero finds the death of Kashchei the Immortal" ..1

Some of the fairy tales are closely related to mythological representations. Such images as Frost, Water, Sun, Wind are associated with the elemental forces of nature. The most popular of Russian fairy tales are: "Three Kingdoms", " magic ring"," Finist's Feather - Clear Falcon", "The Frog Princess", "Kashchei the Immortal", "Maria Morevna", "The Sea King and Vasilisa the Wise", "Sivka-Burka", "Morozko", etc.

The hero of a fairy tale is courageous, fearless. He overcomes all obstacles in his path, wins victories, wins his happiness. And if at the beginning of the tale he can act as Ivan the Fool, Emelya the Fool, then at the end he necessarily turns into a handsome and well done Ivan Tsarevich. A.M. drew attention to this at one time. Bitter:

"The hero of folklore -" fool ", despised even by his father and brothers, always turns out to be smarter than them, always the winner of all worldly adversities."2

A positive hero is always helped by others. fairy tale characters. So, in the fairy tale "Three Kingdoms" the hero gets out into the world with the help of a wonderful bird. In other fairy tales, both Sivka-Burka and Gray wolf, and Elena the Beautiful. Even such characters as Morozko and Baba Yaga help the heroes for their diligence and good manners. In all this, people's ideas about human morality and morality are expressed.

Next to the main characters in a fairy tale, there are always wonderful helpers: the Gray Wolf, Sivka-Burka, Obyedalo, Opivalo, Dubynya and Usynya, etc. They have wonderful means: a flying carpet, walking boots, a self-assembled tablecloth, an invisibility hat. Images of goodies in fairy tales, helpers and wonderful objects express folk dreams.

The images of women-heroines of fairy tales in the popular imagination are unusually beautiful. They say about them: "Neither in a fairy tale to say, nor to describe with a pen." They are wise, possess magical power, possess remarkable intelligence and resourcefulness (Elena the Beautiful, Vasilisa the Wise, Marya Morevna).

Opponents of goodies are dark forces, scary monsters(Kashchei the Deathless, Baba Yaga, famously one-eyed, Serpent Gorynych). They are cruel, treacherous and greedy. This is how the idea of ​​the people about violence and evil is expressed. Their appearance sets off the image of a positive hero, his feat. The storytellers did not spare colors to emphasize the struggle between light and dark beginnings. In its content and in its form, a fairy tale bears elements of the miraculous, the unusual. The composition of fairy tales is different from the composition of fairy tales about animals. Some fairy tales begin with a saying - a playful joke that is not related to the plot. The purpose of the saying is to grab the attention of the audience. It is followed by the opening that begins the story. It takes listeners to fairy world, denotes the time and place of the action, the situation, the characters. The fairy tale ends with an ending. The narrative develops sequentially, the action is given in dynamics. Dramatically tense situations are reproduced in the structure of the tale.

In fairy tales, episodes are repeated three times (Ivan Tsarevich fights with three snakes on the Kalinov Bridge, three beautiful princesses rescued by Ivan underworld). They use traditional artistic means of expression: epithets (good horse, valiant horse, green meadow, silk grass, azure flowers, blue sea, dense forests), comparisons, metaphors, words with diminutive suffixes. These features of fairy tales resonate with epics and emphasize the brightness of the narrative.

An example of such a fairy tale is the fairy tale "Two Ivans - soldiers' sons".

The beginning of a fairy tale abounds everyday paintings and bears little resemblance to magical circumstances. It conveys the usual everyday information: a peasant lived, the time has come - he went to the soldiers, in his absence twin boys were born, who were called Ivans - "soldier's sons". Thus, in this tale there are two main characters at once. Nothing miraculous, magical yet happens in it. It tells about how children study, how they comprehend reading and writing, "lordly and merchant children were shut up by the belt." In the development of the action, a plot is planned, when the good fellows go to the city to buy horses. This scene is filled with elements of a fairy tale: the brothers tame the stallions, as fairy-tale heroes have a powerful force. With a "valiant whistle" and with a loud voice, the stallions who had run away into the field are returned. The horses obey them: "The stallions came running and stood in place, as if rooted to the spot." The main characters of the tale are surrounded by special objects that emphasize their heroism (heroic horses, sabers of three hundred pounds). It is also wonderful that they received these objects from a gray-haired old man, who brought out horses for them, opening a cast-iron door into great sorrow. He also brought them two heroic sabers. So peasant children turn into heroes. The good fellows got on their horses and rode off.

The fairy tale includes images of the crossroads, pillars with inscriptions that determine the choice of the path and the fate of the brothers. The objects accompanying the brothers turn out to be miraculous, for example, the handkerchiefs symbolizing death, which they exchanged. The narrative is framed by stable fabulous formulas. One brother reached the glorious kingdom, married Nastasya the Beautiful and became a prince. “Ivan Tsarevich lives in joy, admires his wife, gives order to the kingdom and amuses himself with animal hunting.”3

And the other brother "rides tirelessly day and night, and a month, and another, and a third." Then Ivan suddenly finds himself in an unfamiliar state.

In the city he sees great sadness. "The houses are covered with black cloth, people stagger as if sleepy"4. The twelve-headed serpent that emerges from the blue sea, from behind the gray stone, eats a person at a time. Even the king's daughter is taken to be eaten by a snake. The serpent personifies the dark forces of the world with which the hero fights. Ivan rushes to help. He is brave, knows no fear and always wins in battle. Ivan cuts off all the heads of the snake. The fairy tale element is enhanced by the description of nature, against which the snake appears: "Suddenly a cloud moved in, the wind rustled, the sea stirred - a snake comes out of the blue of the sea, rises up the mountain ... "5. Ivan's duel with the snake is described succinctly.

Repeating verbs give impetus to the action: "Ivan drew his sharp saber, swung, struck and cut down all twelve heads of the snake; he raised a gray stone, put his heads under a stone, threw his body into the sea, and he returned home, went to bed and slept for three days" .6

It would seem that the fairy tale should end there, the plot is exhausted, but suddenly new circumstances are woven into it with the introduction of a character from the royal environment - a water carrier, whose thoughts are vile and base.

The situation is getting worse. The climax is coming. The water carrier acts as the "savior" of the princess, under pain of death, forcing her to recognize him as a savior. The episode is repeated two more times with the other two daughters of the king. The tsar granted the water carrier to the colonels, then to the generals, and, finally, he married his youngest daughter.

And Ivan fights with the monster three times, three times the water carrier threatens to kill the king's daughters. However, the story ends with the victory of the hero, evil is punished, the water carrier is hanged, truth triumphs, youngest daughter married to Ivan. This episode of the fairy tale ends with a well-known saying: "The young began to live, live, and make good."

The narration in the tale again returns to another brother - Ivan Tsarevich. It is told how he got lost while hunting and met with an ugly monster - a red maiden, the sister of a twelve-headed serpent, who turned into a terrible lioness. She opens her mouth and swallows the prince whole. The story has an element of reincarnation. A wonderful object comes to the aid of the hero - a scarf of his brother, announcing what happened. The search for a brother begins. The description of the hunt and the actions of the hero are repeated in the tale. Ivan - peasant son falls into the same situation as Ivan Tsarevich, but remains alive thanks to a wonderful helper - a magic horse. The red maiden pouted with a terrible lioness and wanted to swallow good fellow, but a magic horse came running, "grabbed her with heroic legs," and Ivan forced the lioness to throw Ivan Tsarevich out of himself, threatening that he would chop her to pieces.

An extraordinary miracle in a fairy tale and living water that saves and revives Ivan Tsarevich. The tale ends with an ending: Ivan Tsarevich remained in his state, and Ivan, the son of a soldier, went to his wife and began to live with her in love and harmony.

The fairy tale "Two Ivan - Soldier's Sons" combines all the elements of a fairy tale: composition, repetition of episodes and actions of heroes three times, development of the plot, positive heroes and the opposition of negative monsters to them, miraculous transformations and objects, the use of figurative and expressive means (constant epithets, stable folklore formulas). The fairy tale affirms good and debunks evil.

Magic tales. This is the most popular and favorite genre of children. They are called magical because everything that happens in its plot fantastic and significant on the task: in such a fairy tale there is necessarily a central positive hero, Kotor. fights evil and injustice, he is helped by wizards and magic items. Russian folk tales about Ivan Tsarevich can be cited as examples.

The danger seems to be especially strong, because. main opponents- villains, representatives supernatural dark forces : Serpent Gorynych, Baba Yaga, Koschey the Immortal. By gaining victory over evil spirits, the hero confirms his lofty human principle, closeness to light forces nature. In the fight, he becomes even stronger and wiser, gains new friends and gains full right fortunately - to the satisfaction of little listeners.

A character in fairy tales is always bearer of certain moral qualities. The hero of the most popular fairy tales is Ivan Tsarevich. He helps many animals and birds, who are grateful to him for this, and in turn help him, his brothers, who often try to destroy him. He is represented in fairy tales as folk hero, incarnation highest moral character- courage, honesty, kindness. He is young, handsome, smart and strong. This type of bold and strong hero.

The Russian people are characterized by the consciousness that a person always meets on his way with life's difficulties, but with their good deeds he will surely overcome them. A hero endowed with such qualities as kindness, generosity, honesty deeply sympathetic to the Russian people.

Befitting such a hero female images - Elena the Beautiful, Vasilisa the Wise, Tsar Maiden, Marya Morevna. They are so beautiful that "neither in a fairy tale to say, nor to describe with a pen", and at the same time have magic, intelligence and courage. These "wise maidens" help Ivan Tsarevich escape from the sea king, find Koshcheev's death, and complete overwhelming tasks. fairy tale heroines perfect way embody folk ideas about women's beauty, kindness, wisdom .

