Dead Sea Manuscripts
I. In 1947, in the mountainous part of Judea, directly. proximity to the Dead Sea, it was found a large number of ancient manuscripts, partially or completely preserved. These finds became known as the "Dead Sea Manuscripts". The first, accidental, discovery made in one of the caves of Wadi Qumran was followed by others: a systematic searching for manuscripts. Today, scholars have a collection of over 400 texts, 175 of which are biblical. All books of the OT are presented in handwritten texts, with the exception of. Books of Esther. Most famous received a scroll of the Book of St. Isaiah, preserved in its entirety. The found manuscripts date back to 200 BC. - A.D. 68 (finds in Qumran) and 132-135. according to R.H. (finds in the Wadi Murabbaat valley). Unbibl. texts are a collection handwritten materials Jude sects - its charter, hymns, an essay on the war of the children of light against the children of darkness, comments on the books of the prophets Nahum and Habakkuk and aram. apocryphal retelling of the book of Genesis. Whole collected material is stored in Jerusalem, where it is constantly studied by specialists from different countries.
II 1) in Khirbet-Qumran, not far from the cave in which the first manuscripts were found, scientists discovered the ruins of a settlement and a cemetery. It soon became clear that the inhabitants of this settlement were once the owners of the hidden manuscripts. The Qumran community that existed before the capture of the area by the Romans in 68 A.D. during the Jewish War, usually identified with the well-known antique. sources (Philo of Alexandria, Josephus Flavius, Pliny) Jude. the Essenes sect;
2) the first mention of the Essenes dates back to the reign of Jonathan of the Maccabean dynasty (160-143 BC). These were ascetics who strictly observed Judas. law. The Essenes lived in isolated communities, were engaged in crafts and ⇒ agriculture, and rejected the military. service. They arranged joint meals, strictly related to the rites of purification and performed ablutions in running water. Admission to the community was preceded by a long test term; only the initiates could acquaint themselves with the secret teachings of the Essenes;
3) many similarities are found in the teachings and in the everyday life of the people who lived in Qumran, although research has not yet been completed. Here, too, we are dealing with a group of people who adhered to the Law extremely strictly and proceeded from the fact that the Law can be observed only in a community where everyone thinks the same way. Outside the community, the Law was allegedly resisted and violated even by those who taught it and were engaged in the interpretation of the Word of God. Convinced that the Kingdom of God is only thus can come into their own, they, consciously giving up all conveniences, retired to the Dead Sea region to live together here according to the will of God, strictly observing the Law;
4) the community, which considered itself destined for salvation at the end of time, calls its founder and teacher in its writings a “teacher of truth”, and sometimes a “priest, in whose heart God has put wisdom and all the words of his slaves and prophets; through him God reveals all the events that are to take place with His people and His community.” This new revelation went beyond the scope of the OT. What was still hidden from the prophets, God allegedly revealed to this teacher, "to whom He reveals all the mysteries of the prophetic words." Righteous are those who follow the word of the teacher, and all who refuse to do so are godless;
5) The opponent of the teacher and the truth itself is in these texts the "wicked priest", all the data about which most of all correspond to the personality of Jonathan Maccabee (high priest from 153 BC). Next, the activity of the founder of the Qumran community falls on the time around 150 BC. It has been repeatedly asserted that he played the role of the Messiah for his followers, but the community's doc- uments do not provide strong enough evidence for such a conclusion.
III. As a sensation, the statement of scholars that the Qumran community had an influence on John the Baptist, Jesus and the ancient Church was perceived as a sensation. Later, however, it turned out that the Qumranite community differed from the early Church both in its organization and in its attitude towards the Law. On the other hand, the Qumran hymns [Heb. hodiot] speak of truths that are quite consistent with the New Testament: the original corruption of man by sin and the futility of good deeds; God-given righteousness, forgiveness and cleansing by the Holy Spirit; here even the need to pray in the Spirit was known to be heard by God (ThZ. 13 (1957) S. 12ff). Therefore, the connection of the Qumranites with the Jews, who were waiting for God's savior(; ). Nevertheless, one should not think that in connection with the discovery of R.M.M. fundamental changes will take place in the views of historians on the emergence of the ancient Church and on the NT. Top left: a fragment of a manuscript and an earthen vessel in which the manuscripts were kept.
» Dead Sea Scrolls
Qumran texts (scrolls)- ancient manuscripts, mostly of the intertestamental period, found in caves near the Dead Sea. The Qumran texts got their name from the first discoveries made near the “wadi” (dried riverbed) of Qumran. For the first time, leather Qumran scrolls were discovered by the Bedouin shepherd Mohammed ed-Dib in 1947, and according to some sources, even earlier. Some of the scrolls were bought by Professor E. Sukenik of the University of Jerusalem, and some were bought by the Syrian Metropolitan Samuel Athanasius, who resold them in the United States. Albright confirmed their deep antiquity, and since then an intensive search for new manuscripts has begun. Over the course of 30 years, about. 200 caves and more than 600 manuscripts, whole and fragmentary, were brought to light. They were found not only in the Qumran region, but also in others. points on the coast of the Dead Sea: Ain Feshkha, Masada, Wadi Murabbaat, Khirbet Mird, Nahal Hever, Wadi Dalieh, and others. Since 1948, work began on the Qumran manuscripts and their publication, which continues to this day. Experts from various countries and confessions take part in the research.
