Lesson number 4. Sound extraction

In the school of classical guitar, there are two main ways of sound production: playing with support on a string and without support.
Let's consider them.

Support game

This method allows you to extract the brightest and loudest sounds. Therefore, it is used when playing melodic notes. Its technique is as follows:

• Place your finger i on the first string. It should be slightly bent at the penultimate joint.
• Now pluck the string so that your finger stops on the next, thicker string.

It is important to remember that only fingers work when playing. The brush should not take part in this.
• The finger is then removed.

The sixth string is played without support for the reason that there is nothing to rely on.

Play without support

Accompaniment is played using this method.

His technique differs in that after the plucking, the finger does not rest on the next string, but moves, as it were, inside the palm.

Thumb right hand plays independently. They can also be played with or without support, but the second method is more commonly used. The string is plucked downward, towards a thinner one.

Exercise 1

2) Play the first string with support, alternating fingers i and m. Practice until you can play for a minute without hesitation.
3) Then do the same for all other strings.
4) Increase the pace.

Exercise 2
Do the same, alternating fingers m and a.

Exercise 3
In this exercise you have to play with support by alternating fingers i and m, but not on one, but across the string.
1) Finger i hook the first string with support on the second.
2) Finger m - the second one based on 3, etc.
3) When you reach the last string - move in the opposite direction.

Exercise 4
1) Turn on the metronome, set the tempo to 40.
2) Put your right hand in the standard position, that is, each finger takes its own string.
3) Play without support the third, second, then the first string with fingers i, m, a respectively.
4) After the first string is played, put all your fingers back on your strings.

Left hand.

With your left hand, you press the strings at certain frets, thereby changing the length of the sounding part of the string (from the point of contact with the fretboard to the nut). This allows you to play different notes.

Working with the left hand requires a special approach. The main problem is the weakness of the fingers (especially the little finger), so they need to be trained. You can do this with the following exercises:

Exercise 1
1) Place the fingers of your left hand on the first string. Each finger has its own way. (1 finger on the 1st fret, 2nd on the 2nd fret, etc.)
2) Pinch the first string with the finger i of your right hand, and then, as it were, tear off your little finger. The third finger should remain on the string.
3) Then pick off the third finger (already without the participation of the right hand), then the second. The first finger should remain on the string, pressing it at the first fret.
This approach is called descending legato, it is often used when playing and helps to play notes without the help of the right hand.

Exercise 2

Now let's try to execute ascending legato. This is a reverse take.

1) Place 1 finger of your left hand in the 1st fret. And play the sound with your right hand.

2) Then "hit" the second finger of your left hand on the next fret. Then the third - 3 each, the fourth - 4 each. In this case, all fingers should remain on the string.

Exercise 3

play mixed legato- this is a combined ascending and descending legato, following each other.

These three exercises will help you develop grip and finger strength, repeat them until you start to perform them without hesitation.
During training, pain and discomfort may occur on the fingertips of the left hand - this will pass quickly, but do not overdo it, you should not train through pain.

The next lesson assumes that you are already quite comfortable with the game.

Surely you have noticed that each piano work, depending on its genre, tempo and character, sounds differently. For example, a play depicting lung picture summer rain sounds fun, each note seems to “bounce” under the pianist’s hands, helping us to create in our imagination desired image. And the gentle lullaby sounds smoothly and lingeringly, each of its notes seems to pour out of the previous one. How is such a different sound achieved on the same instrument?

Staccato

The secret lies in different ways sound extraction. If we press the key sharply and immediately remove the finger, the sound will be sharp and jerky. This performance is called "staccato", in sheet music it is indicated by a dot located above or below the note to be played abruptly. Most often, staccato is used when performing bright, fast works: incendiary folk dances, funny children's songs and plays.

Legato

The opposite of staccato is another technique - legato. At the same time, the sounds are one continuous smooth line, the melody seems to be flowing in a continuous stream. This sound is achieved as follows: each previous key is released simultaneously with pressing the next one. Thus, the sound of the melody becomes continuous. In musical notation, there is a special icon - an arc, which is called a league. A slur is placed both above and below notes and can combine two or more notes and even several measures at once. The legato technique adorns slow, calm works, making their sound even more tender and sincere.

Tremolo

There is another interesting way to extract sound, when the sound, depending on the register, resembles either the overflowing of a bell, or a drum roll or a roll of thunder. This effect is achieved by rapidly alternating two notes. This technique is called "tremolo", and on the letter it is indicated as follows: the “tr” icon is written under two notes. In duration, these two notes sound like one. Such expressive strokes can also be decorated with classic piano works, And folk songs, and accompaniment to vocal parts.

Often legato, staccato and tremolo can be found in one piece, these techniques significantly enrich the sound, making it bright and expressive.

Chapter 5

5.1 Nail as an inclined plane

In order to get a more detailed picture of how the nail sets the string in motion, it is necessary to combine several of the ideas expressed earlier. One of the principles of sound production, the gradual release principle, was introduced in section 2.8(b). There we found that any sharpness at initial movement strings give the sound a hard tone. For a softer sound, the initial acceleration of the string should also be somewhat smoother. In practice, this means that the nail must drive the string as if it were rolling down a ramp or ramp, the effective length of which is some fraction of the string's initial displacement. As we know, the nail also performs another function of a ramp, no less important than the first ... to guide the string down towards the body and release from some point below the plane of the other strings.

Roughly speaking, a well-shaped nail performs this dual function in the following way. One side of the nail (for most guitarists, this is the left side) touches the string, and the string moves along that side first. However, as the string moves away from its original position, the tension pulling it back increases to the point where the string begins to slide down the slope of the nail. If the nail is sharpened in such a way that the steepness of this slope gradually decreases, the string continues to accelerate, sliding off the nail. This last phase of the process, starting from the moment the string begins to move relative to the nail, is important for sound production. This phase takes a very short period of time. Since the above is true regardless of the speed in the early phase of the process, there is no need to dwell on the speed with which the nail approached and plucked the string. In any case, the main characteristics of the pinch remain the same.

Ideally, the nail behaves like a downward ramp, the slope of which drops to zero at the very bottom. This ramp has two important characteristics: length l and depth d. On Fig. Figure 5.1 shows these characteristics for this particular nail used in this particular way. However, we have already pointed out the versatility of the nail in imparting to the string the necessary direction of motion. To be more precise, we will now see that the properties of the pitch applied to the string are determined not only by the length, shape and texture of the nail itself, but also by the position of the hand and finger movements used.

This fact brings us to the possibility of changing the sound of a note using the same nail in different ways. We will explore this possibility in the next two sections. Conversely, this partly explains why guitarists use such a wide variety of hand positions and nail shapes to achieve the same results in terms of sound. A nail sharpened for one setting of the hand may be completely inapplicable for another setting ... for this reason, the question of nail sharpening, which is most important for sound production, will be postponed until the end of the chapter.

Rice. 5.1 Dimensions of the nail used as a ramp

5.2 Changing the length of the ramp

With the position of the right hand, when the line of knuckles is parallel to the strings, as shown in Fig. 5.2(a) each nail produces sound strictly perpendicular to the line of strings, the sound is sharp, unpleasant and thin. If you slightly change the position of the hand so that each nail slides along the string a little diagonally, then the sound becomes warmer and unpleasant overtones disappear. On Fig. 5.2(b) shows the hand rotated relative to the strings so that the left edge of the nail first touches the strings when played, although some guitarists prefer to turn their hand in reverse side so that the right side of the nail becomes the introductory. Either way, the effect is the same.

Rice. 5.2 Two hand positions

To understand this phenomenon, consider as an example the interaction of a single nail with a string. On Fig. 5.3 shows our nail model from three different sides. The side view (c) shows the slope with which the nail will slide along the string if the sound is played strictly perpendicular to the string. But if the nail is rotated, as in Fig. 5.4 (a), then the sliding surface of the nail along the string looks like in Fig. 5.4(b). Thus, turning the nail in relation to the string leads to an extension of the sliding surface without increasing its height. In this case, the string gets a longer and smoother path, and the resulting sound will not have unpleasant harsh overtones that are characteristic of the sudden cessation of impact on the string. (Note: neither the length nor the angle of the nail shown in the above diagrams should be taken as "recommended". Both are exaggerated for clarity of understanding.)

Rice. 5.3 Nail model

Rice. 5.4 Nail rotated relative to the string

The above explanation may be correct as it is, although it is essentially nothing more than a repetition of what was said in Section 2.8. Now we can go much further, in particular, we can show why the sound changes from "weak, dull" to "warm, voluminous" when the nail is turned at some angle with respect to the string. If we carefully compare Fig. 5.3(c) and 5.4(b), we will see that in the latter case, not only is the ramp less steep along the entire length of the edge, but its slope gradually decreases as it moves towards the very tip of the nail. Therefore, the extended fingernail has no difficulty in moving the string towards the body of the guitar and further sliding off it, thus giving the sound a significant density. When moving perpendicular to the string, the nail is such a steep obstacle that the string is not able to slide over it, regardless of the force of the nail on the string. In other words, the string can simply catch on the nail, which in this case does not work like a ramp at all. In this case, the only way to release the string from the nail... is to step back, either by extending the finger back or by continuing to move the finger forward and upward. Let's leave consideration of the first option for an indefinite time and assume that there is a second way out of the situation. Then the apoyando will look something like Fig. 5.5.