Characters confront the main characters sharply negative- insidious, envious, cruel. Most often it is Koschey the Immortal, Baba Yaga, the Serpent with three to nine heads, famously one-eyed. They are monstrous and ugly in appearance, insidious, cruel in the confrontation with the forces of light and good. The higher the price of the protagonist's victory.

In difficult times, the main character comes to the rescue helpers. These are either magical animals (Sivka-burka, pike, Gray wolf, Pig-golden bristles), or kind old women, wonderful uncles, strong men, walkers, boletus mushrooms. Wonderful items are distinguished by a great variety: a flying carpet, walking boots, a self-assembled tablecloth, an invisibility cap, living and dead water. Fleeing from persecution, the hero throws a comb - and a dense forest rises; a towel, a scarf turns into a river or a lake.

fantasy world Far Far Away Kingdom, Far Far Away State is multicolored, filled with many curiosities: milk rivers flow here with jelly banks, golden apples grow in the garden, “birds of paradise sing and sea seals meow.”

Like a fairy tale incorporates many stylistic devices of other genres folklore. Here and permanent epithets characteristic of a lyrical song (“good horse”, “dense forests”, “silk grass”, “sugar lips”), and epic hyperbole(“running - the earth trembles, smoke from the nostrils, flames from the ears”), and parallelisms: “In the meantime, the sorceress came and brought damage to the queen: Alyonushka became sick, but so thin and pale. In the royal court everything was gloomy; the flowers in the garden began to wither, the trees to dry, the grass to fade.

Sayings, traditional beginnings, endings. Them appointment - delimit fairy tale from everyday life.“In a certain kingdom, in a certain state”, “once upon a time there were” are the most characteristic beginnings of a Russian fairy tale. The ending, like the saying, usually has a comic character, it is rhythmic, rhyming, pronounced with a tongue twister. Often the storyteller ended his story with a description of the feast: “They arranged a feast for the whole world, and I was there, honey, drinking beer, it flowed down my mustache, but it didn’t get into my mouth.” Obviously, the following saying is addressed to listeners of childhood: "Here's a fairy tale for you, and a bunch of bagels for me."

A fairy tale is the oldest genre of oral folk art, a classic example of folklore.

Telling fairy tales in Rus' was perceived as an art that everyone could join, regardless of gender and age, and good storytellers were highly revered by the people. They teach a person to live, inspire optimism in him, affirm faith in the triumph of goodness and justice. Behind the fantastic nature of the fairy tale and fiction, real human relationships are hidden.

The term "fairy tale" itself appeared in the 17th century. , and was first recorded in the charter of the governor of Vsevolodsky. Until that time, the word "fable" was widely used, derived from the word "bayat", that is, to tell. Unfortunately, the names of professional storytellers of past times are not known to modern researchers, but the fact is known that already in the 19th century, scientists began to study Russian folklore, including fairy tales.

Fairy tale is a general concept. The presence of certain genre features makes it possible to attribute this or that oral prose work to fairy tales. Belonging to the epic genus puts forward such features as narrative and plot. The tale is necessarily entertaining, unusual, with a clearly expressed idea of ​​the triumph of good over evil, truth over falsehood, life over death; all the events in it are brought to an end, incompleteness and incompleteness are not characteristic of a fairy tale plot ...

The main genre feature of a fairy tale is its purpose, that which connects the fairy tale with the needs of the collective. “In Russian fairy tales that have come down to us in the records of the 18th - 20th centuries, as well as in fairy tales that exist now, aesthetic function dominates. It is due to the special nature of fairy-tale fiction.

Fiction is characteristic of all kinds of fairy tales of different peoples. .

IN AND. Dahl in his dictionary interprets the term "fairy tale" as "a fictitious story, an unprecedented and even unrealizable story, a legend" and gives a series folk proverbs and sayings associated with this type of folk art, for example, the famous "neither in a fairy tale to say, nor to describe with a pen." This characterizes the tale as something instructive, but at the same time incredible, a story about something that cannot actually happen, but from which everyone can learn a certain lesson. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, a whole galaxy of collections of Russian folk tales was published, which absorbed the pearls of folk art.

Russian folk tales are distinguished from other tales of the peoples of the world, first of all, by their educational orientation: let us recall at least the famous saying that a fairy tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it. Work in Russian folk tales is depicted not as a heavy duty, but as an honorable duty for everyone. They glorify moral values ​​such as altruism, willingness to help, kindness, honesty, and ingenuity. They are one of the most revered genres Russian folklore thanks to a fascinating story that opens the reader to an amazing world of human relationships and feelings and makes you believe in a miracle. Thus, Russian fairy tales are an inexhaustible source of folk wisdom, which is still used today.

The educational function of a fairy tale is one of its genre features. Fairy-tale didacticism permeates the whole fairy-tale structure, achieving a special effect by sharply contrasting the positive and the negative. Moral and social truth always triumphs - this is the didactic conclusion that the tale clearly illustrates.

The history of the emergence of fairy tales as a genre.

The historical roots of the Russian fairy tale are lost in hoary antiquity, each historical stage of the life of the Russian people is reflected in the fairy tale, making natural changes to it. The study of these changes, or rather, the generalization of these changes, makes it possible to speak about the specific process of the life of the Russian tale, that is, about its history.

Install accurately. When exactly the Russian fairy tale was defined as a genre, when exactly it began to live as a fairy tale, and not as a belief or tradition, is impossible.

The first mention of a Russian folk tale refers to Kievan Rus, but its origins are lost in time immemorial. As for feudal Rus', then there is no doubt that fairy tales, in our understanding, were one of the widespread genres of oral folk art in Kievan Rus. Monuments of ancient Russian literature have preserved enough references to storytellers and fairy tales to be sure of this.

The earliest information about Russian fairy tales refers to12 century. AT teach "Word about rich and miserable" in the description of a rich man’s going to bed, among the servants around him who amuse him in various ways, those who “bayat and blaspheme”, that is, tell him tales to sleep, are indignantly mentioned. This first mention of the fairy tale fully reflected the contradictory attitude towards it that we have been observing in Russian society for many centuries. On the one hand, a fairy tale is a favorite revelation of fun, it has access to all strata of society, on the other hand, it is stigmatized and persecuted as something demonic, not permissible, shaking the foundations of ancient Russian life. So, Cyril of Turovsky, listing the types of sins, also mentions the playing of fables; Metropolitan Photius at the beginning of the 15th century conjures his flock so that they refrain from listening to fables; royal decrees of the 17th century speak disapprovingly of those who destroy their souls by the fact that "he tells unprecedented fairy tales."

All this gives us reason to believe that in ancient Rus' the fairy tale has already stood out as a genre from oral prose, demarcated from tradition, legend and myth. Its genre features - “an orientation towards fiction and entertaining functions are equally recognized by both its bearers and persecutors. Already in Ancient Rus' they -<сказки небывалые>and it is precisely as such that they continue to live in the popular repertoire in subsequent centuries.

Researchers about the fairy tale and its genre features.

Researching a fairy tale, scientists defined its meaning and features in different ways. Some of them, with absolute obviousness, sought to characterize fairy tale fiction as independent of reality, while others wanted to understand how the attitude of folk storytellers to the surrounding reality was refracted in the fantasy of fairy tales. Whether to consider any fantastic story as a fairy tale or to single it out in the oral folk prose and other types of it - non-fairytale prose? How to understand fantastic fiction, without which none of the fairy tales can do? These are the problems that have long worried researchers.

A number of folklore researchers called a fairy tale everything that “affected ». So, Academician Yu.M. Sookolov wrote; "Under the folk tale in the broadest sense of the word, we mean an oral-poetic story of a fantastic, adventurous or everyday nature." The scientist's brother, Professor B.Yu. Sokolov, also believed that everyone should be called a fairy tale. oral story. Both researchers argued that fairy tales include a number of special genres and types, and that each of them can be considered separately.

An attempt to distinguish a fairy tale from other genres of folklore was made more than a hundred years ago by K.S. Aksakov. Speaking about the difference between fairy tales and epics, he wrote: “Between fairy tales and songs, in our opinion, there is a sharp line. Fairy tale and song are different from the beginning. This distinction has been established by the people themselves, and it is best for us to accept directly the division which they have made in their literature. A fairy tale is a fold (fiction), and a song is a true story, the people say, and its words have a deep meaning, which is explained as soon as we pay attention to the song and the fairy tale.

Fiction, according to Aksakov , influenced both the image of the scene in them, and the characters of the characters. Aksakov clarified his understanding of the tale with the following judgments:<<В сказке очень сознательно рассказчик нарушает все пределы времени и пространства, говорит о тридесятом царстве,о небывалых странах и всяких диковинках>>. Aksakov believed that the most characteristic of fairy tales is fiction, moreover, conscious fiction. The well-known folklorist A.N. Afanasiev . << Сказка- складка, песня- быль, говорила старая пословица, стараясь провести резкую грантцу между эпосом сказочным и эпосом историческим. Извращая действительный смысл этой пословицы, поинимали сказку за чистую ложь, за поэттческий обман,имеющий единою целью занять свободный достуг небывалыми и невозможными вымыслами. Несостоятельность такого воззрения уже давно бросалась в глаза>>, - wrote this scientist. Afanasiev did not allow the idea that<<пустая складка>> could be preserved by the people for a number of centuries and over the vast expanse of the country, holding and repeating<< один и то жк представления>>. He concluded:<< нет, сказка- не пустая складка, в ней как и вообще во всех созданиях целого народа, не могло быть, и в самом деле нет ни нарочно сочиненённой лжи, ни намеренного уклоднения от действительного понимания сказки.