Qumran texts (manuscripts)
Dead Sea Scrolls
- Messianic Compilation or Anthology of Messianic Prophecies
Glossary of rare terms found in manuscripts
- Pleroma- in translation from ancient Greek means completeness, harmony of the world, where there is no death and darkness. The term of Christian mysticism, meaning the plural unity of spiritual entities, forming together some sort of ordered "wholeness". In the doctrines of Gnosticism within the Pleroma, the eons are grouped according to "syzygies", i.e. like marriage couples, in turn giving birth to each other.
- Aeon- this is a period that serves as an image of a stage or type of evolution. This is a sacred decade, i.e. certain time cycles into which the history of existence is divided. Also eons- these are worlds (spaces, spheres of existence).
- Logos- an ancient Greek term meaning both “word” (or “sentence”, “statement”, “speech”) and “meaning” (or “concept”, “judgment”, “foundation”). Also - God, Cosmic Being, World law and Mind.
- Archon - Greek word, meaning "chief, ruler, head") - the highest being with the highest power.
- Autogen- native, self-existent, independent of anything (on the site Your Yoga you can expand this concept from the section "From the depths of centuries", otherwise - Christ or an analogy with Brahma).
- epinoia- this is the first emanation of the Absolute - the feminine principle of all Existing (original Yin).
- Pronoia- the primordial Light, the fundamental principle. This is the primary masculine Beginning (original Yang).
- Barbelo- among the Gnostics, namely among the Nicolaitans and Barborians, one of their main female aeons, the mother of all living things, dwells with the Father of the universe and with Christ, who originated from himself, in the eighth heaven.
- Metropator- God the Father or unity (mother and father).
Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls are religious works, which on our website are divided into two types: "biblical" and "non-biblical". "Tefillin and mezuzahs" are separated into a separate category. Documents of a non-literary nature, mostly papyri, found not in the caves of Qumran, but in other places, are grouped into sections "Documents" and "Letters", and into a separate small group "Exercises in writing". There is also separate group"Unidentified Texts", which included many fragments in a deplorable state that scientists could not attribute to one of the available categories. As a rule, the title of a particular manuscript refers to one text. However, in some cases, one title was assigned to several compositions. Sometimes the reason for this may be that the scroll was reused - that is, a new one (the so-called palimpsest) was written over the old, blurred or scraped text. In other cases, one text is written on the front side of the scroll, and another text is written on the back. The reason for such a classification may also be errors or disagreements of scientists who have not come to a consensus on the classification of the fragments under study.
Left: MAS 1o Scroll obverse (recto) - text mentioning Mount Gerizim
Right: MAS 1o Scroll back (verso) - unidentified text
Photo:
Shay Alevi
Sometimes researchers mistakenly believe that separate fragments belong to the same manuscript. But sometimes these were fragments of one work - for example, the biblical Book of Leviticus, but different copies of it. In some cases letters are added to the names or numbers of scrolls to distinguish between different copies of the same work. In the case of the aforementioned book of Leviticus, these are: 4Q26, 4Q26a, 4Q26b, 4Q26c.
Essay types
Generally, scholars classify literary works within the Dead Sea Scrolls according to their content or genre. Scholars differ on certain specific categories, and the terms we use are chosen only to make it easier for the user to navigate the site, and not to contribute to already confusing scholarly discussions. Moreover, the same text can be assigned to several categories.
Bible texts
Holy Scripture (מקרא) - copies of the books included in the Hebrew Bible. Among the Dead Sea Scrolls, all the books of the Hebrew Bible were found, except for the Book of Esther (Esther). These are the oldest biblical texts that have come down to us.
Translations of Scripture (תרגום המקרא) – translations of biblical texts into Aramaic and Greek.
Tefillin and mezuzahs
Tefillin (phylacteries) and mezuzahs contain passages from the Torah, and are used in Jewish ritual in accordance with what is said in the Book of Deuteronomy, 6:6-9:
“Let these words which I command you today be in your heart… And bind them as a sign on your hand, and let them be a mark between your eyes. And write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates.”
Tefillin (תפילין) - twisted pieces of parchment, placed in special boxes and intended to be a "sign on the hand" and "an inscription between the eyes." More than two dozen sheets of parchment with text for tefillin were found in the caves of Qumran, and several more tefillin were found in the gorges of Murabbaat, Hever and Tzeelim.
Left: Tefillin cases from Qumran Cave No. 4,
1cm by 2-3cm
Right: 4Q135 4Q Phylactery H - tefillin text,
2.5 cm by 4 cm
Photo:
Shay Alevi
They are identified by the biblical quotations they contain and by some peculiarities of spelling, in particular by small print. These texts are identical to those required by the rabbinically established law, which is observed in Jewish religious practice to this day. However, some of the found copies contain additional quotations from the Bible. Since the tefillins from Qumran are the only examples of the Second Temple period that we have, we do not know whether their characteristics reflect the tradition of one particular community, or a tradition widespread among the people.
Mezuzahs (מזוזה) - sheets of parchment with text from the Hebrew Bible, placed in special capsules and attached to doorposts. Eight mezuzahs have been found in the Qumran caves and several more in Wadi Murabbaat. The biblical quotations written on these mezuzahs are identical to those texts that are placed on the doorposts of Jewish homes today.