Rice. 5.5 Apoyando with the movement of the nail strictly perpendicular to the string

Here we see an interesting situation ... the complete opposite of what we are striving for: instead of moving the string towards the body, the nail is forced to move over the string. This is definitely apoyando, since the tip of the finger, after slipping, falls on the adjacent string, and yet the string does not move much towards the body. It is not surprising that the sound in this case turns out to be dull, weak, completely without “meat”. In fact, the effect is exactly the same as if we were extracting the sound with the very tip of the nail, like a pick.

In addition, this example helps us to understand the general cause of a thin sound. Thin sound ... this is an eternal problem; every guitarist knows that even a twist of the hand is not guaranteed to get rid of it, and every teacher expects a subtle sound if his student uses nails without caring about shaping and polishing them. We already know that the sound will be thin (in the sense of "insufficient fullness" rather than "harsh", although it is possible for both characteristics to occur at the same time) if the fingernail does not guide the string down sufficiently. The reason for this may be that the nail creates a too shallow ramp for the string, for example because it is too short. Now we know the second reason, which applies equally to long nails: the string can get stuck or "stuck" somewhere in the nail, so that the nail has to rise above the string to let it through. In both cases, the solution to the problem is to shape the nail so that it works like a smooth ramp of sufficient height.

If we again consider the nail moving at the angle shown in Fig. 5.4, ​​we will see that there is no reason why the nail should not yield to some extent under the influence of the string. Actually... it's the natural way to control the volume of a note. On Fig. 5.6 shows a shallow apoyando, in which the nail is raised slightly, instead of fully depressing the string. The string thus begins its downward movement from the lower point of the nail, where the slope is more gentle. Diagram (c) shows the moment when the string starts to move down, and diagram (d) ... the moment of release, which occurs shortly after. Obviously, the nail in this case also works like a ramp, but smaller. Consequently, the sound will have almost the same characteristics as if the fingernail pressed the string all the way down, but at a lower volume. (Note that as the string moves down, there is a vertical force on the finger for a while, which suddenly disappears when released, after which the finger seems to fall onto the next string. In tirando, the finger must be slightly tense to counteract this downward reaction, acting at the end of the pluck, and in this sense the tirando is inherently less "relaxed" than the apoyando.)

Rice. 5.6 Shallow apoyando with turned nail (view along the string)

Now we see how much you can change the effective length of the ramp by using the same nail in different ways. If the nail approaches the string at a right angle and only the tip is used, then the "ramp" becomes so short that it is no longer a ramp. If we try to imagine the longest ramp that can be achieved with our model, it would require rotating the nail nearly 90 degrees, as shown in Fig. 5.7. This places a very long and gentle slope in front of the string...too long, in fact, to use its full length without first taking the string to the side a considerable distance. More often than not, the nail slides over the string rather than pushing it down. The first such sliding apoyando was used by Segovia, who, by combining the tip of the finger and the nail, extracted with it a “smooth” sound of great density and loudness. The sliding apoyando is only suitable for playing relatively slow melodic lines, since the direction of movement shown in Fig. 5.7(a) requires rotation of the entire hand at the wrist.

Rice. 5.7 Sliding apoyando

As always, none of the extremes are suitable for a casual game. Most performers know that it is enough to rotate the brush by a certain minimum angle to get a sound with all the necessary characteristics: loudness, density, brightness and clarity. It can be assumed that this minimum angle corresponds to the point at which each nail begins to work like a ramp, pressing the string down, instead of going around it on its own. The angle at which this happens is individual for each performer, and even for each nail. Some performers whose nails have a "deep" cross section, as in Fig. 5.8(a) can make them into sufficiently long ramps by turning them only such an angle that only one side of the nail touches the string when the string is plucked. Others, having nails with a "flat" cross-section similar to that shown in Fig. 5.8(b) must rotate the nail a greater angle before the sound reaches any density. However, once this angle has been reached, further turning will usually be pointless. If the ramp is too long, it can drag the string unnecessarily, drowning out the upper overtones and reducing the clarity of the sound. In addition, any turn of the hand must be considered as moving away from the most effective plucking direction... directly across the strings.

Rice. 5.8 Two cross sections of the nail

Before concluding this section, it is necessary to note the shift in emphasis that has taken place in it. In section 2.8, we considered the effect of turning the nail around the string as a way of suppressing the higher modes of the string's vibrations. Indeed, at that moment we could understand him only from this point of view. However, later on we discovered a more positive effect... directing the string down towards the top, which gives the sound more solidity. Looking back at what has been said so far, we can determine that this second effect is more important for getting a good "normal" sound. We know that using the nail as a long ramp (e.g., in a sliding apoyando) suppresses the upper overtones, making the sound "warm" or "soft", and we also know that using the nail perpendicular to the string gives a thin sound, suppressing the lower overtones well. But these two extremes are only suitable for special effects. In general, one should strive to produce a sound that is rich in overtones over a wide range of frequencies, without intentionally suppressing anything. So a good "normal" hand position is one where each nail is rotated enough to work like a ramp without holding back the string more than necessary.

5.3 Determination of wrist height

In the previous section we looked at the effect of changing one angle of attack, in this section we'll look at another angle. So far, in all the diagrams showing the "shallow" apoyando (Fig. 4.3, 5.5 and 5.6), the fingers have remained vertical during the plucking. However, this is not always necessary, and the finger does not have to be straight. On Fig. 5.9 shows one finger at different angles, but in both cases moving horizontally. Obviously, changing the angle has a significant effect on the dimensions of the ramp along which the string is to move. In case (a) the ramp is short and high, in case (b) … long and gentle.

Rice. 5.9 Ramp dimensions at different finger angles

Several implications follow from this fact pertaining to several aspects of right hand technique. The two diagrams (a) and (b) may represent two stages of a single pluck, in which case they show what happens when the finger moves under the string, bending as it moves. (Whether or not this should be allowed is one of the controversial issues that will be discussed in the next chapter.) On the other hand, assuming that the finger does not flex during the pinch, diagrams (a) and (b) represent two different hand positions. More precisely, provided that the general curvature of the fingers is unchanged in both cases, then the angle of attack shown in diagram (a) can be obtained by raising (bending) the wrist, and shown in diagram (b) ... lowering (straightening). We encourage the reader to check it out for themselves.

Adjusting the height of the wrist, therefore, provides another way to control the sound...within limits. In practice, the guitarist shapes the nails to suit a particular wrist height, and then the range for changing the tone is drastically reduced. For example, the ramp shown in diagram (a) is likely to be too steep, suitable only for very strong, impulsive sounds. If we take this angle of attack as "normal", then either the finger will have to give in under the string, rising or bending, or it will be necessary to sharpen the nails shorter, with a flatter profile. Conversely, the ramp shown in diagram (b) will produce a soft sound that may lack clarity. When using this angle, the best results will be obtained by growing longer nails and sharpening them with a steeper profile, otherwise you will have to point the nails down to get a tight sound.

These examples are intended to demonstrate the implications of using any particular wrist height in terms of nail shape and finger movement. However, the most useful criterion for determining wrist height is still the one given at the end of section 4.3: the normal position of the hand should be approximately equally comfortable for both apoyando and tirando with all fingers, including the thumb. None of the angles of attack shown in Fig. 5.9 does not seem appropriate from this point of view. As usual, the best solution will be some intermediate option. However, even among best performers, there is a significant variation in the position of the wrist. Usually high position the wrist gives a bright and clear sound on the treble strings and a strong bass. The low wrist position results in a softer, fuller sound on the treble strings and a lighter bass.

5.4 Shaping nails

At the beginning of this chapter, it was said that the optimal shape of each nail depends on all other aspects of the technique of the right hand, especially on the position of the hand adopted and the movement of the fingers used. On the other hand, if the performer has a good idea of ​​how he intends to place and use his fingers, and what sound he expects to get in that position, then the shape of the nails is relatively obvious. Therefore, we have postponed the discussion of this issue until now.

Once the "normal" hand position has been chosen, each nail must be individually shaped so that it produces a satisfying sound when both apoyando and tirando are used. In this case, it would be more logical to strive for uniformity of sound than for its diversity. While it must be remembered that each nail will be used in different ways to produce different sounds, it may be more important to ensure that all three fingers produce the same sound when used in the same way from the same hand position. An obvious example of what this is for is the tremolo (p a m i p a m i etc.), which will sound flat only if all three fingers play the same sounds at the same volume. In general, any inappropriate change in sound coloration within the same phrase can make the music difficult to perceive and weaken the effect of intentional contrasts. Of course, an absolute match is not necessary. There are unavoidable differences in sound caused by fingers i, m and a being in different points along the length of the string, and this can create problems when playing near the bridge (in this case, i may well be twice as far from the bridge as a, and thumb even further), but these differences can be made almost indistinguishable in normal play if the nails are properly shaped.

So the problem boils down to shaping the three nails so that they work like identical ramps. But will big mistake consider that for this it will be enough just to sharpen them with the same profile. Firstly, most likely each nail will have its own cross section, and sharpening will have to match it. Secondly, each finger will approach the string at its own angle, regardless of the chosen position of the brush. In particular, if the ring finger a is perpendicular to the string when viewed from under the wrist, then i and m are likely to be slightly tilted in the opposite direction of the tilt of the thumb. (Some players have all fingers tilted this way. Duarte1 explains the anatomical reasons why this can sometimes be useful; from a picking point of view, it is only necessary to sharpen each nail according to its natural angle of attack.) Therefore, a guitarist who sharpens his nails like he likes not having a guitar handy, must have a very stable technique... if he cares at all about the quality of the sound he produces. Less experienced players, or those wishing to experiment, are advised to sharpen their nails, immediately testing on the guitar to see if each nail really works like a ramp in normal playing.