The sign accepted by Aksakov as significant for fairy tale narration was, with some clarifications, the basis for the definition of a fairy tale proposed by the Soviet folklorist A.I. Nikiforov. Nikiforov wrote:<< сказки - это устные рассказы, бытовом смысле события (фантастические, чудесные или житейские) и отличающиеся специальным композиционно - стилистическим построением>>. Explaining the meaning of his definition, Nikiforov pointed out three essential signs of a fairy tale: the first sign of a modern fairy tale is the goal setting for the entertainment of listeners, the second sign is an unusual content in everyday life, and finally, the third important sign of a fairy tale is special shape its construction.

The dictionary of literary terms gives the following definition of a fairy tale as a genre: A fairy tale is one of the main genres of folk oral and poetic creativity.

Traditionally, there are three types of fairy tales:

1) magical;

2) household;

3) a fairy tale about animals.

Each of these types has its own characteristics.

1. Fairy tales.

Genre challenge: cause admiration good hero and condemn the villain, express confidence in the triumph of good.

By type of conflict, fairy tales are:

Heroic: the hero fights with magical power;

Social class: the hero is fighting with the master, with the king;

Family (pedagogical): the conflict occurs in the family or the tale is moralizing.

Heroes are divided into: intercessors, villains, sufferers, helpers.

Common features of fairy tales:

The presence of obvious fantasy, magic, miracle (magical characters and objects);

Encounter with magical forces;

Complicated composition;

An extended set of visual and expressive means;

The description dominates the dialog;

Multiple episodes (a fairy tale covers a fairly long period of the hero's life).

Examples of fairy tales are:<<Царевна-лягушка>>, <<Крошечка волке>> and others.

2. Household fairy tales.

Genre challenge: ridicule bad traits character of a person, to express joyful surprise with intelligence and resourcefulness.

Household fairy tales are divided into the following types:

anecdotal;

And novelistic:

Satirical anti-bar, anti-royal, anti-religious;

Tales - competitions;

Fairy tales are ridicule;

General features:

It is based on an extraordinary incident within the framework of real human relations (fiction is practically absent);

There is a wonderful assumption, based on, for example, hyperbole:

The hero is so cunning that he can outwit everyone in the world and go unpunished;

Instead of magic, wit is used;

Realism is conditional (real life conflicts receive an extraordinary fabulous resolution);

The acting characters are antagonists;

The goodie is an ironic lucky guy;

The semantic emphasis falls on the denouement;

Widespread use of the dialosha;

Abundance of verbs.

Heron: ordinary people (pop, soldier, man, woman, king, master).

examples of household tales are:<<Каша из топора>>, <<как мужик с барином обедал>>, <<Кому горшок мыть>> and others.

3.Tales about animals.

Genre challenge: ridicule bad character traits, actions, cause compassion for the weak, offended.

By conflict Animal tales depict:

The struggle of predators among themselves;

The struggle of a weak beast with a predator;

The fight between man and beast.

Heroes: animals (features of animals and conditionally human).

Special subgroups:

Tales of fox trickery;

Cumulative (chain tales).

chain fairy tale (cumulative tale, recursive tale, chain tale) - a tale in which dialogue or actions are repeated and developed as the plot develops. The effect of these tales is often based on repetition and characteristic rhyme.

With endless repetition:

Boring tales like "About the white bull."

A unit of text is included in another text (“The priest had a dog”).

With final repetition:

"Turnip" - plot units grow into a chain until the chain breaks.

General features:

The specific composition of the characters (fairy-tale images - traditional types: the fox is cunning, the wolf is stupid):

Anthropomorphism (transfer of mental properties and qualities of character inherent in a person to animals);

Conflicts reflect people's real life relationships;

Lightweight composition;

A narrowed set of visual and expressive means;

Extensive use of dialogues;

Abundance of verbs;

Small episodes, speed;

Introduction of small folklore forms.

Examples of fairy tales about animals are:<<Кот, Петух и Лиса>>, <<Лисичка-сестричка и Волк>>,<<Лиса, Заяц и Петух>> ,<<Лиса и Тетерев>> and others.

Russian folk song (genre varieties, poetic style)

Russian folk song - folklore works that are preserved in the people's memory and passed from mouth to mouth, a product of the collective oral creativity of the Russian people.

Most often, a folk song does not have a specific author, or the author is unknown, but folk songs of literary origin are also known. An essential feature of most genres of Russian folk songs is the direct connection of folk songs with everyday life and labor activity (for example, labor songs accompanying various types of labor - burlatsky, mowing, weeding, reaping, threshing, etc., ritual songs accompanying agricultural and family rituals and festivities - carols, Shrovetide, stoneflies, Kupala, wedding, funeral, game calendar, etc.).

In folk versification, there is a certain number of stressed words in a verse (usually three or four words), the number of syllables from stress to stress can be different; as a rule, these are unrhymed poems

Typology

Russian folk songs are divided into:

Song epic

epics (South Russian, Central Russian, Siberian);

northern epic tradition;

historical songs;

fables and buffoons;

songs in fairy tales.

Calendar ritual songs

congratulatory winter (carols, shedrovka, grapes, oats)

Christmas time (see Christmas time);

Shrovetide;

spring (stoneflies, drawing, Easter);

songs of plowing and sowing;

ascension;

Trinity-Semitsky (see Semik, Trinity);

summer (Kupala songs);

milling, mowing, reaping.

Family ritual songs

rites of birth and nurturing (pestushka);

cries and lamentations;

wedding;

lullabies.

With other works of folklore, folk songs bring together their linguistic features: folk verse, repetitions, comparisons, permanent epithets, the use of words with diminutive suffixes.

Family ritual songs accompanied by rituals associated with the most important events in a person's life. Wedding songs were sung: bachelorette party songs; glorious songs of the wedding feast; wedding lamentations of the bride. Recruiting songs accompanied the rite of passage to the soldiers. There were also funeral songs, lamentation songs. The wedding ceremony was one of the most difficult. A folk wedding was divided into several stages: the pre-wedding cycle (matchmaking, conspiracy, engagement, bachelorette party), the actual wedding ceremonies (bride's preparations, arrival for the bride, wedding, wedding feast) and post-wedding (offtakes). The bride before the wedding was supposed to lament: to regret the freedom, girl life. These are ritual lamentations:

historical song epic and some lyrical-epic works are called, which tell about historical events and episodes from the life of historical persons.

Historical songs are a continuation and development of the epic folk epic. Bylina sings the feats of heroes. Their exaggerated images embody folk ideas about Russian strength, power, and readiness to defend the Motherland. The enemy force appears in the epic as a fantastic, fabulous creature that does not have an unambiguous historical prototype. The historical events of hoary antiquity in epics lose their features of reality.

In historical songs, on the contrary, quite definite historical events are mentioned, specific historical persons are named. Only outstanding events and outstanding historical figures are honored with the people's memory: these are the tsars Peter I, Ivan IV (the Terrible), these are the people's intercessors - the leaders of the peasant uprisings Stepan Razin, Emelyan Pugachev, this is the free Cossack, the brave conqueror of Siberia Ermak Timofeevich ...

Historical songs expressed the feelings of nameless authors in connection with wars, campaigns, popular uprisings. This is a people's assessment of history, its creators, an expression of the soul of the people.

In the 16th century, cycles of songs were formed around Ivan the Terrible and the hero put forward by the people - Yermak. Folk songs show why the king got his nickname. The king is great, his merits are indisputable. At the same time, Ivan the Terrible, on the slightest suspicion, is ready to “execute-hang” his gunners, during punitive campaigns he destroys entire cities, in anger he sends his son to be executed

Songs were sung not only in connection with rituals, but also just for fun: at gatherings, during everyday work. These songs have served the people for centuries to express experiences and feelings, therefore they are called lyrical. In song folklore, lyrical songs occupy most. These songs appeared later than the ritual ones. All shades of the spiritual life of the people were embodied in them.

In love songs it was said about the first meetings of lovers, their love joy and longing, fidelity and betrayal. Family songs told of an unhappy wife and a strict or old husband; about a husband who did not marry for love and is now unhappy, all that remains for him is to remember his former love. The young sang about harsh parents, the daughter-in-law - about the unkind mother-in-law.

There were songs of robbers, prison, soldiers, coachmen, barge workers, songs about serf captivity - they helped endure the hardships of life, ease mental anguish. Such songs healed the human soul. The singer felt that he was not alone in his grief, that such grief was experienced by many, many people. People's sympathy for the suffering, which was heard in these songs, brought consolation. Here, for example, is the robber's song "Don't make noise, mother green oak tree, Don't bother me thinking...". It is sung in the robber detachment of Vladimir Dubrovsky, it is sung by Pugachev in A. S. Pushkin's story "The Captain's Daughter". Although the robbers broke many laws, sympathy for their unfortunate lot is heard in the song. It also sings of bravery, and one hears a sad reflection on imminent death, the expectation of a harsh retribution.

The named types of lyrical songs are called in a different way drawling, "voice", "long". All these definitions point to the unhurried, sing-song nature of the song. The main thing in the song is music. It is difficult to convey the content without music, since there is practically no rhyme and the text of the song is not perceived as poetry. The rhythmic pattern appears here only when singing, the singer inserts numerous repetitions, exclamations, interjections into the text, which on the one hand enhances the emotionality, on the other hand, emphasizes the rhythm.