Non-biblical writings
Non-biblical writings are texts that are not included in the Hebrew Bible. At the same time, some of them could well be recognized as sacred by both their authors and readers of that time.
Apocrypha (אפוקריפה) – this term refers to specific works that are part of the Catholic and Orthodox Old Testament, but are not part of the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament. Three similar apocrypha have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls: Ben-Sira (also known as the Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach or Sirach), the Book of Tobit, and the Epistle of Jeremiah.
Calendar texts (חיבורים קלנדריים) – calendar calculations found in the caves of Qumran and predominantly oriented to the solar rather than the lunar cycle. These calendars are an important source of information about feasts and the so-called priestly cycles (משמרות). Some of them are in cryptic script (an unusual way of writing in Hebrew), as this information may have been secret and esoteric. These manuscripts are especially valuable for their orderliness and systematic listing of days and months, thanks to which scholars have recreated the missing parts of the calendar. The most common of these calendars has 364 days divided into four seasons of 13 weeks each.
Exegetical texts (חיבורים פרשניים) – essays analyzing and interpreting specific biblical works. The most famous of these texts are the so-called Pesharim (see below); as well as "halachic midrash" and interpretations of the book of Genesis.
Pesher (פשר) – a separate type of commentary literature, which very narrowly interprets biblical prophecies as relating to the history of the Qumran community specifically. Pesharim are especially focused on the eschatological idea " last days". These comments are very easily recognizable due to the frequent use of the word "pesher", which links biblical quotations and sectarian explanations that interpret them.
Historical works (חיבורים היסטוריים) – texts devoted to certain real events, and sometimes also commenting on these events from the point of view of morality or theology. These fragments mention historical figures such as Queen Salome (Shlamzion) or Greek kings, and many of the events described in them take place in the midst of wars and rebellions.
Halakhic texts (חיבורים הלכתיים) – texts mainly devoted to halakha (a term used in later rabbinic literature), i.e., discussion of Jewish religious laws. The Hebrew Bible contains the widest range of halachic texts, discussing a wide variety of issues: civil relations, ritual requirements and commandments (for example, on observance of holidays), temple service, ritual purity and impurity, behavior within the prescribed ethics, etc. Many Qumran texts interpret and expand the traditional biblical view of these laws. And among them there are such as, for example, the Charter of the community or the halachic parts of the Damascus Document (also known as the Damascus Testament Scroll), which are devoted to the specific rules and regulations of sectarians. Some writings, the most significant of which is the Miqtsat Maasey ha-Torah (MMT, also known as the Halakhic Letter), are devoted to controversy with the opponents of the sect.
Parabiblical texts (חיבורים על המקרא) – essays retelling Holy Scriptures, expanding or embellishing biblical narrative or halachic texts with new details. To this category belong, for example, the Apocrypha on the book of Genesis, the Book of Enoch and the Temple Scroll. Some of the near-Biblical texts, such as the Book of Jubilees or the Aramaic Document of Levi, may have had sacred status among some ancient religious groups.
Poetic and liturgical texts most of the verses and eulogies found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are closely related to biblical poetry. Many texts use themes and expressions characteristic of a later period, and this primarily applies to sectarian works such as, for example, the Hymns of Thanksgiving. Some of these texts may have been composed for personal study and reflection, others for the formal liturgical service: for example, the Daily Prayers, the Holiday Prayers, and the Songs of the Sabbath Burnt Offering.
Instructive texts (חיבורים חכמתיים) – some of the Qumran scrolls continue the tradition of instructive or philosophical literature, such bible books, as Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes and such apocryphal works as the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon. In these writings practical advice O Everyday life side by side with deep reflections on the nature of things and the fate of mankind. Such works as Instruction and Secrets combine pragmatic and philosophical themes with apocalyptic and halachic questions.
Sectarian works (חיבורים כיתתיים) – essays using specific terminology and describing the specific theology, worldview and history of a separate religious group that called itself "Yahad" ("Together", "Community"). The central group of these texts describes the statutes of the community with particular emphasis on the expectation of the end of the world, which is seen by members of this group as inevitable and near. Previously, scholars attributed all the Dead Sea Scrolls to the Essenes, one of the three leading Jewish sects of the Second Temple period. Today, most researchers believe that in their totality, these texts rather reflect several related religious communities in different stages formation and development, rather than a single sect. And even texts classified as "sectarian" were most likely compiled by representatives different groups who are or are not members of the Yahad community. Three of the first seven scrolls discovered in Cave No. 1 were the most significant in identifying sectarian texts and are still the best known manuscripts. These are the Charter of the community, the War of the sons of light against the sons of darkness, and the Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Habakkum (Pesher Khavakkuk).
Documents and letters
The Bar Kochba Letters (איגרות בר כוכבא) – fifteen military messages that are preserved in a leather fur in Cave No. 5/6 in Hever Gorge, also known as the Cave of Messages. All the letters in this bundle were written by a person from the inner circle of the leader of the uprising against the Romans, Shimon Bar Kochba, and most of them were written on behalf of the latter.