The last word in determining if the nails are working properly is obviously left to the ear, but some physical checks will also be helpful. The feeling of how smoothly the string glides over the nail is the most obvious; it is also possible to gauge the extent to which a string is pressed down during a pluck by observing its response at the other end of the string, that is, how far the string moves away from the fingerboard (see Section 4.1). This check is especially useful when perfecting a thick tirando sound. When it comes to hearing tests, some are more thorough than others. To get a rough sound on, say, an E on the third string, the nail must have a really strong defect, especially if the errors are masked by vibrato, but to get a pleasant sound of the same note on the open first string, a well-shaped nail is needed. If all three fingers, used from the normal hand position, produce about the same sound on the open E string, using apoyando or tirando, and if this sound is very dense, as well as bright and clear, then you have good "building blocks" for creating music. .

So far, we have considered only the purposes of sharpening nails. Indeed, throughout the book an approach has been taken based on the idea that once the main tasks are clearly defined, specific solutions will be obvious. However, in such difficult question as the shape of nails, this assumption is probably too optimistic. Therefore, the following are ideas and suggestions that may help some readers deal with the difficulties they face.

1. (a) Every guitarist has a different sharpening method, and any method that works is just as good as any other. On Fig. Figure 5.10 shows a fairly simple method that usually gives good results. Starting from a position where the nail is perpendicular to the file, as shown in diagram (a), the file is tilted at an angle α, as shown in diagram (b). Then the file must be rotated through the angle β (in any direction), and sharpening should be started by moving the file back and forth in a straight line, as shown in diagram (c). (It is recommended to use an abrasive, rather than a metal, file that cuts in both directions without tearing the nail fibres.) If the angles α and β are chosen correctly, then the nail will work quite well as a ramp if it is only filed in this way until desired length. However, the nail will remain sharp corners… one on the input side where the string can snag, the other on the output side where it can make the release sharp enough (see also point (d) below). By rounding these corners, and making sure the overall profile is the smooth curve shown in diagram (d), you can use the nail at a variety of angles, as well as in its main function...a ramp in normal play. After giving the nail some profile, you can use a file to smooth the surface of the tip. Of course, the work on this is not finished yet. Until the working surface of the nail is polished to a glassy smoothness (for example, with very fine sandpaper), the nail will not work effectively as a ramp, without the unpleasant scraping noise caused by the rough surface of the nail. Since the string is mostly in contact with the inner surface of the nail, it requires particularly careful polishing, especially on the insertion side. However, closer to the release point, the outer surface begins to contact the string, which also requires special attention.

Rice. 5.10 Straight line sharpening method

(b) The advantage of the straight line method just described is that it gives reasonably good results regardless of the natural shape of the nail and its angle of attack, provided, of course, that the angles α and β are chosen correctly. When choosing them, it is necessary to proceed from the required height and slope of the ramp, taking into account the issues discussed in section 5.3. In addition, the angle β depends mainly on the angle at which the finger approaches the string (when viewed from under the wrist), and the angle α on the height of the cross section of the nail. (If the nail is very flat, then the angle α needed to file in a straight line may be too large, as filing at such an angle will weaken the tip of the nail very much. In this case, you can still use this method, using the surface of the file only for checking straight line, and the actual sawing without tilting the file.) Finding the right angles... is not an easy task, and is usually solved by trial and error. Although this method is not a panacea, it can be a starting point for finding the optimal shape for each nail. minor change one of the angles, especially β, can have a strong influence on the final shape of the nail. The nail shown in Fig. 5.10 would probably work for a finger approaching the strings at right angles. If, on the other hand, the finger is tilted to one side or the other, so that the angle β would have to be changed by, say, ten degrees, then the final shape of the nail will be quite different from that shown in Fig. 5.10(d), but will most likely resemble Fig. 5.11(a) or (b). This example shows how difficult it is to judge whether a nail will work well just by looking at it...and explains why some people's nails look so weird. Naturally, it is pointless to copy the shape of another artist's nails, and it is even worse to criticize it without first trying to understand exactly how each nail is used.

Rice. 5.11 Shapes of nails obtained by changing the angle β

(c) If the nail is bent near the middle, as shown in Fig. 5.12, then it is especially difficult to make a ramp out of it. In fact, such a nail works like two ramps: the string from point A to B will linger at point C before continuing to D. Clearly, one ramp is superfluous here, and the best solution would be to cut the entire section from B to D, removing it from the path of the string so that the string will only go up the first ramp. An unusual alternative solution would be to use only the section from C to D.

Rice. 5.12 Curled nail

(d) A principle follows from the solution of the bent nail problem, which can also be applied to less problematic nails: the string must leave the nail before its curvature works against it. For example, the shaded portion of a nail used at the angle shown in Fig. 5.13 should be short enough not to hit the string at all. Apart from adding strength to the nail, the leading side of the nail usually has only one function... not to touch the string at all.

Rice. 5.13 The shaded part of the nail must not touch the strings.

(e) The shape of the nail must take into account its structure. For example, there is no point in trying to make a steep ramp out of a soft nail. Instead of pointing the string down, the nail will simply flex under the force of the string. For a soft nail to work as a ramp at all, it must be relatively short and shaped to place a gentle slope in front of the string. But even then it can be very difficult to make the string vibrate with a strong perpendicular component, especially when playing tirando, and so flexible nails usually produce subtle sounds that lack density and volume. Hard nails also have problems. The "click" caused by the initial contact of the string with the nail becomes more perceptible the harder the nail is. However, this noise can often be reduced by changing the length of the lead-in so that the fleshy part of the finger first contacts the string, softening the strike. A hard nail also needs to be especially carefully processed to get a smooth ramp, since it will not be able to hide small shape defects by bending. In principle, a hard nail will never produce the same smooth string movement as a slightly pliable nail, and it will produce sounds with a fairly hard tone. The ideal nail would probably be one with a hard lead-in side (to push the string down firmly) but a flexible lead-out side (to release the string smoothly). To have natural nails like this… it's an unspeakable luck. But if the performer thinks that he needs to harden his nails, with the help of tissue paper, nail polish or in some other way, then he may like the result of strengthening only the introductory side.

(f) Most of the above applies equally to the thumb. Of course, the thumbnail must be sharpened according to its natural angle of attack, which is very different from the rest of the fingers. Usually the string comes into contact with the nail about halfway through and leaves it at the bottom corner, although some players prefer to bend the thumb so that the ramp is pointing the other way. However, in most cases, the part of the thumbnail that is used for playing does not need to be turned far from the string line... putting the fingernail too far on the braided bass strings can result in a nasty bounce. As with the rest of the fingers, the thumbnail can be used in a variety of ways to change the sound, or, unlike the others, it can be omitted entirely from the pluck to produce a particularly warm bass or soft, meaty chord on all six strings. Although the thumbnail has not been adequately dealt with in this chapter, it is by no means less important. On the contrary, its shape can have a profound effect, for better or worse, on the position of the hand as a whole. For example, if the bottom corner of the nail catches on the string (a very common problem), not only will the bass sound thin and metallic, but it will also be very difficult or impossible to play apoyando with the thumb from the normal hand position. The hand is thus forced to change position each time the thumb is to play an apoyando, and the resulting instability can often break the control of the right hand technique, as well as make certain passages extremely awkward to play ( good examples of this are the first two Preludes of Villa-Lobos). As if that weren't enough, the extra effort required to push through a hooked nail brings no improvement in terms of sound quality, but only adds unnecessary tension. All aspects of the technique require that the thumbnail be able to confidently and easily guide the string down, using both tirando and apoyando, without causing the hand to deviate from its normal position. If the nails of the other three fingers work in the same way, then we can say that the performer has at least the base correct technique right hand.

Basic sound extraction techniques string group

What do we mean by the concept of "basic methods" of sound extraction?

At first glance, these two concepts are identical. In fact, the difference between them is significant. A stretched string is the source of sound, and how we make it vibrate and actually sound is called “sound production”. The method of extracting sound is the base, the basis of the playing technique.

Basic sound extraction techniques string instruments can be subdivided into:

1) Bow on the string- arco ; 2) pinch finger- pizzicato (pizz .)3)bow shaft along the string col legno

1. Bow along the string (reception of the game, called agso). This is when, during the movement of the bow, the string continuously vibrates and emits a melodious tone. Moreover, the stronger the pressure of the bow and the faster its movement (to some extent, both of these factors are interdependent), the stronger the sound of the string. However, excessively strong bow pressure can prevent the string from vibrating freely, in which case the forced sound turns into a creak of rosin-covered horsehair against the string. This is the most common"basic method" of sound extraction

The flexibility and expressiveness of the sound of bowed instruments is based on the fact that the performer can directly influence sound production all the time and give an infinite number of nuances from piano to forte .

2.Pinch(game technique called pizzicato ). With this method, a single removal of the string from the state of equilibrium is obtained. After plucking, the sound quickly fades away and its subsequent sound cannot be influenced. Therefore, it is pointless to write pizzicato otherwise than in quarters or, if necessary, in smaller durations.