Russian epic epic (cyclization, themes, images, poetics)

BYLINA - folklore epic song, a genre characteristic of the Russian tradition. The basis of the plot of the epic is some heroic event, or a remarkable episode of Russian history (hence the popular name of the epic - "old", "old", implying that the action in question took place in the past). The term "epic" was introduced into scientific use in the 40s of the 19th century. folklorist I.P. Sakharov (1807–1863).

Means of artistic expression. Over the course of many centuries, peculiar techniques have been developed that are characteristic of the poetics of the epic, as well as the way they are performed. In ancient times, it is believed that storytellers played along on the harp; later epics were performed in recitative. Epics are characterized by a special purely tonic epic verse (which is based on the commensurability of lines by the number of stresses, which achieves rhythmic uniformity). Although the storytellers used only a few melodies when performing epics, they enriched the singing with a variety of intonations, and also changed the timbre of the voice.

Emphatically solemn style of presentation of the epic narrating about heroic and often tragic events, determined the need to slow down the action (retardation). For this, it is usedsuch a technique as repetition, moreover, not only individual words are repeated: ... eta spit, spit, ... from far, far, marvelous marvelous (tautological repetitions), but also the injection of synonyms: fight-rattling, tribute-duties, (synomimic repetitions), often the end of one line is the beginning another: And yes, they came to Holy Rus', / To Holy Rus' and even near Kyiv city ..., there are often three repetitions of entire episodes, going with increased effect, and some descriptions are extremely detailed.Characteristic of the epic and the presence of "common places", when describing situations of the same type are used certain formula expressions: in this way (and with extreme detail) the saddle of a horse is depicted: Ai Dobrynya goes out into the wide courtyard, / He is the bridle-saddle of a good horse, / After all, he imposes a ribbon bridle,. The "common places" also include a description of a feast (for the most part, at Prince Vladimir), a feast, a heroic ride on a greyhound horse. A folk narrator could combine such stable formulas at his own will.

The language of epics is characterized by hyperbole, with the help of which the narrator emphasizes the character traits or appearance of the characters worthy of special mention. Another technique determines the listener's attitude to the epic - an epithet (a powerful, holy Russian, glorious hero and a filthy, evil enemy), and stable epithets are often found (violent head, hot blood, frisky legs, combustible tears). Suffixes also play a similar role: everything related to heroes was mentioned in diminutive forms (hat, little head, little thought, Aleshenka, Vasenka Buslaevich, Dobrynushka, etc.), but negative characters were named Gloomy, Ignatish, Tsar Batuish, Ugarisch filthy. Considerable place is occupied by assonances (repetition of vowel sounds) and alliteration (repetition of consonants), additional organizing elements of the verse.

Epics, as a rule, are three-part: a sing-along (usually not directly related to the content), the function of which is to prepare for listening to the song; beginning (within its limits, the action unfolds); ending.

It should be noted that certain artistic techniques used in the epic are determined by its theme (for example, antithesis is typical for heroic epics).

Plots of epics. The number of epic plots, despite the many recorded versions of the same epic, is very limited: there are about 100 of them. There are epics based on matchmaking or the hero’s struggle for his wife (Sadko, Mikhailo Potyk, Ivan Godinovich, Danube, Kozarin, Nightingale Budimirovich and later - Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna, Khoten Bludovich); fighting monsters (Dobrynya and the snake, Alyosha and Tugarin, Ilya and Idolishche, Ilya and the Nightingale the Robber); the fight against foreign invaders, including: repelling Tatar raids (Ilya's quarrel with Vladimir, Ilya and Kalin, Dobrynya and Vasily Kazemirovich), wars with Lithuanians (Epic about the arrival of Lithuanians).

Satirical epics or epics-parodies stand apart (Duk Stepanovich, Competition with Churila).

The main epic heroes. Representatives of the Russian "mythological school" divided the heroes of epics into "senior" and "junior" heroes . In their opinion, the “elders” (Svyatogor, Danube, Volkh, Potyka) were the personification of elemental forces, epics about them in a peculiar way reflected the mythological views that existed in Ancient Rus'. The “younger” heroes (Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich) are ordinary mortals, heroes of a new historical era, and therefore in minimum degree endowed with mythological features. Despite the fact that serious objections were subsequently raised against such a classification, such a division is still found in the scientific literature.

The images of heroes are the national standard of courage, justice, patriotism and strength (it was not for nothing that one of the first Russian aircraft, which had an exceptional carrying capacity for those times, was called the creators of "Ilya Muromets").

Svyatogor refers to the oldest and most popular epic heroes. His very name indicates a connection with nature. He is great in stature and mighty, his earth bears with difficulty. This image was born in the pre-Kiev era, but subsequently underwent changes. Only two plots have come down to us, initially associated with Svyatogor (the rest arose later and are fragmentary): the plot about the discovery of Svyatogor's bag, which belonged, as specified in some versions, to another epic hero, Mikula Selyaninovich. The bag turns out to be so heavy that the bogatyr cannot lift it; The second story tells about the death of Svyatogor, who meets a coffin on the way with the inscription: “Whoever is destined to lie in a coffin will lie in it,” and decides to try his luck. As soon as Svyatogor lies down, the lid of the coffin jumps up by itself and the hero cannot move it. Before his death, Svyatogor passes on his power to Ilya Muromets, thus the hero of antiquity passes the baton to the new hero of the epic that comes to the fore.

Ilya Muromets, undoubtedly, the most popular hero of epics, a mighty hero. Epos does not know him young, he is an old man with a gray beard. Oddly enough, Ilya Muromets appeared later than his epic younger comrades Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. His homeland is the city of Murom, the village of Karacharovo.

The peasant son, the sick Ilya, "sat on the stove for 30 years and three years." One day wanderers came to the house, “passable kaliks”. They healed Ilya, endowing him with heroic strength. From now on, he is a hero who is destined to serve the city of Kyiv and Prince Vladimir. On the way to Kyiv, Ilya defeats the Nightingale the Robber, puts him in "toroks" and takes him to the prince's court. Of the other exploits of Ilya, it is worth mentioning his victory over Idolishche, which laid siege to Kyiv and forbade begging and commemorating God's name. Here Elijah acts as a defender of the faith.

His relationship with Prince Vladimir is not smooth. The peasant hero does not meet with due respect at the court of the prince, he is bypassed with gifts, he is not put in a place of honor at the feast. The rebellious hero is imprisoned in the cellar for seven years and is doomed to starvation. Only an attack on the city of the Tatars, led by Tsar Kalin, forces the prince to ask for help from Ilya. He gathers heroes and enters the battle. The defeated enemy flees, vowing never to return to Rus'.

Nikitich- a popular hero of the epics of the Kyiv cycle. This hero snake fighter was born in Ryazan. He is the most polite and well-mannered of the Russian heroes, it is not for nothing that Dobrynya always acts as an ambassador and negotiator in difficult situations. The main epics associated with the name of Dobrynya: Dobrynya and the snake, Dobrynya and Vasily Kazemirovich, the Battle of Dobrynya with the Danube, Dobrynya and Marinka, Dobrynya and Alyosha.

Alesha Popovich- originally from Rostov, he is the son of a cathedral priest, the youngest of the famous trinity of heroes. He is bold, cunning, frivolous, prone to fun and jokes. Scientists belonging to the historical school believed that this epic hero originated from Alexander Popovich, who died in the Battle of Kalka, however, D.S. Likhachev showed that the reverse process actually took place, the name of the fictional hero penetrated into the annals. The most famous feat of Alyosha Popovich is his victory over Tugarin Zmeevich. The hero Alyosha does not always behave in a worthy manner, he is often arrogant, boastful. Among the epics about him are Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin, Alyosha Popovich and the sister of the Petrovichs.

Sadko is also one of the oldest heroes, in addition, he is perhaps the most famous hero of the epics of the Novgorod cycle. The ancient story about Sadko, which tells how the hero wooed the daughter of the sea king, subsequently became more complicated, surprisingly realistic details appeared concerning the life of ancient Novgorod.

The bylina about Sadko is divided into three relatively independent parts. In the first, the harpist Sadko, who impressed the king of the sea with the skill of his game, receives advice from him on how to get rich. From that moment on, Sadko was no longer a poor musician, but a merchant, a rich guest. In the next song, Sadko bets with Novgorod merchants that he will be able to buy all the goods of Novgorod. In some versions of the epic, Sadko wins, in some, on the contrary, he is defeated, but in any case he leaves the city because of the intolerant attitude of the merchants towards him. The last song tells about Sadko's journey through the sea, during which the sea king calls him to him in order to marry his daughter and leave him in the underwater kingdom. But Sadko, having abandoned the beautiful princesses, marries Chernavushka the mermaid, who personifies the Novgorod river, and she takes him to his native shores. Sadko returns to his "earthly wife", leaving the daughter of the sea king. V.Ya.Propp points out that the epic about Sadko is the only one in the Russian epic where the hero goes to the other world (underwater kingdom) and marries an otherworldly creature. These two motifs testify to the antiquity of both the plot and the hero.

Vasily Buslaev. Two epics are known about this indomitable and violent citizen of Veliky Novgorod. In his rebellion against everyone and everything, he does not pursue any goal, except for the desire to run amok and show off. The son of a Novgorod widow, a wealthy citizen, Vasily from childhood showed his unbridled temper in fights with peers. Growing up, he gathered a squad to compete with all of Veliky Novgorod. The battle ends with the complete victory of Vasily. The second epic is dedicated to the death of Vasily Buslaev. Having traveled to Jerusalem with his retinue, Vasily mocks the dead head he met, despite the ban, bathes naked in Jericho and neglects the requirement inscribed on the stone he found (you cannot jump over the stone along). Vasily, due to the indomitability of his nature, begins to jump and jump over it, catches his foot on a stone and breaks his head. This character, in which the unbridled passions of Russian nature are embodied, was M. Gorky's favorite hero. The writer carefully accumulated materials about him, cherishing the idea of ​​writing about Vaska Buslaev, but when he learned that A.V. Amfiteatrov was writing a play about this hero, he gave all the accumulated materials to his fellow writer. This play is considered one of the the best works A.V. Amfiteatrova.