Archive of Babatha (ארכיון בבתא) – personal archive of a woman who apparently sought refuge in the Judean Desert during the Bar Kochba revolt. These documents were also found in Cave No. 5/6 in the Hever Gorge (the so-called Cave of Messages) and represent thirty-five financial documents, including a marriage contract, land deeds, trade agreements. All documents were wrapped in a bundle and placed in a leather bag, which was then hidden in a hidden crevice in the cave. Apparently, a careful choice of hiding place was made with the expectation of using these documents in the future. The documents are very well preserved and contain exact dates from 94 to 132 BC. n. e. The archive includes texts in Aramaic, Nabataean and Greek.
Archive of Eleazar ben Shmuel (ארכיון אלעזר בן שמואל) In addition to the archives of Bar Kokhba and Babata, another small set of interesting documents was found in the Cave of Messages - five contracts belonging to a certain Elazar son of Shmuel, a peasant from Ein Gedi. They were discovered inside a leather bag in the same secret cleft in the cave as the Babata archive. Another papyrus belonging to Elazar was hidden in the reeds.
Probably Qumran texts (תעודות לכאורה ממערות קומראן) – and finally, there are some documents sold by the Bedouins to the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem as supposedly Qumran manuscripts, but it is possible that they were actually found in other places. In at least one of these cases, belonging to the Qumran scrolls is highly probable. Another fragment is a financial account in Greek, presumably written on the back of an original Qumran scroll.
The mysterious finds made in the second half of the 1950s in caves on the shores of the Dead Sea can be safely called the greatest sensation of the century. They are ancient manuscripts called Qumran scrolls. Found in Massada, the caves of Qumran, Khirbet Mirda, as well as in a number of other caves in the Judean Desert, these artifacts not only confirmed the truth of the Biblical texts, but also revealed many hitherto unknown events of the past.
The discovery of the Qumran scrolls
In early 1947, two Taamire shepherd boys were tending goats in the desert area of the West Bank called Wadi Qumran, on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (which is why these manuscripts are also known as dead sea scrolls) 20 kilometers east of Jerusalem. Their attention was drawn to a hole in the rock. Penetrating through it into the cave, they, to their amazement, found eight large clay vessels there. One of them contained seven scrolls sewn from pieces of parchment and wrapped in pieces of linen. The parchment was written in parallel columns of text in a language other than Arabic. The find remained with the young men for many weeks until they reached Bethlehem, where they offered the scrolls to a Syrian merchant who sent them to the Syrian Metropolitan Yeshua Samuel Athanasius at the monastery of St. Mark in Jerusalem. In late 1947, Professor E. Sukenik, an archaeologist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, managed to acquire the three remaining manuscripts from a merchant in Bethlehem. All seven scrolls (complete or slightly damaged) are now on display at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
In 1951, systematic excavations and surveys began at Qumran and nearby caves under Jordanian control. The surveys, during which new manuscripts and numerous fragments were discovered, were carried out jointly by the Department of Antiquities of the Jordanian government, the Palestine Archaeological Museum (Rockefeller Museum) and the French Archaeological Bible School.
From 1951 to 1955, they organized four archaeological expeditions to the area a few kilometers south of the first cave, and further south to Wadi Murabbaat. More than 200 caves were explored, and traces of human presence were found in many. The finds belonged to the time ranging from the Bronze Age to the Roman era, and late period accurately dated by finds a large number coins. 500 meters east of the Qumran caves, at a place called Khirbet Qumran, researchers discovered the remains of a stone building, probably a monastery, with a large number halls, where there were many cisterns and basins, a mill, a storeroom for pottery, a pottery kiln and a granary. In one of the interiors, table-like structures made of gypsum with low benches and inkwells made of ceramics and bronze were found; some of them retained remnants of ink. It was probably a scriptorium, that is, a room for writing, where many of the found texts were created. To the east of the building was a cemetery with more than 1,000 graves.
With the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, almost all of these findings, concentrated in the Rockefeller Museum, became available to Israeli scientists. In the same year, I. Yadin managed to acquire (with funds allocated by the Wolfson Foundation) another of the well-known large manuscripts - the so-called Temple Scroll. Outside of Israel, in the capital of Jordan, Amman, there is only one of the significant manuscripts of the Dead Sea - the Copper Scroll.
The Qumran scrolls are written mainly in Hebrew, partly in Aramaic; there are also fragments Greek translations Bible texts. Hebrew of non-biblical texts was the literary language of the Second Temple era, some fragments are written in post-biblical Hebrew. The main use is the square Hebrew script, the direct predecessor of modern printed script. The main writing material is parchment made of goat or sheep skin, rarely papyrus. The ink used was mostly charcoal. Palaeographic data, external evidence, as well as radiocarbon analysis allow us to date the bulk of these manuscripts to the period from 250 to 68 BC (the period of the existence of the Second Jerusalem Temple). They are regarded as the remains of the library of the mysterious Qumran community.
According to the content, the Qumran scrolls can be divided into three groups: biblical texts (this is about 29% of total manuscripts); apocrypha and pseudepigrapha; other literature of the Qumran community. Between 1947 and 1956, more than 190 biblical scrolls were discovered in eleven caves at Qumran. Basically, these are small fragments of the books of the Old Testament (all except the Books of Esther and Nehemiah). One complete text of Isaiah was also found.