The pinch, as a rule, is carried out with the finger of the right hand, although in practice there are tricks of the game pizzicato fingers of the left hand (mainly on open strings). Pizzicato sounds beautiful only when its sound spreads freely and naturally. Any "constriction" of it and "deafness" cannot serve artistic purposes. Based on this, it is desirable to limit the volume of pizzicato in the orchestra. Pizzicato sounds best on low scales. As you move up the pizzicato starts to sound drier, weaker and sharper in worst value words, and already in the middle of the third octave loses all its charm. Therefore, the usual and most common volume of pizzicato is considered to be the volume enclosed between G small octave and E - F third.

However, it is not uncommon for pizzicato to reach almost the highest C and sound great. But this is possible only under the condition of a dense arrangement of voices or octave doubling of the upper voice.

When going from pizzicato the word agso is put to execution with a bow. Change of techniques agso and pizzicato implies at least a minimal break in the sound, especially if during the agso the bow was directed downward in its movement, due to which the right hand moved far away from the string.

3. DRevolutionary Committee of the Bowalong the string (reception of sound production, called col legno ) is rather an effect of a percussive order, since in the resulting sound, the knock prevails over the intonation (the definiteness of the pitch and timbre of the sound).

When a composer wants to dramatically change the color of a sound and create a completely new sensation, he uses the blows of the bow shaft, his reverse side. In the notes, this extremely peculiar technique requires an additional designation - avec le bois de l "archet or avec le dos de larchet. Sometimes the authors use the Italian name for this technique and then write the word col legno, which is quite identical to its French translation. "usually give rise to a sonority that is rather sharp, dry and similar to the crackling of burning spruce or pine branches. With the pizzicato technique, the blows of the "bow pole" have nothing in common, since they differ from it not only in some sharpness, but also in a shade. The col legno technique has in itself something like the tapping, clicking and crackling of a xylophone. n legno by Berlioz in the final part of the Fantastic Symphony and, especially, by Glazunov in the ballet The Seasons, where n legno reproduces the sound of hail clattering. Some composers use the services of col legno quite often, but not always successfully. In this case, they are guided not so much by artistic necessity as by a simple desire for novelty, sometimes little justified. In this sense, the ability to use the “bow shaft”, which is so clearly seen in the example below from Glazunov’s Seasons, is a very instructive example of this. For some composers, this “vicious desire for novelty sometimes went to extremes. Alexander Cherepnin once reached such “limits of what is permitted” when he forced all the players on bowed instruments to strike the backs of violins, violas, cellos and double basses with their bows, likening them to “percussion instruments”, which is not particularly successful.

Prolonged play of the “bow pole” is not very desirable. She wears off the rosin, ruins the strings, and wears off the lacquer on the bow. All this taken together is the only reason why violinists are so reluctant to use the col legno technique. However, in the orchestra n legno, applied on time and, by the way, makes an indelible impression.

"Specific Techniques" of String Group Playing

In contrast to the “basic techniques” of sound extraction, “specific playing techniques” in violin playing are the methods by which one or another character of sound is achieved.

1. tremolo- tremolo-represents a sequence of rapidly repeating notes without a strictly defined rhythmic division, there is a wonderful means of orchestral expressiveness, especially often used in "dramatic" music. This excellent technique is widely used by all composers, starting with its inventor, Claudio Monteverdi. But the "classics" set special kind his writing.

a) They played tremolo directly dependent on the speed of movement and believed that in especially fast-moving music it is enough to emphasize a note once. According to this, tremolo could meet with them, with a double line of sixteenths, a triple - thirty-seconds, a quadruple - sixty-fourths and a five - one hundred and twenty-eighths. This method of recording sometimes made it very difficult to perceive, giving rise in some cases to sufficient doubts. In notes, it all looked like this:

In modern music, the simplest form tremolo on one or two notes in the recording is depicted in only one way - thirty-seconds, regardless of the actual speed of movement. In the orchestra, long tremolo is associated with rapid fatigue of the performer's hand, as a result of which, if this technique is abused, great care in its reproduction cannot be required.

However, tremolo always makes a charming impression with his excitement in forte and fortissi mo , and mysterious quirkiness - in the piano. It is clear, of course, that tremolo, as a device that is sharp and strongly affects the listener's imagination, should not be too frequent.

b) With a polyphonic presentation tremolo and with an undoubted desire to create a more refined sonority in the orchestra, modern composers often use intermittent " tremolo , which consists in the swing of both notes forming it. This kind tremolo on one string is possible within the now usual “stretching” of a pure fifth, and on two adjacent strings within a minor or major nona. If you want to achieve the highest speed of such tremolo , the composer must always remain within the limits of one string, since on two adjacent strings it is possible only in a fairly moderate movement.

c) There is another kind tremolo - tremolo "measured", when the author, regardless of the speed of movement, requires to maintain impeccable distinctness in the rhythmic division of the picture. This kind tremolo , most commonly found in complex constructions, where the steps forming it alternate with relative haste.

For the greatest power of sound and, despite all its "banality" tremolo still able to impress in its simplest form. This is how they used it tremolo all the most famous connoisseurs of the orchestra from Beethoven and Weber to Glinka, Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov inclusive. However, there are no rules according to which the author should use one or another variety tremolo , of course, does not exist. Usually he chooses one or another variety of it in full accordance with his desire and taste, and is then guided solely by the "character" of his music, which prompts him the most Right way in achieving the intended goal. Only from his skill and skill the choice depends, and its business is to make sound one variety tremolo where another would seem to be different. Each solution will be equally successful, as long as it would be able to convince the listener of the impossibility of using the other. Therefore, to limit the freedom of action of one possibility at the expense of another is as unreasonable as to assert that the "swinging" "intermittent tremolo , as a successful and not without charm invention of modern art, preferably “measured or ordinary tremolo.

In order not to return to tremolo, it remains only to recall that any kind of this technique is possible within the full volume of the violin, in any movement, with any strength of sound and in any position of the neck - without a mute, with a mute, at the stand, on the neck, harmonics. Normal tremolo does not apply only when playing with a bow shaft and in pizzicato.

The similarity of tremolo in pizzicato is achieved in a different way - by combining both hands or by taking pizzicato "up and down". Both types of tremolo-pizzicato are very limited in their speed and should be used with great care.

It is possible to perform both on one and on 2-3 strings. It is achieved by two movements of the bow, carried out one after the other, sometimes we bring it closer to the “ricochet-somersault”. On one string in the interval of a perfect fifth and, accordingly, on two strings in the interval of a large none, are quite possible. But further stretching of the fingers in low positions for a minor sixth or minor decima in an orchestra is not desirable. However, composers use little of what is now available.

2. Vibration(Italian Vibrato - vibration) - a technique of performance in playing stringed instruments, which consists in oscillating the finger of the left hand on the string, which periodically changes the pitch within a small range. Vibration- frequent- for quiet sound rupey - for expression and cool game - almost vibration-free play at the natural weight of the bow.

Vibrationgives sounds a special color, melodiousness, increases their expressiveness, as well as dynamism, especially in a large concert hall. The nature of the vibration and the ways in which it is used are determined by the individual style of interpretation and the artistic temperament of the performer. The normal number of vibrations. - about 6 per second. With a smaller number of oscillations, a rocking or trembling sound is heard, producing an anti-artistic impression. The term " Vibration." appeared in the 19th century, but lutenists and gambo players used this technique as early as the 16th-17th centuries. The ancient names of the first method are English sting (for the lute). One of the first mentions of violin vibration is contained in the "Universal Harmony" ( "Harmonie universele ...", 1636) M. Mersenne. The classical school of violin playing of the 18th century considered vibration only as a kind of decoration and attributed this technique to ornamentation. G. Tartini in his "Treatise on Ornamentation" ("Trattato delle appogiatura" , circa 1723, ed. 1782) calls vibration"tremolo" and treats it as a kind of so-called. game manners. Its use, like other decorations (trill, grace note, etc.), was allowed in cases "when the passion requires it." According to Tartini and L. Mozart ("The experience of a solid violin school" - "Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule", 1756), vibration is possible in cantilena, on long, sustained sounds, especially in "final musical phrases." With mezza voce - imitation of the human voice - vibration, on the contrary, "should never be used." Kinds vibrations: uniformly slow, uniformly fast and gradually accelerating, indicated respectively by wavy lines above the notes:

In the era of romanticism Vibration from "decoration" turns into a tool musical expressiveness, becomes one of the most important elements of the violinist's performing skills. The widespread use of vibration, initiated by N. Paganini, naturally followed from the coloristic interpretation of the violin by the Romantics. In the 19th century, with the release of musical performance on the stage of a large concert hall, vibration is firmly included in the practice of the game. Despite this, even L. Spohr in his "Violin School" ("Violinschule", 1831) allows only individual sounds to be vibrated, which he marks with a wavy line. Along with the varieties mentioned above, Spohr also used slowing down vibration. Further expansion of application vibrations associated with the performance of E. Yzai and, in particular, F. Kreisler. Striving for emotional richness and dynamism of performance and using vibration, as a method of "singing" the technique, Kreisler introduced vibration when playing fast passages and in the detach stroke ”(which was forbidden by classical schools). This contributed to overcoming the "etude", the dryness of the sound of such passages.