Historical stages of development of the epic. Researchers disagree on when epic songs appeared in Rus'. Some attribute their appearance to the 9th–11th centuries, others to the 11th–13th centuries. One thing is certain - having existed for such a long time, passed from mouth to mouth, epics did not reach us in their original form, they underwent many changes, as the state system, the internal and external political situation, the worldview of listeners and performers changed. It is almost impossible to say in what century this or that epic was created, some reflect an earlier, some a later stage in the development of the Russian epic, and in other epics, researchers distinguish very ancient plots under later layers.

V.Ya.Propp believed that the most ancient are the plots associated with the matchmaking of the hero and with snake fighting. Such epics are characterized by elements that are also significant for a fairy tale, in particular: tripling of plot terms (Ilya, at a crossroads, runs into a stone with an inscription foreshadowing one fate or another, and successively chooses each of the three roads), prohibition and violation of the prohibition (Dobrynya is forbidden swim in the Puchai River), as well as the presence of ancient mythological elements(The Volkh, born from a snake father, has the gift of reincarnation in animals, Tugarin Zmeevich in different versions of the epic appears either as a snake, or as a snake endowed with anthropomorphic features, or as a creature of nature, either human or snake; the Nightingale the Robber turns out to be either a bird, or a person, or even combines both features).

The largest number of epics that have come down to us belongs to the period from the 11th to the 13th-14th centuries. They were created in the southern Russian regions - Kyiv, Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Rostov-Suzdal. The topic of the struggle of the Russian people with the nomads who raided Kievan Rus, and later with the Horde invaders, becomes the most relevant in this period. Epics begin to group around the plot of the defense and liberation of the Motherland, brightly colored with patriotic feelings. The people's memory has preserved only one name for the nomadic enemy - Tatar, but researchers find among the names of the heroes of epics the names of not only Tatar, but also Polovtsian military leaders. In epics, the desire to raise the national spirit, express love for the native country and fierce hatred of foreign invaders is noticeable, the exploits of the mighty and invincible folk heroes-heroes are praised. At this time, the images of Ilya Muromets, Danube-in-law, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich, Vasily Kazemirovich, Mikhailo Danilovich and many other heroes become popular.

With the formation of the Moscow state, starting from the 16th century, heroic epics gradually fade into the background, buffoons (Vavila and buffoons, Birds) and satirical epics with their sharp social conflicts become more relevant. They describe the exploits of heroes in civilian life, the main characters oppose princes and boyars, and their task is to protect their own family and honor (Sukhman, Danilo Lovchanin), while the ruling strata of society are ridiculed in buffoon epics. At the same time, a new genre arises - historical songs, which tell about specific historical events that took place from the 13th to the 19th centuries, there are no fiction and exaggeration characteristic of epics, and in battles several people or an entire army can act as heroes at once.

In the 17th century epics are gradually beginning to supplant the translated chivalric novel adapted for the Russian audience, meanwhile they remain popular folk entertainment. At the same time, the first written retellings of epic texts appear.

Cyclization of epics. Although, due to the special historical conditions in Rus', an integral epic did not take shape, scattered epic songs are formed into cycles either around a certain hero, or according to the common area where they existed. There is no classification of epics that would be unanimously accepted by all researchers, however, it is customary to single out epics of the Kyiv, or “Vladimirov”, Novgorod and Moscow cycles. In addition to them, there are epics that do not fit into any cycles.

Kyiv or "Vladimirov" cycle. In these epics, the heroes gather around the court of Prince Vladimir. The prince himself does not perform feats, however, Kyiv is the center that attracts heroes who are called to protect their homeland and faith from enemies. V.Ya.Propp believes that the songs of the Kyiv cycle are not a local phenomenon, characteristic only for the Kyiv region, on the contrary, the epics of this cycle were created throughout Kievan Rus. Over time, the image of Vladimir changed, the prince acquired features that were initially unusual for the legendary ruler, in many epics he is cowardly, mean, often deliberately humiliates the heroes (Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin, Ilya and Idolishche, Ilya's quarrel with Vladimir).

Novgorod cycle. Epics differ sharply from the epics of the "Vladimir" cycle, which is not surprising, since Novgorod never knew the Tatar invasion, but was the largest trading center of ancient Rus'. The heroes of Novgorod epics (Sadko, Vasily Buslaev) are also very different from others.

Moscow cycle. These epics reflected the life of the upper strata of Moscow society. The epics about Khoten Bludovich, Duke and Churil contain many details typical of the era of the rise of the Muscovite state: clothes, customs and behavior of the townspeople are described.

Collection and publication of Russian epics. The first recording of Russian epic songs was made at the beginning of the 17th century. Englishman Richard James . However, the first significant work on collecting epics, which was of great scientific importance, was done Cossack Kirsha Danilov around 40-60 18 century. The collection he collected consisted of 70 songs. For the first time, incomplete recordings were published only in 1804 in Moscow under the title Ancient Russian Poems and for a long time were the only collection of Russian epic songs.

The next step in the study of Russian epic songs was made by P.N. Rybnikov (1831–1885). He discovered that epics were still performed in the Olonets province, although by that time this folklore genre was considered dead. Thanks to the discovery of P.N. Rybnikov, it was possible not only to study the epic epic in depth, but also to get acquainted with the method of its performance and with the performers themselves. The final set of epics was published in 1861–1867 under the title Songs, collected by P.N. Rybnikov. Four volumes contained 165 epics

This was followed by collections by A.F. Gilferding (1831–1872), P.V. Kireevsky (1808–1856), N.E. Onchukov (1872–1942) and others, the material for which was collected mainly in Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga, on the Don, Terek and the Urals (in the Central and Southern regions, the epic epic has been preserved in very small sizes).

Russian and Soviet folklore. For the first time, K.F. Kalaidovich tried to comprehend the Russian epic as an integral artistic phenomenon and understand its relationship with the course of Russian history.(1792-1832) in the preface to the second edition he undertook of the collection Ancient Russian Poems Collected by Kirshe Danilov (1818).

According to the representatives of the “mythological school”, to which F.I. Buslaev (1818–1897), A.N. Afanasiev (1826–1871), O.F. derived from older myths. Based on these songs, representatives of the school tried to reconstruct the myths of primitive peoples.

Comparative scientists, including G.N. Potanin (1835–1920) and A.N. Veselovsky (1838–1906), considered the epic to be an ahistorical phenomenon. They argued that the plot, after its inception, begins to wander, changing and enriching itself.

The representative of the "historical school" VF Miller (1848-1913) studied the interaction between the epic and history. In his opinion, historical events were recorded in the epic, and thus the epic is a kind of oral chronicle.

A special place in Russian and Soviet folklore is occupied by V.Ya.Propp (1895–1970). In his innovative works, he combined a historical approach with a structural approach (Western structuralists, in particular K. Levi-Strauss (b. 1909), called him the founder of their scientific method, against which V. Ya. Propp sharply objected).

Epic stories and heroes in art and literature. Ever since the publication of Kirsha Danilov's collection, epic stories and heroes have become firmly established in the world of modern Russian culture. It is not difficult to see traces of acquaintance with Russian epics in A.S. Pushkin’s poem Ruslan and Lyudmila and in A.K. Tolstoy’s poetic ballads.

The images of Russian epics also received a multifaceted reflection in music. Composer A.P. Borodin (1833–1887) created the opera-farce Bogatyri (1867), and gave the name Bogatyrskaya to his 2nd symphony (1876), he used images of the heroic epic in his romances.

Companion of A.P. Borodin on " mighty bunch”(Association of composers and music critics) N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908) twice turned to the image of the Novgorod “rich guest”. First, he created the symphonic musical picture Sadko (1867), and later, in 1896, the opera of the same name. It is worth mentioning that the theatrical production of this opera in 1914 was designed by the artist I.Ya. Bilibin (1876–1942).

V.M.Vasnetsov (1848–1926), mostly known to the public from his paintings, the subjects for which are taken from Russian heroic epic, it is enough to name the canvases The Knight at the Crossroads (1882) and Bogatyrs (1898).

M.A. Vrubel (1856–1910) also turned to epic stories. The decorative panels Mikula Selyaninovich (1896) and Bogatyr (1898) interpret these seemingly well-known images in their own way.

Heroes and plots of epics are precious material for cinema. For example, the film directed by A.L. Ptushko (1900–1973) Sadko (1952), original music for which the composer V.Ya.Shebalin wrote, partly using the classical music of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov in the musical design, was one of the most spectacular films of its time. And another film by the same director, Ilya Muromets (1956), became the first Soviet widescreen film with stereo sound. Animation director V.V.Kurchevsky (1928–1997) created an animated version of the most popular Russian epic, his work is called Sadko the Rich (1975).

"The Tale of Bygone Years". The main ideas and types of chronicle narrative

"The Tale of Bygone Years". At the beginning of the XII century. (it is believed that around 1113) The "Initial Code" was again revised by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. Nestor's work received the name "The Tale of Bygone Years" in science, according to the first words of its lengthy title: "Behold the tale of the time (past) years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began first to reign, and from where did the Russian land begin to eat."