Apparently, the foundation of the Qumran settlement dates back to the Maccabean era, possibly to the time of King John Hyrcanus of Judea, since the earliest coins date from his reign in 135-104 BC.
From the first years of work on found texts, the opinion prevailed in scientific circles that own works Qumranites (“Charter of the Community”, “Scroll of War”, “Comments”, etc.) were written in the II-I centuries BC. Dating the scrolls over late time preferred only small group scientists.
Of the hypotheses in which the manuscripts are dated to the 1st century AD, the version of the Australian orientalist Barbara Tearing caused the greatest resonance - if not in the scientific community, then at least in the media. The main person appearing in the scrolls is the head of the community, who bears the nickname Righteous Instructor, or Teacher of Righteousness. Identification of him with historical figures of the II-I centuries BC faced great difficulties. At the same time, many Qumran scholars point out that there is much in common between the teachings of this man, as reflected in the manuscripts, and the preaching of John the Baptist. Tearing put an equal sign between these people. And she wasn't the first to do something like that. Back in 1949, the Austrian scholar Robert Eisler, known for his study of the Slavic translation of the "Jewish War", pointed out that the Righteous Instructor is John the Baptist.
Dead Sea Scrolls
It is interesting to note that, apparently, not all dead sea scrolls fell into the hands of scientists. In 2006, Professor Hanan Eshel presented to the scientific community a hitherto unknown Qumran scroll, which contains fragments of the Book of Leviticus. Unfortunately, this scroll was not discovered under new archaeological excavations, but was accidentally seized by the police from an Arab smuggler: neither he nor the police suspected true value finds, until Eshel, who was invited for examination, established its origin. This case in Once again confirmed that a significant part of the Dead Sea Scrolls could be in the hands of looters and dealers in antiquities, gradually falling into disrepair.
Of particular interest is the connection between the Qumran scrolls and early Christianity. It turned out that the Dead Sea Scrolls, created several decades before the birth of Christ, contain many Christian ideas, for example, about the imminent change in the course of history. The Qumran community itself, which arose several centuries before this event, was similar to a monastery in the Christian sense of the word: a strict charter, joint meals, obedience to the abbot (called the Righteous Mentor).
Almost all Qumran scholars agree that the scrolls were hidden in caves during the war with the Romans - most likely in 68 AD, shortly before Qumran was captured by the latter. At the same time, it is obvious that the comments were created by witnesses of the events described in them.
The value of the found scrolls and their fragments is extremely high. The found fragments almost completely correspond to the texts of the Bible, and thus confirm the authenticity of the later Jewish texts. Also important are manuscripts of non-biblical content, reflecting a hitherto little-known aspect of the Jewish mind of that era. They tell about people who lived and were buried in Qumran and called themselves the Community of the Covenant. The order of life of the community is fixed in its Charter. The ideas set forth in it are similar to those attributed to the Jewish sect of the Essenes, who, according to Pliny, lived on the western shore of the Dead Sea, where Qumran is located. The Temple Scroll, discovered in 1967, contains detailed instructions for building a large temple and touches on topics such as ritual impurity and purification. The text is often given as being spoken in the first person by God himself.
Before the Qumran finds, the analysis of the biblical text was based on medieval manuscripts. The Qumran scrolls have greatly expanded our knowledge of the text of the Old Testament. Previously unknown readings help to better understand many of its details. Thanks to the Dead Sea Scrolls, the reliability of ancient translations has been confirmed, especially the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, made back in the 3rd-2nd centuries BC in the Egyptian city of Alexandria.
Some commentators speak of the existence of a historical continuity between the teachings of the Essenes and the ideas of early Christianity. In addition to the ideological similarity, a certain chronological and geographical coincidence of the two groups is emphasized. Thus, becoming christian church associated with the revival of the Qumran monastery between 4 BC and 68 AD. Moreover, these scholars point out that when the Word of God was revealed to John the Baptist, he withdrew into the Judean Desert near the mouth of the Jordan River. There he baptized Jesus Christ. Thus, the discovery and study of the Qumran scrolls helped scientists get closer to the circumstances of the writing of the Bible - the main book for millions of people.
DEAD SEA SCROLLS(more precisely, manuscripts; מְגִלּוֹת יָם הַמֶּלַח , Megillot Yam ha-melach), popular name manuscripts discovered since 1947 in the caves of Qumran (tens of thousands of manuscripts and fragments), in the caves of wadi Murabba'at (south of Qumran), in Khirbet Mirda (southwest of Qumran), as well as in a number of other caves in the Judean Desert and in Masada (for the findings in the last two paragraphs, see the relevant articles).