3. scordatura -or the restructuring of the strings is quite possible with respect to the middle strings and a tone down, but also one, two or even three semitones up. Something similar, and this is possible in relation to one, two or all four strings at the same time, is most often found in works for the violin - so l oh, where special beauty and intensity of sound is required. In the orchestra, "scordatura" is used quite rarely, it is not very desirable to use it, and all such cases are usually known for recounting. There is a case in one of Bach's Brandenburg Concertos when the author demands "a small violin: a violino piccolo tuned a perfect fourth higher than an ordinary violin. Such a precaution made sense, since the small violin from the very "Beginning" was designed for a high tuning and did not at all require tuning, as such. At a later time, when the small violin had served its age, composers began to use an ordinary violin, tuned higher than the usual tuning. Due to the too strong tension of all the tightened strings, the “rebuilt” violin sounded not only sonorously, but also extremely sharp and noisy, and it was precisely such a vulgarized sonority that Gustav Mahler once needed in his least attractive Fourth Symphony, when he wished to imitate a village musician who creaked slightly whether not on a homemade violin.

Tuning a string up is sonic better than tuning it down. In the first case, the strings sound more sonorous and rich, while in the second - somewhat muffled and relaxed. This quality is all the more noticeable the lower the string is tuned. An extremely curious case of this kind occurs in Pancho Vladigerov's Bulgarian Rhapsody (Wladigerow, 1899), when the author, without pausing, demands to rebuild the string G to E small octave while maintaining a constant glissando. Used in a rather large piece of music, this E sounds like an "organ point", bagpipes, and, according to the author's intention, should obviously imitate some local folk instrument.

4. Trill- can be attributed to ornamentation, but in fact, this is a technique of execution. On the violin, all trills are possible in the volume of a whole tone or a semitone. They sound great at all levels of the scale and become only less accurate at the highest ones. Opposite, at the very bottom, on an open string G , you need to exclude the sol-la trill, as it sounds bad and has no end. In any case, in terms of its quality and ease of execution, it falls sharply out of the general range, and therefore, if it is absolutely necessary to use it, it is better to pass it on to violas or cellos, where it will sound flawlessly.

Finally, in order not to burden too much with all sorts of additional signs the presentation of the orchestral paria in the score, it is customary to use the abbreviation symbol (simile). Cancellation of any tricks can serve as a word arco.

5. Playing simultaneously on two 2-3 strings

Playing double notes in an orchestra has quite a large application. They can be used quite freely, but the simplest and easiest

Of these, there will undoubtedly be those that include one open string. Thus, unconditionally light, one should recognize all large and small sixths and, all sevenths large, small and reduced, enclosed withinG of the small octave as the lower sound and E of the fourth as the upper.

All thirds are light - large and small, enclosed within the si of a small octave in the lower sound and up to the fourth octave at the top. All pure and augmented fourths and all diminished and augmented fifths are possible, the upper sound of which, at the bottom, will be an open string. D, and above - sound E fourth octave.

The simultaneous use of three-string combinations requires great tension in the bow and a rough, rich sound, which is possible only in forte or fortissimo. All this tension is only due to the stand, which has a significant bulge, which, in fact, prevents the ease of "capturing" three strings at the same time. In this case, it should be clear that the greatest bow pressure naturally falls on the middle string. And in order to get the same plane in which the bow could act, the performer is forced to move it up the string closer to the fingerboard. It can be seen that the performer, with the greatest expenditure of strength on his part, is forced to be content with least force sound, because "near the neck" the string has the least tension. Classics of the older generation never used such a technique, but some later masters managed to achieve amazing beauty in the sound of such combinations. The most illustrative example in this sense is the orchestral arrangement of Chopin's Polonaise in A major, introduced by A. K. Glazunov (1865-1936) into his Chopiniana.

It must be remembered that all 3-string combinations are lighter than 4-string combinations; the presence of open strings not only facilitates the reproduction of this consonance, but also makes it more sonorous and ringing; a wide arrangement of a polyphonic combination is always preferable to a closer one. Of course, it does not follow from this that all other intervals cannot be used. You can use them, but then the violinist must know the “technique of the instrument”.

Until now, it has been firmly established that all such harmonies should be filled with a bow down.There are times when it becomes necessary to apply the bow up. This way of performing sounds no worse than usual and sometimes turns out to be completely indispensable.

6. Arpeggiatto- arpeg. Sliding the bow along 2.3 or four strings - arpeggio (from Italian Arpegiato - playing the harp). This technique is indicated by a vertical wavy line before the chord or in short by the word. Can be played with a bow or pizzicato.

The performer achieves absolutely extraordinary success when playing polyphonic combinations decomposed into their component parts. Such a technique of execution is possible in any sequence, any speed and any kind of “figuration”. In this case, the degree of sound intensity does not matter. All such drawings are possible both in pianissimo and in the most powerful fortissimo, not to mention intermediate degrees of sound strength.

Sometimes pizzicato can be a deliberate arpeggiato - quasi chitarra, and "up and down", like the usual technique of playing a balalaika or guitar. In the first case, sliding pizzicafo arpeggiato or quasi chitarra with the usual position of the instrument is only possible upwards. In the opposite direction, a similar pizzicato will remain unplayable until the violin assumes the position of the cello or guitar.

In sheet music, the first way of performing pizzicato can be denoted by the concept of arpeggiato or “snake”, and the second by the words “violin under the elbow” - Violo n sous le bras. In the second case, pizzicato "up and down" is usually accompanied by signs of the corresponding bows, and its execution is possible already in any position of the instrument - normal or changed.

7. Glissando(gliss ando - slide) - sliding a finger from one note to another in an ascending or descending direction. Glissando can be: a) fast, slow, accelerated, b) deep, superficial.

Reception gliss ando in the orchestra for a long time was not used at all, and in the rules of violin playing it was allowed only in downward movement. Now all these restrictions have lost their meaning, and glissando, as a technique for sliding a finger along a string, is available in a fairly wide range. Under normal circumstances, gliss ando perhaps on a chromatic basis in any direction, as a "decorating" orchestral technique. In this case, it should be performed at a moderate enough pace to make the listener feel its originality. At a faster pace gliss ando is equivalent to portamen to in singing. Here the sliding is carried out at a rapid pace and is interpreted not as an orchestral, but rather a technical device. In action such a portamen to very beautiful, refined, but they should not be abused.

Finally, in the sequence of "natural harmonics", glissando gives a certain orchestral color, similar to a "fantastic" whistle, if only this definition can be applied in this case. The technique of "sliding harmonics" is now used quite often, but it seems that Rimsky-Korsakov used them for the first time, using them on the cello on the Night before Christmas. In this case, their sequence has been brought up to 12 overtones inclusive, and the seventh “discordant” overtone, along with 11, which cannot be used in the orchestra, “slip” imperceptibly.

"Specific tricks" of the game that affect the change tone colors.

The sound extracted at different points of the string has a different timbre. The most striking contrast of timbres is manifested when playing on the fingerboard and at the stand, and in the latter case we have a specific, rather sharp, quickly fading sound.

1. Designated: at the stand - sur le chevalet or sul ponticello. Reception sounds very impressive, depending on the character performed work. It becomes metallic, glassy, ​​ringing, even sinisterly shiny hard. In forte, it reaches an extraordinary shrillness, instantly turning into pianissimo, an enchanting, magically sparkling, airy, as it were, cold sonority. A stunning impression is made by the game "at the stand" in t rcmolo. Beethoven in that part of the finale of the 9th symphony, where the words of Schiller's ode can be translated by the call - "Look for him in heaven."

The sound can also be extracted on the fretboard itself (this technique is calledsultastoor sur la touche). With this technique, a sound of a soft-coldish tone, somewhat flute-like, is obtained. The excessive mystery of the sound of sul tasto can sometimes cause an unpleasant sensation in the listener. In forte, playing "at the neck" gives an extremely unstable, poor quality sonority. It makes no sense to use it, and therefore this peculiar technique is usually kept in soft, gentle, inspirational and mysterious music. In the latest music, especially among the "Impressionists", the game sur la touche occurs not only as a technique of performance, but also serves as a means of "artistic influence". In this case, the reception sur la touche more commonly used intremolowhen the author wants to create a feeling of some kind of ambiguity or nebula of sound, and on harmonics to add fantasy and mystery. (Spring round dance by C. Debussy)

Duration is defined differently. Sometimes the word arco, as a prescription to restore the usual way of playing, serves as a rejection of the game "undersul ponticello or sultasto. Either the authors put a cross or loco (so far).

2. Playing with mute - consurdinaor avec sourdines-- a game with a small wooden or bone scallop. WITHurdina - a small scallop made of wood or bone, put on a stand, which makes the sound of a stringed instrument acquire a somewhat muffled, matte sound. In the party they write abbreviated: con sord. (the performer needs some time to put on the mute); to remove the mute they write: senza sord.

With a large number of violins, the mute gives their sound an extraordinary expressiveness and warmth. The mute sounds especially beautiful in the piano, when a feeling of mystery, concentrated penetration, even restrained excitement arises involuntarily. In forte, on the other hand, the mute is able to evoke deeply exciting sensations and create a truly breathtaking impression, bordering on stunning rigor, almost mournfulness. It was in this refraction that such composers as P. Tchaikovsky and E. Grieg used the mute extremely subtly.

The use of the mute was previously associated primarily with theatrical music. At a later time, the mute became widespread, and now there are no longer any obstacles to using it where the musical intent of this work requires it.