Nestor was a scribe with a broad historical outlook and great literary talent: even before working on The Tale of Bygone Years, he wrote The Life of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of the Caves. In The Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor set himself a grandiose task: not only to supplement the "Initial Code" with a description of the events at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries, of which he was a contemporary, but also to rework in the most decisive way the story of the most ancient period in the history of Rus' - "where is the Russian land has gone.

Nestor introduces the history of Rus' into the mainstream of world history. He begins his chronicle with a biblical legend about the division of the earth between the sons of Noah. Citing a lengthy list of the peoples of the whole world (extracted by him from the Chronicle of Georgy Amartol), Nestor inserts a mention of the Slavs into this list; elsewhere in the text, the Slavs are identified with the "Noriks" - the inhabitants of one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, located on the banks of the Danube. Nestor tells in detail about the ancient Slavs, about the territory occupied by individual Slavic tribes, but especially in detail - about the tribes that lived on the territory of Rus', in particular about the "meek and quiet custom" glades, on whose land the city of Kyiv arose. Nestor clarifies and develops the Varangian legend of Nikon: the Varangian princes Askold and Dir, mentioned in the "Initial Code", are now declared to be just the boyars of Rurik (besides, "not of his tribe"), and it is to them that the campaign against Byzantium in the time of Emperor Michael is attributed. Having established from documents (texts of treaties with the Greeks) that Oleg was not Igor's governor, but an independent prince, Nestor sets out a version according to which Oleg is a relative of Rurik, who reigned during Igor's youth.

At the same time, Nestor includes in the chronicle some new (compared to the "Initial Code") folk-historical legends, such as the story of Olga's fourth revenge on the Drevlyans, stories about the duel of a young Kozhemyaki with a Pecheneg hero, and about the siege of Belgorod by the Pechenegs (we are talking about them will go below).

So, it is to Nestor that The Tale of Bygone Years owes its broad historical outlook, the introduction to the annals of the facts of world history, against which the history of the Slavs unfolds, and then the history of Rus'. It is Nestor who strengthens and improves the version of the origin of the Russian princely dynasty from the “summoned” Norman prince. Nestor is an active champion of the ideal of the state structure of Rus', proclaimed by Yaroslav the Wise: all princes are brothers and all of them must obey the eldest in the family and occupy the Kyiv grand prince's table.

Thanks to the state view, breadth of outlook and literary talent of Nestor, The Tale of Bygone Years was "not just a collection of facts of Russian history, and not just a historical and journalistic work related to the urgent, but transient tasks of Russian reality, but an integral, literary exposition of the history of Rus'" .

It is believed that the first edition of The Tale of Bygone Years has not reached us. Its second edition, compiled in 1117 by the abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery (near Kyiv) Sylvester, and the third edition, compiled in 1118 by order of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, have been preserved. In the second edition, only the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years was revised; this edition has come down to us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, as well as other later chronicles. The third edition, according to a number of researchers, is presented in the Ipatiev Chronicle, the oldest list of which - Ipatiev - dates from the first quarter of the 15th century.

Composition "The Tale of Bygone Years". Let us now consider the composition of The Tale of Bygone Years, as it appears before us in the Laurentian and Radzivilov Chronicles.

The introductory part outlines the biblical legend about the division of the earth between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japhet - and the legend of the Babylonian pandemonium, which led to the division of the "single clan" into 72 peoples, each of which has its own language. Having determined that the “language (people) of Slovenian” is from the tribe of Japheth, the chronicle further tells about the Slavs, the lands they inhabit, about the history and customs of the Slavic tribes. Gradually narrowing the subject of its narrative, the chronicle focuses on the history of the meadows, tells about the emergence of Kyiv. Speaking about the ancient times, when the Kyiv glades were tributaries of the Khazars, The Tale of Bygone Years proudly notes that now, as it was destined for a long time, the Khazars themselves are tributaries of the Kyiv princes.

Precise indications of the years begin in The Tale of Bygone Years from 852, since from that time, according to the chronicler, Rus' is mentioned in the “Greek chronicle”: this year, the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir attacked Constantinople. A chronological calculation is also given here - a countdown of the years that have passed from one significant event to another. The calculation of the years from “the death of Yaroslavl to the death of Svyatopolchi” (i.e., from 1054 to 1113) completes the calculation, from which it follows that the Tale of Bygone Years could not have been compiled earlier than the beginning of the second decade of the 12th century.

The chronicle goes on to tell of major events 9th century - "calling of the Varangians", the campaign against Byzantium Askold and Dir, the conquest of Kyiv by Oleg. The legend about the origin of the Slavic literacy, included in the chronicle, ends with the statement, important for the general concept of The Tale of Bygone Years, about the identity of the “Slovene” and Russian languages ​​- another reminder of the place of the meadows among the Slavic peoples and the Slavs among the peoples of the world.

In subsequent annalistic articles, Oleg's reign is described. The chronicler cites the texts of his treaties with Byzantium and folk legends about the prince: a story about his campaign against Constantinople, with spectacular episodes, undoubtedly of a folklore nature (Oleg approaches the walls of the city in boats moving under sail on land, hangs his shield over the gates of Constantinople, "showing victory"). There is also a well-known legend about the death of Oleg. The sorcerer predicted the prince's death from his beloved horse. Oleg decided: “Nicole is everywhere on n, I don’t see him more than that.” However, he later learns that the horse has already died. Oleg laughed at the false prediction and wished to see the bones of the horse. But when the prince stepped with his foot on the “forehead” (skull) of the horse, he was stung by a snake that “came out” “from the forehead”, fell ill and died. The chronicle episode, as we know, formed the basis of A. S. Pushkin's ballad "The Song of the Prophetic Oleg."

This tradition is accompanied by a lengthy extract from the Chronicle of George Amartol; reference to the Byzantine chronicle should confirm that sometimes the prophecies of pagan sages turn out to be prophetic, and therefore the introduction of the story of the death of Oleg predicted by the Magi into the annals is not reprehensible for a Christian chronicler.

Oleg was succeeded on the Kiev "table" by Igor, whom the chronicler considered the son of Rurik. Two campaigns of Igor against Byzantium are reported and the text of the agreement concluded by the Russian prince with the Byzantine co-emperors: Roman, Constantine and Stefan is given. Igor's death was unexpected and inglorious: on the advice of his squad, he went to the land of the Drevlyans to collect tribute (usually tribute was collected by his voivode Sveneld). On the way back, the prince suddenly turned to his soldiers: “Go with tribute to the house, and I will return, I will look like it again.” The Drevlyans, having heard that Igor intends to collect tribute a second time, were indignant: “If you put a wolf (if a wolf gets into the habit) in a sheep, then take out the whole herd, if not kill him, so and so: if we don’t kill him, then we will all be destroyed” . But Igor did not heed the warning of the Drevlyans and was killed by them.

The story of Igor's death in the annals is very short; but in the people's memory, legends have been preserved about how Igor's widow, Olga, took revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband. These legends were reproduced by the chronicler and are read in the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the article of 945.

After the murder of Igor, the Drevlyans sent ambassadors to Kyiv to Olga with a proposal to marry their prince Mal. Olga pretended that she “loved” the words of the ambassadors, and ordered them to appear the next day, and not on horseback or on foot, but in a very unusual way: by order of the princess, the people of Kiev were to bring the Drevlyans to the princely court in boats. At the same time, Olga orders to dig a deep hole near her tower. When the triumphant Drevlyansky ambassadors (they sit in the boat “proudly,” the chronicler emphasizes) were brought to the princely court, Olga ordered them to be thrown into the pit along with the boat. Approaching its edge, the princess asked with a grin: “Are you good honor?” “Worse than we (worse for us) Igor's death,” the Drevlyans answered. And Olga ordered them to fall asleep alive in a pit.

The second embassy, ​​consisting of noble Drevlyansk "husbands", Olga ordered to be burned in a bathhouse, where the ambassadors were invited to "wash themselves." Finally, the squad of the Drevlyans, sent to meet Olga, in order to honorably introduce her to the capital of Mala, the princess ordered to be killed during the funeral feast - a memorial feast at the grave of Igor.

A careful examination of the legends about how Olga took revenge on the Drevlyans three times reveals the symbolic meaning of the subtext of the legend: each revenge corresponds to one of the elements of the pagan funeral rite. According to the customs of that time, the dead were buried by placing them in a boat; a bath was prepared for the deceased, and then his corpse was burned, on the day of burial, a feast was arranged, accompanied by war games.

This story about Olga's three revenges was already read in the "Initial Code". Another legend was added to The Tale of Bygone Years - about the fourth revenge of the princess.

Having killed the squad of the Drevlyans, Olga nevertheless could not take their capital - the city of Iskorosten. Then the princess again resorted to cunning. She turned to the besieged, convincing them that she was not going to impose heavy tribute on them, as Igor had once, but asked for an insignificant ransom: three sparrows and three doves from the house. The Drevlyans again did not guess about Olga's deceit and readily sent her the required tribute. Then Olga's warriors, on her orders, tied “tser” (burned tinder, dried tinder fungus) to the paws of the birds and released them. The birds flew to their nests, and soon the whole city was on fire. People who tried to flee were captured by Olga's soldiers. So, according to legend, the princess avenged the death of her husband.

Further, the chronicle tells of Olga's visit to Constantinople. Olga really came to Constantinople in 957 and was received by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. However, the story of how she “switched” (outwitted) the emperor is completely legendary: according to him, Olga was baptized in Constantinople, and Constantine was her godfather. When the emperor invited her to become his wife, Olga objected: “How do you want me to be baptized, having baptized me myself and called me daughter?”