The first manuscripts were accidentally discovered at Qumran by Bedouins in 1947. Seven scrolls (complete or slightly damaged) fell into the hands of antiquities dealers who offered them to scholars. Three manuscripts (The Second Isaiah Scroll, Hymns, The War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness) were acquired for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem by E. L. Sukenik, who first established their antiquity and published extracts in 1948–50. (full edition - posthumously in 1954). Four other manuscripts fell into the hands of the Metropolitan of the Syrian Church Samuel Athanasius, and from him to the USA, where three of them (the First Scroll of Isaiah, the Commentary on Habakkuk / Habakkuk / and the Charter of the Community) were read by a group of researchers led by M. Burrows and published in 1950–51 These manuscripts were subsequently acquired by the Israeli government (with money donated for this purpose by D.S. Gottesman, 1884-1956), and the last of these seven manuscripts (Apocryphon of Genesis), published in 1956 by N. Avigad, was read in Israel. and I. Yadin. Now all seven manuscripts are on display at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
In the wake of these finds, systematic excavations and surveys began in 1951 in Qumran and nearby caves, which were under the control of Jordan at that time. The surveys, during which new manuscripts and numerous fragments were discovered, were carried out jointly by the Department of Antiquities of the Jordanian government, the Palestine Archaeological Museum (Rockefeller Museum) and the French Archaeological Bible School; scientific activity directed by R. de Vaux. With the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, almost all of these finds, concentrated in the Rockefeller Museum, became available to Israeli scientists. In the same year, I. Yadin managed to acquire (with funds allocated by the Wolfson Foundation) another of the well-known large manuscripts - the so-called Temple Scroll. Outside of Israel, in Amman, there is only one of the significant manuscripts of the Dead Sea - the Copper Scroll.
The Qumran scrolls are written mainly in Hebrew, partly in Aramaic; there are fragments of Greek translations of biblical texts. Hebrew of non-biblical texts - literary language the era of the Second Temple; some fragments are written in post-biblical Hebrew. The spelling is usually "full" (so-called active male with a particularly wide use of letters wav And iodine to denote the vowels o, y, and). Often this orthography indicates phonetic and grammatical forms that are different from the Tiberian Masorah that has come down to us, but in this respect there is no uniformity in the Dead Sea manuscripts. The main use is the square Hebrew script, the direct predecessor of modern printed script. There are two styles of writing - more archaic (the so-called Hasmonean script) and more recent (the so-called Herodian script). The Tetragrammaton is usually written in Paleo-Hebrew script, as is one fragment of the Book of Exodus. The main writing material is parchment made of goat or sheep skin, occasionally papyrus. Carbon ink (with the sole exception of the apocrypha of the book of Genesis). Palaeographic data and external evidence allow these manuscripts to be dated to the end of the Second Temple era and to be regarded as the remains of the library of the Qumran community. Finds of similar texts at Masada date back to 73 AD. e., the year of the fall of the fortress, as terminus ad quet. Fragments of tefillin on parchment have also been found; tefillin belong to the type preceding the modern one.
The Qumran manuscripts, written between the 2nd c. BC e. up to 1 c. n. e., are invaluable historical material that allows a deeper understanding of the spiritual processes that characterized Jewish society at the end of the Second Temple era, and sheds light on many general issues of Jewish history. The Dead Sea manuscripts are also of particular importance for understanding the origins and ideology of early Christianity. The finds in Qumran led to the emergence of a special area of Judaism - Qumran studies, which deals with the study of both the manuscripts themselves and the whole range of problems associated with them. In 1953, the International Committee for the Publishing of the Dead Sea Scrolls was established (seven volumes of its publications were published under the title "Discoveries in the Judean Desert", Oxford, 1955-82). The main printed organ of Qumran scholars is the Revue de Qumran (published in Paris since 1958). A rich literature on Qumran studies exists in Russian (I. Amusin, K. B. Starkova and others).
Bible texts. About 180 lists (mostly fragmentary) of biblical books have been identified among the Qumran finds. Of the 24 books of the canonical Jewish Bible, only one is not represented - the book of Esther, which, perhaps, is not accidental. Along with Jewish texts, fragments of the Greek Septuagint (from the books of Leviticus, Numbers, Exodus) were found. From the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Bible) the greatest interest presents the Targum of the book of Job, which serves as an independent evidence of the existence of a written targum of this book, which, according to the order of Rabban Gamliel I, was seized and immured in the Temple and is mentioned under the name "Syrian Book" in the supplement to the book of Job in the Septuagint. Fragments of the Targum of Leviticus were also found. The Apocrypha of the book of Genesis is, apparently, the oldest Targum of the Pentateuch created in Eretz Israel. Another type of biblical material is the literally quoted verses in the Qumran commentaries (see below).
The Dead Sea Scrolls reflect the diverse textual versions of the Bible. Apparently, in 70-130 years. the biblical text was standardized by Rabbi Akiva and his associates. Among the textual variants found in Qumran, along with the proto-Masoretic ones (see Masorah), there are types that were previously hypothetically admitted as the basis of the Septuagint and close to the Samaritan Bible, but without the sectarian tendencies of the latter (see Samaritans), as well as types attested only in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Thus, lists of the book of Numbers were found, occupying an intermediate position between the Samaritan version and the Septuagint, and lists of the book of Samuel, the textual tradition of which, apparently, is better than that which formed the basis of the Masoretic text and the text of the Septuagint, etc. In general, however, comparative the study of textual variants shows that the proto-Masoretic reading, established by Rabbi Akiva and his associates, is based, as a rule, on the selection of the best textual traditions.