The speed of movement does not matter, and the mute is equally appropriate both in slow movement and in moderate and fairly mobile. Even in the rapid movement, the mute is able to evoke amazing sensations and draw amazing pictures of an unusually impetuous, light flight, whirlwind or dance, fanned by genuine fabulousness and mystery.

The composer has a lot of options at his disposal. He can take off the mute on the remotes and put it on in the same way. Finally, an can alternate between "open sounds" and "muted sounds".

3. Playing with harmonics - indicated by 0 above the notes - artificial or natural (played with a bow, rarely pizzicato, sometimes tremolo).Natural harmonics - are obtained by touching with a finger at the points of division on an open string. Denoted 0 - the note indicates the place where the finger is touched, corresponds to the real sound of the harmonic.

G. Berlioz points out that it is possible to stretch a number of natural harmonics - octaves of Paganini's fingers, "to the distance of a pure octave within a pure fourth in A flat, on a string G . As a rule, not a single violinist of the orchestra is able to implement such a series of harmonics. However, there is sometimes an urgent need for them. In everyday life, the opinion has been established that those performers of the first console whose hand is endowed with special qualities of stretching can use the flageolets of the “Paganini octave”. The authors, using octave harmonics, undoubtedly had in mind quite certain performers capable of reproducing one or another low harmonic. However, it would not be very prudent to introduce this provision into the circle of orchestral possibilities in the order of a certain rule. Here are the flags in question.

All harmonics, called "artificial", differ from "natural" ones in that their performance is associated with the establishment of a new fundamental tone that does not coincide with the sounds of open strings. For their reproduction, all artificial harmonics require the participation of two fingers, of which the first sets one or another main step, and the other, the fourth or third, lightly touches the string at the corresponding point. In artificial harmonics, an ordinary note indicates the place where the string is pressed with the finger of the left hand. A diamond-shaped note indicates the place where the finger touches the string and does not correspond to the real sound.

Strictly speaking, "artificial harmonics" are possible in the same volumes in which "natural harmonics" are used. This means that not only the simplest harmonics of a “pure fourth” or fourths are possible, but also fifths and harmonics of a major and minor third. However, in the orchestra, the scope of all these harmonics is much less extensive, and mainly artificial fourth harmonics are used, as the easiest and most convenient to extract.

The volume of artificial fourth harmonics is possible in a chromatic sequence, from A flat of a small octave to B of the second. The sounds located above sound too weak and therefore have an insignificant application in the orchestra.

Along with the fourth harmonic, the fifth harmonic has some distribution in the orchestra. It is obtained in full agreement with the third natural harmonic of the fifth or the harmonic of the duodecyme, when the fourth finger lightly touches the D string at the place where a pure fifth will sound, located one third of the new string length or at a distance of a fifth from the new fundamental tone pressed by the first finger. IN in an orchestra, fifth harmonics are used much less and, mainly, in cases where it is necessary to obtain harmonics located below the A-flat sound of the second octave or, when it is technically more convenient, to move the fourth finger a step up than to change the entire position of the hand. Here is the full volume of artificial fifths flageolets. They are written in their usual ways.

Finally, the third harmonic has a negligible use in the orchestra. It can be obtained by touching with a third finger at the point corresponding to the major third and coinciding with the first fifth of the new string length formed by the pressed finger. In sheet music, it is depicted in the same way as the corresponding natural harmonic. The black note above the diamond is often omitted for ease of notation.

A sequence based on harmonics alone sounds especially beautiful in moderate movement. However, this does not exclude some other possibilities. It is not difficult to perform the use of harmonics in sustained notes, just as R. Wagner did at the very beginning of the introduction to Lohengrin, and P. Tchaikovsky - in the final part of Iolanta, or in separate notes, as is found in the "March of Chernomor" at Glinka.

Tremolando sounds charming in harmonics alone. It is possible both in pianissimo and fortissimo. The first case is found in Mlada by N. Rimsky-Korsakov, and the second in the Hindu Suite by S. Vasilenko.

In the latest music, composers find harmonics quite significant use. But not all authors write flageolets with sufficient clarity. In one case, they are content with diamonds alone, believing that the student and of the score is quite knowledgeable in reading natural harmonics. In another, the author himself is not very firm in the “theory of harmonics” and, indicating them in actual sounding with notes, with zeros, he completely relies on the experience of the performers. With such a recording, a careless author usually does not realize that some flageolets belong to “natural” and others to “artificial”, and most often is content with the complete arbitrariness of the performers. A sufficiently knowledgeable composer should understand that “artificial harmonics”, when they coincide with “natural”, sound worse than these latter, and in the environment of “natural harmonics” themselves, not all sounds are equal. The volume of harmonics that the author can count on covers two full octaves from G second to G fourth. Below this G he can have only "natural" harmonics or partially "artificial" fifth harmonics.

The use of double harmonics is possible only on open strings, and there is no need to limit them to only octave harmonics.

4. Playing on one string - when playing bowed instruments in melodic sequences, they move from string to string; but sometimes, to achieve a special effect, the performer is ordered to play some kind of succession on one string. The timbre of such sounds acquires a thick, rich tone. To designate this effect, the designation is written over these measures: sul G, sul D, etc. (i.e., on the G string, on the D string, etc.). For large string holdings D rarely used in an orchestra.

The second string is very similar in sound to the third. It is completely devoid of the sharpness of the “fifth” and sounds less bright and refined. But it is precisely in this quality that her inherent charm and sincerity is hidden. The A string is especially good in tender, touching and thoughtful melodies, and in comparison with the stringD sounds somewhat brighter and sharper.

Finally, the "fifth" has an extraordinary brilliance, brightness, clarity, piercing sonority, even sharpness in greater force and with a large number of performers. On the contrary, in the piano its sonority is painted in "soft tones". It then sounds with a touching, exciting charm and penetration. Perhaps, only in the sound of the “fifth” one can achieve the true power of expressiveness, which only a violin string is capable of.

In custodyof this study of violin performance techniques and their application in orchestral practice and solo performance, I would like to note that their use is possible not only individually, but also in combination with each other. All of the above shows that, using knowledge of the techniques of sound production and playing the violin, finding various combinations and interconnections of these techniques and strokes, a violinist-performer, as well as an arranger or composer, receive a rich arsenal means of expression to reveal artistic expressions.

Literature:

Dm. Rogal-Levitsky " Modern orchestra» - Mus. ed., M., 1953

http://music-education.ru/osnovnye-priemy-igry-na-gitare/

The setting of the gaming machine and the features of sound extraction on the guitar.

Introduction
Sound production is one of the most complex and important components of the art of playing the guitar. The objective difficulty of obtaining a clean, beautiful, richly colored by overtones and at the same time sufficiently loud sound requires special attention to work on it, especially at the first stages of training. In the domestic methodology of guitar performance, there is no concept of sound production yet. At the same time, putting on sound means using the norms and criteria for correct sound production, based on the objective laws of acoustics, and on subjective sensations (better - worse). At the same time, we must not forget that a good sound is achieved by hard, painstaking work, which is inextricably linked with the psychological, physical and auditory qualities of the student.
The guitar is a multi-faceted instrument, and the guitar sound is very diverse. The flamenco guitar has a pronounced sonorous, sharp, "crackling" timbre; very similar, but somewhat more melodious and soft tone of the sound of the gypsy guitar; the sound of the Russian seven-string guitar has a warm, dull tone. The classical guitar has a bright, dense, "round" sound, the one that we hear performed by such masters as A. Segovia, J. Williams, A. Diaz, J. Brim. This guitar sound is recognized throughout the world as academic, and when learning to play the classical guitar these criteria must be followed.
The purpose of this work is to define the concept of a guitar player's playing apparatus, to formulate some general rules setting the right hand and the formation of a full-fledged sound, based on modern trends in world guitar performance.

1 Guitar player's slot machine
Currently, the guitar has gained immense popularity all over the world, in particular in our country, many musicians-teachers began to think about developing a professional technique for playing the instrument, based on scientific approach. In the methodology of other instruments, this approach already exists to one degree or another. In guitar pedagogy, this approach is just beginning to take shape in our time. It develops based on the methodological achievements of performers and teachers of other instruments. Of course, in the XIX-XX centuries there were already leading schools of the game: Italian and Spanish, there are invaluable works of worthy representatives of these "schools". But the development of guitar art is happening so rapidly that each individual "school" loses its effectiveness at the current stage in the development of guitar performance. Thus, there is a need to synthesize different "schools", methods of playing the instrument.
Unfortunately, so far many "guitar schools" only indicate a number of technical problems, but very few people offer a solution to them.
The main key to success is the freedom of the gaming machine. An important role is played by the endurance and filigree of the technical side of the musician's performance.
It is worth dwelling in more detail on the concept of "gaming machine". Often this concept is considered from a narrow point of view, meaning only the fingers, hands, forearms of a musician. If we formally approach this issue, indeed, it is these parts of the body that are directly involved in the game, but you should not treat this concept like that.
The "gaming apparatus" of a guitarist is a single kinematic chain and is part of the human musculoskeletal system, consisting of a passive part (bone links) and an active part (muscles with all its equipment). The motor system is controlled, regulated and coordinated by the nervous system and is in close interaction with other body systems - blood circulation, respiration, metabolism, etc. The guitarist's movements involve the shoulder girdle, shoulder, forearm, hand and fingers. To a certain extent, the whole body takes part (tilts, swaying and changes in one or another posture during the game), and one should not forget about the guitarist's legs, as they are a support and are always in a certain position (landing specifics).
The main function of the gaming machine is to most accurately realize the musician's auditory representation.
It is very common to come across an explanation of freedom as complete relaxation, and many educators make a huge mistake by following this path. Yes, indeed, when students first come to class, they are terribly squeezed physically, and most importantly psychologically. And the teacher by any means tries to get rid of the stiffness of the student. Starting from the pre-game period (all kinds of muscle relaxation exercises different parts body) relaxation appears - complete rest, that is, zero tension. And it is right. Even with a tool in hand, this state can and should be felt. But in no case should one be guided by this state when playing. Here is what the modern American Methodist Lee Ryan says about this: “The common idea that the game should be completely relaxed is completely untenable. Both landing and playing require a certain amount of tension. Too much relaxation can lead to an incorrect fit and inaccurate movements.” It is necessary to clearly separate these two concepts: “freedom” should be understood as readiness for action, and relaxation as “dead peace” (zero tension). Often teachers miss this moment, which leads to a sluggish, weak-willed, spineless game of the student.