The chronicler of Igor's son, Svyatoslav, enthusiastically depicts his militancy, chivalrous directness (he allegedly warned his enemies in advance: “I want to go to you”), unpretentiousness in everyday life. The chronicle tells about Svyatoslav's campaigns against Byzantium: he almost reached Constantinople and, having conquered the Balkan countries, suggested moving his capital to the Danube, because there, according to him, "there is the middle of the earth", where all the blessings flow - precious metals, expensive fabrics , wine, horses and slaves. But the plans of Svyatoslav were not destined to come true: he died, falling into an ambush of the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids.

After the death of Svyatoslav, an internecine struggle broke out between his sons - Oleg, Yaropolk and Vladimir. The winner of it was Vladimir, who in 980 became the sole ruler of Rus'.

In the section "The Tale of Bygone Years", dedicated to the reign of Vladimir, great place occupies the theme of the baptism of Rus'. The chronicle reads the so-called "Speech of the Philosopher", with which a Greek missionary allegedly turned to Vladimir, urging the prince to accept Christianity. “The Philosopher’s Speech” was of great cognitive importance for the Old Russian reader - it briefly outlined the entire “ sacred history” and communicated the basic principles of the Christian faith.

Various folk legends were grouped around the name of Vladimir. They were also reflected in the annals - in memories of the generosity of the prince, his crowded feasts, where almost all warriors were invited, about the exploits of unknown heroes who lived during the time of this prince, - about the victory of the kozhemyaka boy over the Pecheneg hero or about the old man, with his wisdom liberated the city of Belgorod from the siege of the Pechenegs. These legends will be discussed below.

After the death of Vladimir in 1015, internecine struggle broke out again between his sons. Svyatopolk - the son of Yaropolk and a captive nun, whom Vladimir, having killed his brother, made his wife, killed his half-brothers Boris and Gleb. The annals read a brief story about the fate of the martyr princes, about the struggle of Yaroslav Vladimirovich with Svyatopolk, which ended in the latter's military defeat and terrible divine retribution. When Svyatopolk, defeated in battle. turned to flight, the demon “attacked” him, “and weakening his bones, he could not sit on horses.” It seems to Svyatopolk that a chase is following him, he hurries his warriors, who carry him on a stretcher. "We are persecuted by God's wrath", Svyatopolk dies in the "desert" (in a remote, uninhabited place) between Poland and the Czech Republic, and from his grave, according to the chronicle, "comes ... the stench of evil." The chronicler takes the opportunity to emphasize that the terrible death of Svyatopolk should serve as a warning to the Russian princes, to save them from the resumption of fratricidal strife. This idea will sound from the pages of the chronicle more than once: both in the story of the death of Yaroslav and in the description of the strife among his sons in the 70s. XI century., And in the story of the blinding of the Terebovl prince Vasilko by his blood brothers - David and Svyatopolk.

In 1037, the chronicle tells about the construction activities of Yaroslav (in particular, the laying of the famous St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the fortress walls with the Golden Gate, etc.) night and day." By his order, numerous scribes translated books from Greek "into Slovene (i.e., Russian) writing." Of great importance is Yaroslav's dying testament placed in the article of 1054, urging his sons to live in peace, to protect the land of "their fathers and their grandfathers", which they acquired "by their great labor", to obey the eldest in the family - the Kyiv prince.

The weather records in The Tale of Bygone Years alternate with stories and reports, sometimes only indirectly connected with the political history of Rus', which, in fact, the chronicle should be devoted to. Thus, the article of 1051 contains a lengthy story about the founding of the Kiev Caves Monastery. This theme will be continued in The Tale of Bygone Years and further: the article of 1074 tells about the death of the abbot of this monastery Theodosius, episodes of the ascetic life in the monastery of Theodosius himself and other monks are given; the article of 1091 describes the transfer of the relics of Theodosius and praises the saint. In the article of 1068, in connection with the Polovtsian invasion of Rus', the chronicler discusses the causes of the disasters of the Russian land and explains the “finding of foreigners” by divine punishment for sins. The article of 1071 reads a story about an uprising led by the Magi in the Rostov land; At the same time, the chronicler talks about the intrigues of demons and gives two more stories, thematically related to the previous one: about a Novgorodian who divined from a magician, and about the appearance of a sorcerer in Novgorod. In 1093, the Russian princes were defeated by the Polovtsy. This event was the reason for the chronicler's new reasoning about why God "punishes the Russian land", why "weeping in all the streets has become simpler." A dramatic description of the suffering of Russian captives who wander, driven away to a foreign land, “sad, tormented, cordoned off in winter (suffering from the cold), hungry, and thirsty, and in trouble”, with tears saying to each other: “Az beh this city” , "Yaz sowing all (villages) ..." This article, as mentioned above, may have ended the Initial Code.

The last decade of the 11th century was full of stormy events. After internecine wars, the instigator and indispensable participant of which was Oleg Svyatoslavich (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls him Oleg Gorislavlich), the princes gather in 1097 in Lyubech for a congress, at which they decide from now on to live in peace and friendship, keep the father’s possessions and do not encroach on other people's inheritances. However, immediately after the congress, a new atrocity happened: the Volyn prince Davyd Igorevich convinced the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich that the Terebovl prince Vasilko was plotting against them. Svyatopolk and Davyd lured Vasilko to Kyiv, captured him and gouged out his eyes. This event shocked all the princes: Vladimir Monomakh, according to the chronicler, complained that there was no such evil in Rus' "neither under our grandfathers, nor under our fathers." In the article of 1097 we find a detailed story about the dramatic fate of Vasilko Terebovskiy; it was probably written specifically for the chronicle and is fully included in its composition.

We do not know exactly how the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years, second edition, looked like. In the Laurentian Chronicle, the text of the article of 1110 is artificially cut off: the chronicler Sylvester's entry immediately follows the story of a miraculous sign in the Caves Monastery, which is regarded as the appearance of an angel; at the same time, in the Ipatiev Chronicle, after the description of the sign, there is a discussion about angels, which, undoubtedly, was included in the original text of the article of 1110, that is, it should have been present in the text of the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years. In addition, it is not known whether the article of 1110 was the last in this edition: after all, Sylvester’s postscript says that he wrote the “books of the chronicler” in 1116. The question of the relationship between the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years and the third edition remains controversial. , as well as with what kind of text the second edition of the Tale ended.

"TALE OF TIME YEARS" AND ITS EDITIONS

In 1110-1113, the first edition (version) of the Tale of Bygone Years was completed - a lengthy chronicle that absorbed numerous information on the history of Rus': about the Russian wars with the Byzantine Empire, about the call to Rus' for the reign of the Scandinavians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, about the history of Kievan- Caves monastery, about princely crimes. The probable author of this chronicle is the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. This edition has not survived in its original form.

The first edition of the Tale of Bygone Years reflected the political interests of the then Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. In 1113, Svyatopolk died, and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh ascended the throne of Kyiv. In 1116, the monk Sylvester (in the Promonomach spirit) and in 1117-1118. unknown scribe from the entourage of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh), the text of the Tale of Bygone Years was revised. This is how the second and third editions of the Tale of Bygone Years arose; the oldest copy of the second edition has come down to us as part of the Lavrentiev Chronicle, and the earliest copy of the third edition as part of the Ipatiev Chronicle.

Encyclopedia "Round the World"

EDITING THE "TALE OF TIME YEARS"

Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh retained his "fatherland" - the principality of Pereyaslavl, as well as Suzdal and Rostov. He recognized the power of Vladimir and Veliky Novgorod, obeying his orders and accepting princes from him. In 1118, Vladimir demanded to himself "all the boyars of Novgorod" to bring them to the oath. He sent some of them back to Novgorod, and “leave others with you.” Under Vladimir, the former military power of the ancient Russian state, weakened by the previous feudal strife, was restored. The Polovtsy suffered a crushing blow, and they did not dare to attack the Russian land ...

One of the measures during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv in 1113 was the correction of Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years" in order to more correctly cover the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, hated by the Kyiv working people. Monomakh entrusted this matter to the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery, Sylvester. The Vydubetsky Monastery was founded by the father of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich, and, naturally, he took the side of this prince, and after his death - the side of his son. Sylvester conscientiously fulfilled the task entrusted to him. He rewrote The Tale of Bygone Years and supplemented it with several inserts about Svyatopolk's negative actions. So, Sylvester introduced into the "Tale of Bygone Years" under the year 1097 the story of the priest Vasily about the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich. Then, in a new way, he outlined the history of the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1103. Although this campaign was led by Svyatopolk, as a senior prince of Kyiv, with the pen of Sylvester, Svyatopolk was relegated to the background, and Vladimir Monomakh, who really participated in this campaign, but did not lead it, was put in the first place.

The fact that this version could not belong to Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, is clear from a comparison with it of a story about the same campaign that is available in the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, which probably follows the tradition from Nestor himself. In the story “Paterika”, Vladimir Monomakh is not even mentioned, and the victory over the Polovtsy is attributed to one Svyatopolk, who received a blessing before the campaign from the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery.

While editing Nestor's The Tale of Bygone Years, Sylvester did not continue it for a single year, but issued an indication of the authorship of the Kiev-Pechersk monk. Under the same year 1110, Sylvester made the following addition: “Hegumen Sylvester of St. Michael wrote these books, chronicler, hoping from God to receive mercy under Prince Volodimer, who reigned over him Kiev, and at that time I was abbess at St. Michael, in the summer of 6624 (1116) indicta 9. And if you read these books, then be in prayers. Since Sylvester's edition received official recognition, it formed the basis of all further Russian chronicle writing and has come down to us in many later chronicle lists. Nestor's text of The Tale of Bygone Years, which remained the property of only the Kiev-Pechersk tradition, has not reached us, although some traces of differences between this text and the Sylvester edition have been preserved, as already mentioned, in separate stories of the later Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. In this "Paterik" there is also an indication of Nestor, who wrote the Russian "chronicler".