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Along with the Greek text of the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Apocrypha are represented by fragments of the book of Tobit (three fragments in Aramaic and one in Hebrew) and Ben-Sira Wisdom (in Hebrew). Among the pseudepigraphic works are the Book of Jubilees (about 10 Hebrew copies) and the Book of Enoch (9 Aramaic copies; see also Hanoch). Fragments last book present all the main sections with the exception of the second (chapters 37-71 - the so-called Allegories), the absence of which is especially noteworthy, since the image of the “son of man” appears here (development of the image from the book of Daniel 7:13). The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (several fragments of the Testament of Levi in Aramaic and the Testament of Naftali in Hebrew) are also pseudo-epigraphs - works that have been preserved in the Greek Christianized version. The fragments of the Wills found at Qumran are longer than the corresponding passages in the Greek text. Also found is part of the Epistle of Jeremiah (usually included in the book of Baruch). Previously unknown pseudepigrapha include the Sayings of Moses, the Vision of Amram (Moses' father), the Psalms of Yeh oshua bin Nun, several passages from the Daniel cycle, including the Prayer of Nabonidus (a variant of Daniel 4), and the Book of Secrets.
Literature of the Qumran community
In sections 5:1–9:25, in a style often reminiscent of the Bible, the ethical ideals of the community (truthfulness, modesty, obedience, love, etc.) are set forth. The community is metaphorically described as spiritual temple consisting of Aaron and Israel, that is, of priests and laity, whose members, thanks to the perfection of their lives, are able to atone for people's sins (5:6; 8:3; 10; 9:4). Then follow the rules on the organization of the community and its daily life, listing punishable offenses (blasphemy, lying, disobedience, loud laughter, spitting in the assembly, etc.). The section ends with an enumeration of the virtues of the ideal, "reasonable" member of the sect ( maskil). Three hymns, similar in all respects to those contained in the Scroll of Hymns (see below), complete the manuscript (10:1–8a; 10:86–11:15a; 11:156–22).
The scroll of hymns (Megillat х a-х odiot; 18 more or less complete columns of text and 66 fragments) contains about 35 psalms; The manuscript dates from the 1st century. BC e. Most of the psalms begin with the formula "Thank you, Lord", a smaller part - "Be blessed be you, Lord." The content of the hymns is thanksgiving to God for the salvation of mankind. Man is described as being sinful by his very nature; it is made of clay mixed with water (1:21; 3:21) and returns to dust (10:4; 12:36); man is a carnal creature (15:21; 18:23), born of a woman(13:14). Sin permeates the entire human being, even affecting the spirit (3:21; 7:27). Man has no justification before God (7:28; 9:14 et seq.), is unable to know His essence and His glory (12:30), because human heart and ears are unclean and "uncircumcised" (18:4, 20, 24). human destiny is wholly in the hands of God (10:5 et seq.). Unlike man, God is an almighty creator (1:13ff; 15:13ff) who gave man a destiny (15:13ff) and determined even his thoughts (9:12, 30). The wisdom of God is infinite (9:17) and inaccessible to man (10:2). Only those to whom God has revealed himself are able to comprehend His mysteries (12:20), consecrate themselves to Him (11:10ff.), and glorify His name (11:25). These chosen ones are not identical with the people of Israel (the word "Israel" is never mentioned in the surviving text), but they are those who received revelation - not of their own free will, but by the design of God (6:8) - and were cleansed from their guilt God (3:21).
Mankind is therefore divided into two parts: the elect, who belong to God and for whom there is hope (2:13; 6:6), and the wicked, who are far from God (14:21) and who are allies of Bliya'al (2 :22) in his struggle with the righteous (5:7; 9, 25). Salvation is possible only for the elect and, quite characteristically, is regarded as having already taken place (2:20, 5:18): acceptance into the community is salvation in itself (7:19ff; 18:24, 28) and therefore it is not surprising that there is no clear distinction between entry into the community and eschatological salvation.
The idea of the resurrection of the righteous is present (6:34), but does not play a significant role. Eschatologically, salvation does not consist in the deliverance of the righteous, but in the final destruction of wickedness. The psalms reveal a literary dependence on the Bible, primarily on the biblical psalms, as well as on prophetic books (see Prophets and Prophecy), especially Isaiah, and are full of numerous allusions to biblical passages. Philological studies reveal significant stylistic, phraseological and lexical differences between the psalms, which suggests that they belong to different authors. Although the manuscript dates from the 1st c. BC BC, the discovery of fragments of these psalms in another cave suggests that the Scroll of Hymns is not the original, but a copy of an earlier manuscript.
Damascus Document(Sefer brit Dammesek - The Book of the Damascus Testament), an essay that presents the views of a sect that left Judea and moved to the "land of Damascus" (if this name is taken literally). The existence of the work has been known since 1896 from two fragments discovered in the Cairo genizah. Significant fragments of this work were found in Qumran, allowing one to get an idea of its structure and content. The Qumran version is an epitomized version of a more extensive prototype.