2 Sound and methods of sound production
Each guitar differs from the other in its unique timbre, each performer has his own individual features sound production, associated primarily with the physical structure of the hands, the shape of the nails, etc. However, the general trends in the formation of a full-fledged sound, as a rule, are the same. They are based on the aesthetics of academic sound, classical music, the main features of which are the uniformity of timbre, severity, density and "roundness" of sound, the absence of extraneous overtones.
In the process of its development, the art of playing the guitar was divided according to the principle of sound production into two large branches: the so-called Spanish and Italian schools. Their main difference lies in the use (or non-use) of the apoyando method, in which the finger of the right hand, which has played, stops on the next string. This technique is borrowed from the flamenkists and is decisive in the Spanish school. IN Italian school apoyando was not originally used, because it is based on arpeggio (playing on different strings), performed only by the tirando technique, when the right finger, without touching the adjacent string, passes above it inside the palm.
In connection with this distribution, a question arises that has become traditional: what comes first - tirando or apoyando? Practice shows that there are no clear prerequisites for the advantage of any of them, but only if the sound extraction is performed correctly. The direction of pulling the string and the principles of the fingers, with the correct execution of both techniques, differ little from each other. The only difference is that tirando is a universal method, it can perform any texture without exception; while apoyando is impossible when playing chords, arpeggios, double notes, many kinds of polyphonic texture. Apoyando is rather an artistic, coloristic technique that gives special strength and color to the sound of the guitar.
Very often, students have great difficulty in mastering tirando, while apoyando they master much easier and faster. But, despite some advantages in sound quality and terms of mastering, most students master the wrong apoyando faster and easier, acquiring negative skills, which later can be very difficult to get rid of. The correct apoyando is a method no less difficult to master both in terms of the complexity of the trajectory of movement and in terms of muscle activity than tirando; therefore, to work on it, as well as on tirando, you need to approach it just as thoroughly, thoughtfully and carefully following all the necessary rules. In addition, the passion for apoyando at first often leads to an almost complete absence of serious practice with tirando. This usually results in good sound control for single notes, scale passages, but very mediocre sounding chords and arpeggios.
The rapid development of guitar playing in Lately gradually creates the prerequisites for the merging of several schools into a single one, which is based not on the preference for tirando and apoyando, but on the synthesis of various performing traditions, generally oriented towards the aesthetic principles of academic music. As a result, both methods of sound production become equal sound-forming elements of the world guitar school, which has absorbed best achievements guitar art.

3 Setting the right hand
The position of the right hand is one of critical components that determine the quality of the guitar sound. This is the basis on which all finger movements are built. The modern production is based on the principles partly set forth in the “schools” of F. Sor and D. Aguado, as well as those previously used when playing stringed plucked instruments (vihuela, lute). The main difference between this setting and the one developed by F. Tarrega is in the “unbroken” wrist, in which the hand is, as it were, an extension of the forearm, which, in turn, leads to a diagonal rather than perpendicular to the direction of pulling the string. Its advantage is that it subsequently makes it possible to correct the sound extraction depending on both the musical and artistic tasks and the physiological features of the structure of the hand, the shape and condition of the performer's nails by only slight deviations of the hand from the main position.
The most important, key rules of this production are as follows:
1. “The hand should be felt all from the shoulder, holding it like a canopy, although the forearm touches the body of the guitar”; you can not lean on the body of the guitar with the whole weight of the hand.
2. The hand, being, as it were, a continuation of the forearm, "does not hang freely, but ... is held in the desired position"; necessary and sufficient tension is required to hold it.
3. The wrist should be slightly arched, it may be slightly above the metacarpal joints relative to the body of the guitar, but in no case below. The pastern is usually parallel to the deck.
Compliance with these rules of setting provides sufficient immobility of the hand, promotes accurate work of the fingers, facilitates control over their location, frees the finger muscles from unnecessary tension and creates conditions for proper sound production. Playing arpeggios on open strings without touching the forearm to the body of the guitar helps to fix the setting of the right hand, for which you can first put the guitar on the left knee vertically, positioning the right hand according to the rules outlined above. Feeling the weight of the hand, you can then play simple arpeggios, gradually moving to the usual position of the guitar. It is important to keep the feeling of holding the hand as the forearm begins to touch the body of the guitar.
From the correct setting and technical development of the fingers of the right hand depends on the performing freedom of the gaming machine as a whole, and high-quality sound production and coordination of both hands, and the execution of complex polyphonic textures and much more. Therefore, it is necessary to pay special attention to exercises for the right hand and bring them to automatism.

4 Principles of sound production
When working on the correct positioning of the hand, we must not forget that the setting itself is not a goal, but a necessary means to ensure the rational work of the fingers. The main task remains the formation of the foundations of sound extraction, the culture of sound.
In modern performance, certain criteria for sound quality have developed: saturation and variety of timbre, a relatively large dynamic range, clarity of articulation, a minimum of extraneous overtones, depth and density of tone. As for the latter, to get a full-fledged sound, you must first pull the string with your finger and only then release it. In this case, all sections of the string vibrate evenly, so that the fundamental tone prevails over the overtones. If the string is brought into vibration by a blow, then the number of unnecessary overtones increases and the sound turns out to be hard and ugly.
To pull the string, an important previous stage is necessary - placing the finger on the string, a kind of touch. The moment of touching the string should be well felt, gradually brought into the muscle memory and brought to automatism. At first glance, it may seem that this is a “complication” of the game action, which will lead to unnecessary finger delays that hinder fluency. Of course, pulling the string requires more effort than a slight "slip" or hit, but with targeted practice it becomes habitual and does not affect the speed of performance. In addition, the blow does not provide proper sound control, which is possible only with prior contact with the string.
With the setting of the right hand described above, both the fingertip and the nail simultaneously participate in the process of sound extraction. The fingertip presses on the string, the pad is pressed, the nail touches the string, which is pulled back and moves slightly along the edge of the nail to the vanishing point.
Almost all fingers produce movement from the metacarpal joint. The exception is the thumb, which acts from the wrist. The movements of “whole” fingers are the most natural (in the same way we take objects), while the interosseous palmar muscles are involved in the action, bending the main phalanx, and with it the entire finger, working like a long lever. By the way, the development of these muscles is one of the main conditions for fluency. The actions of the metacarpal phalanx are another difference from the principles of F. Tarrega, set forth by E. Pujol in his famous "school", where a different sound production technology is approved - by bending the last phalanx. The drawings posted in the book by V. Bobry "The Technique of Segovia" clearly show that the first phalanx also remains motionless. However, in reality, most of the world's leading guitarists use the entire finger.
When playing the classical guitar, the main methods of sound extraction are tirando and apoyando. Of course, there are other ways to play, but they are not used so often, so today we will consider only the main ones.
When extracted with the apoyando technique, sounds are clearly distinguished, clear and loud. Such sound extraction can be used both in exercises and scales, and in playing melodies, where a loud selection of sounds is required. Apoyando sound extraction technique next:
1. The finger of the right hand, which should extract the sound from the string, is applied to the string with the last joint straightened, and the penultimate joint should be slightly bent
2. The string is pinched by bending the finger in the penultimate joint towards you. The plucking of the string must be done in such a way that, after plucking, the finger stops on the next, thicker string, and it is precisely the next string that is the support.
3. The string should be plucked only with the finger of the hand. In this case, it is necessary to ensure that the brush remains relaxed and motionless.
4. No need to forcefully and jerkily pull the sound out of the string.
5. The pluck itself must be done with a quick movement, and do not hold your finger on the string for a long time, otherwise when you touch the sounding string with your finger to extract the sound, the string will be muffled, which will cause an extraneous unpleasant overtone.

tirando sound extraction technique lies in the fact that the finger that produces the sound is bent at the last joint and, after the pluck, goes to the side, and does not rest on the adjacent string. The tirando technique is used to play chords and consonances on adjacent strings. With this extraction, the thumb of the right hand should act independently of the other fingers. The sound extraction technique is as follows:
1. The thumb should be away from the hand, it should touch the string with the edge of the last phalanx.
2. The plucking of the string should be carried out, as it were, towards the thinner, lower string, without touching the last string.

With this sound extraction, the thumb can be used as a support only when it does not extract sounds.
Extracting sounds can be done with the help of fingertips, and with the help of nails. When extracting sound with nails, the sound will turn out to be more sonorous and bright.

5 Using nails in guitar picking
Speaking of sound production, one cannot ignore the issue of using nails. Currently, professional guitar playing is carried out mainly by the nail method.
The question of whether to use nails at all is probably as old as the tool itself. The history of this issue has been explored by Pujol, and the arguments for and against have been viewed from the point of view of a convinced "pulp gambler". His research, quite naturally, was mostly subjective; Indeed, it is quite difficult to defend the need not to use nails by any other methods. The flesh of the fingertip, compared to a well-shaped nail, is a very rough instrument. It doesn't have the versatility of a nail that can be turned to different angles for sounds that range from soft and silky to sharp and metallic. When using pulp, there is practically no question of achieving real sound brightness (since higher overtones are suppressed), and playing near the base is simply doomed to failure.
The pulp is not supported by anything. The pulp is supported by the bone
Full or rounded fingertip, similar to Fig. 3 won't be able to drive the string down much unless you pinch the string deep enough for the bone to help the pulp, as shown in the diagram. In this case, the string has a long way to go under the fingertip, giving real advantage when playing apoyando at full volume. Problems arise when you want to get quieter sounds, which, however, must be tight and clear. It is especially difficult to produce a full tirando sound with such a fingertip, since if too little pulp is used the string will slip off the finger without being drawn down sufficiently, and if too much is used there is a risk of drawing the string up, away from the soundboard. , before release, which can lead to detrimental effects.
In fairness, it should be noted that the tips of the fingers, as well as the nails, are very different. Worst case would be wide, bulging and soft, possibly with some dead skin adding to the noise. Fortunately, nature is rarely so unkind, and sometimes there are fingertips, as if specially made for playing the guitar. They are strong, but thin and tapering towards the nail. Such a fingertip is an excellent natural ramp, while the nail only supports the pulp.

With such fingers, using only the pulp has many advantages. The player feels closer contact with the strings, and sometimes the sound has unique characteristics - usually soft and gentle, but sometimes masculine and down to earth. Some are willing to sacrifice the brightness, clarity, and variety of nail sounds for these qualities, but the vast majority of serious performers now consider this too high a price, perhaps reflecting a general departure from the romantic approach, which has rather narrow ideas about the beauty of sounds.
And what about the ability to use both the pulp and the nail at the same time? In the case of the fingertip shown in Fig. 4, there is no reason why this would not work. It is only necessary to sharpen the nail so that its insertion protrudes above the tip of the finger so that they form one continuous ramp. This gives the performer the choice of whether to use this compound ramp to produce a full apoyando sound with some of the characteristics of the pulp-only sound, or vice versa, to use only the fingernail, slightly raising the wrist, or using the tirando.
On the contrary, the fingertip will create just as many problems when used in conjunction with the nail as when used with the pulp alone. Also, since it is rounded rather than tapering, its flesh cannot serve as the beginning of a compound ramp that smoothly brings the string to the nail. After the string has passed the top of the pulp, it will again be held by the fingernail and will have to pass under this new obstacle before it is released (see Fig. 5). Obviously, in this case, the pulp has no useful function, and the only way out is to use only nail technology. Accordingly, you will have to grow long enough nails so that the contact of the string with the pulp is no more than a light touch. This light touch can be helpful in giving the player a feel for the string as well as reducing the "click" of the nails, however some players prefer to do without it, literally using only their nails.

None of the differences in the techniques of various accomplished performers using nails is as surprising as the variety of nail lengths used. However, this fact seems to have stopped many authors from writing simple and clear rules. It is often recommended that the nails protrude about a millimeter and a half above the ball of the finger (it must be admitted that this is a reasonable length), and, for example, Duarte strongly recommended that the nails be filed as short as possible. The problem with this kind of specific advice is that few performers have benefited from following it exactly. Determining the optimal length for each nail is largely the result of experimentation, and can be quite time consuming if experimented within narrow limits.

Several factors that affect the length of the nails have already been considered, now we will try to summarize them:
1. The nail cannot act as a ramp leading the string down to the top deck if its length is less than some minimum value. If the nail is sharpened too short, the sound produced by it will be weak and thin, especially with tirando. It is often possible to greatly improve the density and volume of a sound by simply allowing the nails to grow back for two or three days.
2. The length of the nails should match the selected wrist height. If the wrist is low enough, then the nails should be longer /
3. The optimal length of the nails also depends on the ratio of the frequency of use of apoyando and tirando by the guitarist. If the apoyando is rarely used, then the nails should be long enough to produce a thick sound with the tirando, and if the apoyando is used frequently, it will be more convenient to play with shorter nails.
4. Weak or flexible nails should be kept short, since the longer they are, the more they will sag under the action of the string, instead of confidently pressing it down.
5. Nails that are bent at the ends usually cause less inconvenience than they are shorter.
6. If the fingertip has a tapering shape, then it becomes possible to use a technique that combines pulp and nail. In this case, the length of the introductory part of the nail must be selected so as to ensure a smooth transition from the pulp to the nail.
7. If, on the contrary, the most protruding point of the fingertip is at some distance from the nail, then the nail must be long enough to be used without interaction with the pulp. If the nails are strong and grow straight, and if only the "pure nail" technique is used, then the length of the nails will not matter so much, provided they are not too short.

6 Work on sound production at the initial stage of training
Currently, there is practically no literature on the methodology for teaching classical guitar in the first year of study. The existing "Schools of the game ..." and "Tutorials" do not cover this stage in sufficient detail. Often there is no (or superficially described) setting of the gaming machine. Modern publications also practically do not mention the specifics of guitar fingering, the technique of “contact” sound extraction and the “bass muffling technique”, the method of playing with “ready” fingers, etc., although such a performing technique is used all over the world and there is no doubt in its efficiency.
The initial stage of learning on any instrument includes "donut" and "note" periods.
The first is playful in nature, mainly used in classes with children. preschool age. The "musical" period includes the teacher's explanation of the recording of the sound of open strings, size, etc. However, it is at this moment, when the child has received the first theoretical knowledge, that creative and playful principles should dominate the lesson. Lesson options are as follows:
“I am a teacher” - a student in the role of a teacher: he tells, shows and explains what and how to do;
"I am a young performer" - a concert lesson in which the student performs a series of simple pieces or exercises;
“I am a young composer” - plays or exercises of my own composition sound;
“I am a performer in an ensemble” - a student and a teacher play together.
Children quite quickly memorize the "name" of the string and find this note on the record and on the instrument, observe the duration. At home and in the classroom, they continue to compose their plays, try to write them down, being carried away by this work, they are not bored, and most importantly, the teacher has the opportunity to correct the students' playing movements.
When the student has mastered the movement of the finger p, the simplest tasks should be immediately given, aimed at mastering the skills of sound extraction with the finger p. Bass articulation is a job that requires constant attention, which is problematic in classical guitar performance. This skill needs to be formed at the very early stage of training.
In parallel with the work on the sound extraction of finger p, the student masters the use of fingers i, m, a. Before starting this work, it is necessary to explain to the student how the finger touches the string and in which direction it directs it. A pinch with fingers i, t, and for children it may be more correct to call it a “push”, because the finger, as it were, pushes, presses the string. In this case, it is better to hold the p finger with support on the higher string in order to avoid the “bouncing” of the hand or the failure of the wrist. If the student by this moment has mastered the recording of durations and open strings, then these exercises should be written down with all the appropriate notation.
Necessary motor sensations are the so-called "contact play" and "advance play". Sound production with a swing in front of the string is undesirable. After all, the sound appears only after the finger has found the string, that is, it has prepared, “pushed” it and returned to the string again or passed the baton to another finger. The author calls this technique a “trap”, the children quickly understand that they need to “catch” the string with their finger. Students learn better the principle of prepared contact playing on the simplest arpeggios. After acquiring this skill, first on single sounds, and then in arpeggios, the student without much difficulty proceeds to the next stage of work on sound extraction - two-voice, which is better to start mastering from the position of the fingers through the string: 3rd and 1st string; 4 and 2 string; 6th and 4th string.
The next step will be to get acquainted with such chords, when the fingers i, m, and extract the sound at the same time. Just as in double voice and arpeggio, the main thing here is the preparation of the fingers. Only then can you add finger a, playing chords with four fingers. The student must consciously play the chords, doing the preparation of the fingers, learn to put all the fingers on the strings, and play in turn. When this stage of sound production is mastered, the playing of four-sound chords will not be difficult for the student.

Conclusion
There is hardly a guitarist who disputes the importance of hand placement. However, sound production sometimes remains outside the educational process, especially in the early stages of learning. It is difficult to teach a good sound, a lot depends on the student, but it is possible and necessary to work on the technique of finger movements from the very beginning. Such work seems to be very necessary, even if it does not bring quick results.
In this work, we have defined the concept of a guitar player's playing apparatus, formulated the general rules for setting the right hand and forming a full-fledged sound, and also touched upon the problem of working on sound extraction at the initial stage of training. At the same time, we did not consider the topic of timbre playing, work on arpeggios and chords, staging and principles of the left hand.
Practice shows that scrupulous mastery of the basics of correct sound production subsequently pays off a hundredfold, expanding sound and technical capabilities, contributing to an increase in the level of performing skills.

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