In 1118, the Sylvestrian edition of The Tale of Bygone Years was continued, apparently in connection with the inclusion of the well-known Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh written in that year. According to the convincing assumption of M. Priselkov, the addition was made by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Mstislav, who was then in Novgorod. Of great interest among these additions are two stories about the northern countries, heard by the author in 1114, when he was present at the laying of a stone wall in Ladoga. The Ladoga posadnik Pavel told him about the northern countries beyond Yugra and Samoyed. Another story about these countries, heard by the author from the Novgorodian Gyuryata Rogovich, is placed under the year 1096, indicating that he was heard "for the past 4 years." Since both stories are closely related in content, the words “previously 4 years” should be attributed to the time of writing this insert in 1118, when the author heard the first story as well .. Since the original manuscript of Mstislav has not come down to us, but only her later lists, then the only explanation for the resulting confusion may be a random rearrangement of the original sheets from which these lists were then made. Such an assumption is all the more admissible, since in the available lists under the year 1096 there is also the "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh", written no earlier than 1117.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign". idea content, art form, connection with folklore.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" was discovered by the famous collector of ancient Russian manuscripts Count A. I. Musin-Pushkin at the end of the 18th century. Since that time, an intensive study of this outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature began.

The researchers analyzed the text of the "Word", its artistic merits, language, considered ideological concept of the monument, the historical outlook of its author, clarified the circumstances of the discovery of the manuscript of the Lay and the principles of its publication. Most of these issues are currently sufficiently deeply and comprehensively studied.

Controversy about the time of writing the Lay.

In the research literature on the "Word" a significant place is occupied by the controversy about the authenticity of the monument or about the time of its creation.

Distrust of the antiquity of the Lay arose after the destruction of the manuscript in a fire in 1812. There were several reasons for the emergence of a “skeptical view” on the antiquity of the Lay. First, at the beginning of the XIX century. scientists knew too little about the literature of Ancient Rus, and therefore the "Word" seemed to them unnaturally perfect for the level of artistic culture of Kievan Rus. Secondly, the obscure, “dark places” of the “Words” were embarrassing, the abundance of incomprehensible words in it, which at first they tried to explain using the material of other Slavic languages. But the main reason for the emergence of distrust in the "Word" was that direction in Russian historiography early XIX century, which is called the "skeptical school". Doubt about the authenticity of the "Word" was only a partial episode in this trend: "skeptics" also questioned the antiquity of Russian chronicles, a collection of ancient Russian laws - "Russian Truth", the writings of Cyril of Turov, etc. .

AT mid-nineteenth in. after the discovery of the Zadonshchina, the oldest of the known lists of which dates back to the end of the 15th century, they ceased to doubt the antiquity of the Lay. However, in the 90s. of the same century, Louis Leger hypothesized that it was not the author of the Zadonshchina who imitated the Lay, but, on the contrary, the Lay is an imitation of the Zadonshchina. This assumption was developed by L. Leger in the works of the French scientist, academician A. Mazon, and later in the works of the Soviet historian A. A. Zimin. A. A. Zimin believed that the Lay was written on the basis of the Zadonshchina in the 18th century. and its author was Joel Bykovsky, the Yaroslavl archimandrite, from whom A. I. Musin-Pushkin acquired a collection with the "Word"

Subsequent studies of the entire sum of issues raised in the hypothesis of A. A. Zimin: the relationship between the Lay and Zadonshchina, the language and style of the Lay, the history of the discovery of the collection and publication of the Lay by A. I. Musin-Pushkin, personality characteristics and creativity of Joil Bykovsky - clearly approved the authenticity and antiquity of the "Word"

Composition "Words".

The "Word" begins with an extensive introduction, in which the author recalls the old singer "Slav" Boyan, wise and skillful, but nevertheless declares that he will not follow this tradition in his work, he will lead his "song" "according to the epics of this time , and not according to Boyan's intention.

Having determined the chronological range of his narrative (“from old Vladimer to the current Igor”), the author talks about Igor’s daring plan to “bring” his regiments to the Polovtsian land, “to drink the Don’s helmet”. He, as it were, “tryes on” the poetic manner of Boyan to his theme (“Not a storm, the falcons brought across the wide fields - the Galicians of the herd run to the Great Don” or: “Komoni neigh for Sula - ringing glory in Kiev”).

Genre Words.

The composition of the Lay is unusual for a historical story. We see that the focus of the author is not so much a consistent story about the events of the campaign itself, but rather reasoning about it, assessing Igor's act, thinking about the reasons for the "tightness" and sadness that has engulfed the entire Russian land in the present, addressing the events of the past with his victories and misfortunes. All these features of the Lay lead us to the question of the genre of the monument. This question is all the more important because in ancient Russian literature, with its strict system of genres, the Lay (like a number of other monuments) appears, as it were, outside the genre system. A. N. Robinson and D. S. Likhachev compare the "Word" with the genre of the so-called "chanson de gesture" - "songs about exploits", in this case, analogies to it are, for example, "The Song of Roland" or other similar works of Western European feudal epic.

The Lay combines the epic and the literary beginnings. “The epic is full of calls for the defense of the country ... - writes D. S. Likhachev. - Its “direction” is characteristic: the call comes, as it were, from the people (hence the folklore beginning), but it is addressed to the feudal lords - the golden word of Svyatoslav, and hence the book beginning. .

Poetics of the Word.

The poetics of the Lay is so peculiar, its language and style are so colorful and original, that at first glance it may seem that the Lay is completely outside the sphere of the literary traditions of the Russian Middle Ages.

In general, the style of monumental historicism is manifested in the "Lay" in a diverse and profound way. The action of The Lay unfolds over a vast area from Novgorod the Great in the north to Tmutorokan (on the Taman Peninsula) in the south, from the Volga in the east to Galich and the Carpathians in the west. The author of the "Lay" mentions in his appeals to the princes many geographical points of the Russian land, the glory of Svyatoslav extends far beyond its borders - to the Germans, Czechs and Venetians. The protagonists of the Lay see the Russian land as if with "panoramic vision", as if from a great height. Such, for example, is the appeal of Yaroslavna from Putivl not only to the sun and wind, but also to the distant Dnieper, which can cherish her beloved husband from Polovtsian captivity. Yaroslav Osmomysl governs his principality also within emphatically "spatial" boundaries, propping up the Ugrian mountains, "courts rowing up to the Danube." The battle with the Polovtsy itself takes on worldwide proportions: black clouds, symbolizing the enemies of Rus', come from the sea itself.

We have already spoken of the historicism of the Lay, also a characteristic feature of monumental historicism. Both events, actions, and the very qualities of the heroes of the Lay are evaluated against the backdrop of the entire Russian history, against the backdrop of events not only in the 12th, but also in the 11th centuries.

In a word, the author's digressions displace (and deliberately and deliberately displace) the actual course of events, because the author's goal is not so much to tell about them, well known to his contemporaries, as to express his attitude towards them and reflect on what happened. Having understood these features of the plot construction of the Lay, we will see that it makes no sense to argue about at what moment and where exactly the solar eclipse caught Igor and Vsevolod and how accurately the Lay fixes this moment, about whether the Polovtsy collected tribute " white from the yard, ”or how expedient it was to call for help to Igor, Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, who was already striving to intervene in South Russian affairs. The Lay is not documentary, it is epic, it does not so much tell about events as it reflects on them.

Nature is actively involved in the fate of Igor, in the fate of the Russian land: the grass droops from pity, and, on the contrary, joyfully helps Igor, who is escaping from captivity, the Donets and the birds that live in coastal groves.

This does not mean that there is no depiction of nature as such in the Lay. But it is characteristic that in it, as in other ancient Russian monuments, there is no static landscape: the surrounding world appears before the reader in motion, in phenomena and processes. The "Word" does not say that the night is bright or dark - it "fades", the color of the river water is not described, but it is said that "the rivers flow muddy", the Dvina "flows like a swamp", the Sula no longer "flows with silver streams" ; the banks of the Donets are not described, but it is said that the Donets lays green grass for Igor on its silver banks, dresses him with warm fogs under the shade of a green tree, etc.

The time of writing the Lay and the question of its author.

the monument could have been created no later than October 1, 1187 - the time when Yaroslav Osmomysl died, since he is mentioned in the "Word" as alive.

The Word in New Russian Literature.

But in modern times, the Slovo made a huge impression on Russian readers. Russian poets, literally from the very first years after the publication of The Lay, found in it grateful material for imitation and variations on ancient Russian themes, endless attempts began to find the best poetic equivalent to the great monument of antiquity. Of the translations of the 19th century, the best were undoubtedly the translations of V. A. Zhukovsky (positively assessed by A. S. Pushkin), M. D. Delarue, A. N. Maikov, L. Mey; at the beginning of our century, poems based on the motifs of the Lay were created by A. A. Blok, and the Lay was translated by K. D. Balmont. Excellent translations belong to Soviet translators and poets - S. V. Shervinsky, V. Stelletsky, G. Storm, I. Novikov, N. Zabolotsky and others. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is widely known in translations into the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR, into Ukrainian language it was translated by M. Rylsky, into Belarusian by Y. Kupala, into Georgian by S. Chikovani. There are translations of the "Word" made abroad, the monument has been translated into English, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Spanish, German, Polish, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Turkish, Finnish, French, Japanese and other languages.

Tales of the Tatar-Mongol invasion in ancient Russian literature. Their patriotic pathos and poetic forms of its expression.