The introductory part contains exhortations and warnings addressed to the members of the sect, and a controversy with its opponents. It also contains some historical information about the sect itself. After 390 years (cf. Jech. 4:5) from the day of the destruction of the First Temple, “from Israel and Aaron” a “planted seed” sprouted, that is, a sect arose, and after another 20 years a Teacher of righteousness appeared (1:11; in 20 :14 he's named sea x a-yahid- `the only teacher` or `the teacher of the one`; or if you read x a-yahad- `teacher / of the Qumran / community`), uniting those who accepted his teachings into the "new testament". At the same time, a Preacher of lies appeared, a “mockery”, who led Israel along the wrong path, as a result of which many members of the community departed from the “new covenant” and left it. When the influence of apostates and opponents of the sect increased, those who remained faithful to the covenant left the holy city and fled to the "land of Damascus." Their leader was "the legislator expounding the Torah" who established the laws of life for those who "entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus." These laws are valid until the appearance of the "Master of righteousness at the end of days." By the "people of mockery" who followed the Preacher of lies, apparently, the Pharisees are meant, "who made a fence for the Torah." Initially, the Torah was inaccessible: it was sealed and hidden in the Ark of the Covenant until the time of the high priest Zadok, whose descendants are "chosen in Israel", that is, they have an indisputable right to the high priesthood. Now the Temple is defiled, and therefore those who have entered into the "new covenant" should not even come close to it. "People of mockery" have profaned the Temple, do not observe the laws of ritual purity prescribed by the Torah, and rebel against the commands of God.
The second part of the work is devoted to the laws of the sect and its structure. The laws include regulations on the Sabbath, the altar, the place of prayer, the "temple city", idolatry, ritual purity, etc. Some of the laws correspond to generally accepted Jewish laws, others are opposite to them and are similar to those adopted by the Karaites and Samaritans, with a pronounced general trend to rigorism. The organization of the sect is characterized by the division of members into four classes: priests, Levites, the rest of Israel, and proselytes. The names of the members of the sect must be entered in special lists. The sect is divided into "camps", each led by a priest, followed in rank by an "overseer" ( x a-mewacker), whose function is to guide and instruct the members of the sect. There seems to have been a distinction between those who lived in "camps" as actual members of the community and those who "live in camps according to the law of the land," which perhaps means community members living in villages.
The work is written in Biblical Hebrew, free from Arameisms. The sermons and teachings are composed in the spirit of the ancient midrashim. The images of the Teacher of righteousness and the Preacher of lies are found in a number of other works of Qumran literature. It is possible that the sect described here was an offshoot of the Qumran one, and that the work reflects later events than the Rule of the community. On the other hand, "Damascus" can be understood metaphorically as the deserts of Judea (cf. Amos 5:27). If the name Damascus is understood literally, then the event of flight could only refer to the time when Jerusalem and Damascus were not under the rule of one ruler, that is, to the time of the Hasmoneans: in this case, the reign of Alexander Jannaya (103–76 BC) is most likely e.), during which, after the defeat in civil war Alexander's opponents and many of the Pharisees and circles close to them fled from Judea.
The Temple Scroll (Megillat x a-Mikdash), one of the most important finds at Qumran, is the longest manuscript discovered (8.6 m, 66 columns of text) and dates from the 2nd to 1st centuries. BC e. The composition claims to be part of the Torah given by God to Moses: God speaks here in the first person, and the Tetragrammaton is always written in full form and the same square script that the Qumran scribes used only when transcribing biblical texts. Four themes are treated in the work: halakhic decrees (see Halacha), religious holidays, the organization of the Temple and the establishment regarding the king. The halachic section contains a significant number of rulings, which not only are arranged in a different order than in the Torah, but also include additional laws, often of a sectarian and polemical nature, as well as regulations similar to the Mishnaic (see Mishnah), but often diverging from them. Numerous laws on ritual purity show a much more rigorous approach than that adopted in the Mishnah. In the section on holidays, along with detailed prescriptions related to the holidays of the traditional Jewish calendar, there are prescriptions for two additional holidays - New Wine and New Oil (the latter is also known from other Dead Sea manuscripts), which should be celebrated respectively 50 and 100 days after the holiday. Shavu'ot.
The section on the Temple is written in the style of the chapters in Exodus (chapter 35 et seq.) about the construction of the Ark of the Covenant, and, in all likelihood, is intended to serve as a replenishment of the "lost" instructions given by God to David about the construction of the Temple (I Chr. 28: 11 et seq.). The Temple is interpreted as a man-made structure, which must exist until God erects His Temple not made by hands. The plan of the Temple, the ritual of sacrifice, festive rites and the rules of ritual purity in the Temple and in Jerusalem as a whole are interpreted in detail. IN last section the number of the royal guard is established (twelve thousand people, one thousand from each tribe of Israel); the task of this guard is to protect the king from an external enemy; it should be made up of "men of truth, who fear God and hate gain" (cf. Ex. 18:21). Next, mobilization plans are established depending on the degree of threat to the state from the outside.
The three main principles of the Qumran interpretation are: 1) God revealed his intentions to the prophets, but did not reveal the time of their accomplishment, and further revelation was first given to the Teacher of Righteousness (see above); 2) all the words of the prophets refer to the "end times"; 3) the end times are approaching. Historical context, clarifying biblical prophecy - the reality in which the commentator lived. The description of the Chaldeans in Habakkuk (1:6-17) is here appended phrase by phrase to kittim(apparently, the Romans), who are regarded as an instrument of God's punishment for unbelief, in particular, for the depravity of the Jerusalem high priests; kittim deprive these high priests of the priestly throne they had usurped. Other parts of the Commentary apply the words of the prophet to religious-ideological conflicts in Judea itself, primarily to the conflict between the Teacher of righteousness and the Preacher of lies, or the Wicked Priest. In cases where the text of Havakkuk does not allow direct extrapolation, the commentator resorts to allegorical interpretation.
Among the others Qumran comments:
