The literature of the Time of Troubles, on the one hand, brought new features to Russian literary process and thus it is quite organically integrated into the beginning of the "transitional" XVII century, and on the other hand, it completely continues the tradition that existed before with a number of features. As we will see later, practically all literary works of the first half of the 17th century were so complex and ambiguous. The process of genre transformation of ancient Russian literature did not begin from outside and was not so much associated with Western influence as it turned out to be initially gradually provoked by the internal laws of literary development.
The appearance of verse writing should undoubtedly be attributed to the new features of the literature of the Time of Troubles. These are verses preceding the syllabic, in which there is as yet no order in either the number of syllables or the number of stresses in a line. The fact that these are still poems can be judged, perhaps, only by the presence of rhyme (almost always in pairs, quite often - verbal). Initially, such verses, called "presyllabic verses" (from the Polish wiersz - verse) were formed in Ukraine. Perhaps one of the most early examples such verses are short verses by Gerasim Smotrytsky, attached to the Ostroh Bible, printed by Ivan Fedorov in Ostrog in 1581. Russian-Polish contacts during the Time of Troubles contributed to the extremely intensive penetration of pre-syllabic verses from Ukraine (which was then under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian state) to Russia. Virches could be independent works, but for the most part they were part of traditional prose (most often rhetorical, oratorical or journalistic) works.
D.S. Likhachev noted in his time that an innovative feature of the period of the beginning of the 17th century should be considered the discovery by literature of a human character - a character not only socially significant, but also ordinary person, ordinary, sometimes even ordinary, contemporary. As far back as the 16th century, according to the researcher, two signs opposing tradition appeared in historical works: the unity of point of view and the unity of the theme (both of them - in contrast to the principles of the formation of chronicles, written in principle by different chroniclers who continued each other's work). So there are texts devoted to a very limited historical period or even one person.
The traditional features of the literature of the Time of Troubles include ideological orientation, themes, problems, genre characteristics and most of the stylistic features of the works of this time. Let's go straight to the text.
Works about the Troubles can be divided into two groups. The first includes texts that arose before Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne. They are a direct response to events. Their main purpose can be defined as propaganda, in connection with which the works themselves can be included in the group of journalistic ones. The second group includes texts written after the end of the Time of Troubles itself and representing an attempt at a historical understanding of what happened. Both of them appeal to the Old Russian tradition, but, as a rule, to its different aspects.
In the autumn of 1606, when Bolotnikov's troops were approaching Moscow, a "The Tale of a Vision to a Spiritual Man" which is based on the plot scheme of vision. It tells about a certain resident of Moscow, who "in a thin dream" saw how the Mother of God, John the Baptist and saints in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin prayed to Christ to spare the Russian Orthodox people, suffering from the horrors of the Time of Troubles. In accordance with the tradition dating back to the sermons of Serapion of Vladimir, the misfortune of the Muscovite state is associated with the fact that the people have become stagnant in sins. Christ, touched by the tears of the Mother of God, tells her that a necessary condition for the forgiveness of the Russian people and the alleviation of their lot is complete and sincere repentance. After that, one of the saints addresses the dreamer with the words: "Go and tell, saint of Christ, that you have seen and heard." The unnamed "spiritual man" told about the vision to the archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin Terenty, who ordered to write a story about this event and gave it to the patriarch, and also told the tsar.
The genre of visions was extremely common at this time. The participants in the vision vary: it can be the Mother of God, Christ, the "wonderful wife" in light robes and with an icon in her hands, local patron saints (for example, Ustyug native Grigory Klementyev is the patrons of Ustyug the Great Procopius and John of Ustyug). In the same way, the conditions necessary for salvation are designated in different ways: one can speak of the need for repentance, fasting and prayer, and the building of a church. The Nizhny Novgorod legend says that in a newly built church, an unlit candle should be placed on the throne and put Blank sheet paper. Forgiveness will be marked by the fact that "the candle will be kindled from the fire of heaven, and the bells themselves will ring out, and the name of who owns the Russian state will be written on paper."
Researchers of this group of works have repeatedly noted the everyday concreteness inherent in them. As earlier, big role household details play, with most likely testifying to the veracity of the story. So, in one of the Moscow visions, as witnesses of the miracle, "6 watchmen from the vegetable row" are called by name.
Another popular genre in the Time of Troubles was agitation letters and "replies", combining literary forms and forms of business writing.
Between 1610 and 1612 was written by an unknown author "A new story about the glorious Russian kingdom and the great state of Moscow"- a kind of journalistic manifesto, designed to raise the spirit of the people, awaken patriotic feelings and inspire them to fight. In difficult conditions, when many rich, noble and powerful people betrayed Russia and support the Poles, the author addresses "all sorts of ranks to people who have not yet turned their souls away from God, and from Orthodox faith they did not retreat, and in faith they do not follow errors, but hold on to piety, and did not betray their enemies, and they did not deviate into their apostate faith, but are ready to stand for the Orthodox faith to the point of bloodshed. "The Orthodox faith and the Russian Church, headed by Patriarch Hermogenes - the only stronghold, a powerful and invincible force that no army is able to break. R. Picchio wrote about the image of Patriarch Hermogenes in the "New Story ...": "Against Poland with its arrogant humanism, Poland, which carried literature, fed by the Latin tradition and already fertilized by the meeting with the Renaissance, old Russia exposes the figure of the supreme clergyman, confident that his holy words, devoid of secular brilliance, but burning with biblical passion, will be able to give rise to Orthodox people unceasing echo". "A new story ..." Picchio considered the monument that most fully and holistically conveyed to us spiritual state Russian society of that time, which had a firm intention to oppose the Catholic West with the fortress of its own, original and highly spiritual literary tradition.
A.S. Demin, who was engaged in the figurative structure of the "New Story ...", noted that its author "was inclined to operate with dual, contradictory, complementary categories, to combine contrasting features in the appearance of characters." Such, for example, is the Polish king, who, anticipating the complete and final capture of Russia, simultaneously demonstrates both his joy and his malice. From anger, the king twitched, jumped up, "boiled with bobs", resembled a "fierce and ferocious and indomitable stallion", which snores, breaks out of the bridle and is ready to throw everyone into the "non-starting moat". On the other hand, signs of heartfelt joy are repeatedly reported (when using the traditional formula "rejoice in your heart" and its synonymous variants). As a result, according to A.S. Demin, "statements about "boiling" movements of anger and heartfelt manifestations of joy, when added, did not semantically cancel each other, but created a kind of single," average "semantic whole, transitional between two extremes, in a story about a king who does not calm down in joy, but also in malice does not rush somewhere, but, as a result, from feelings "boils" on the spot, barely restrained.
The same duality of A.S. Demin also notices other characters in the New Tale, and even its author himself. Speaking of those who now serve the Polish king, the author hopes for the secret desire that still remains in them "to stand with us for the faith." Speaking of enemies, he hopes that at least one of them is "soft and compassionate in heart." Finally, speaking about himself, he honestly admits that he himself served the Poles and is now "greatly favored" by them.
Rhymed speech is used in the "New Tale...", which is one of the ways to characterize the characters. So, one of the boyars who swore allegiance to the Polish king, treasurer Fyodor Andronov, is described as follows: “neither from the royal families, nor from the boyar ranks, nor from other elected military heads; they say that from the Smerdov slaves. the deed is not worthy of him in the name of Stratilat (St. Theodore Stratilat, the heavenly patron of Fedor Andronov), but in the name of Pilate, or in the name of the monk, but in the name of the unlike, or in the name of the passion-bearer, but in the name of the earth-eater , or in the name of the saint, - but in the name of the tormentor, and the persecutor, and the destroyer, and the destroyer of the Christian faith "
In 1612 created "Lamentation for captivity for the final ruin of the lofty and most luminous Muscovite state." The text was written at a time when Minin and Pozharsky were already collecting zemstvo militia, but Moscow was still in the hands of the Poles and no one could predict the outcome of the coming hard and bloody struggle (that is, until the autumn of 1612). Both the name of the monument and its style bring the reader back to the ancient Russian rhetorical tradition, to the "common places" of hagiographic and preaching literature. The traditional hagiographical formula is reminiscent of the rhetorical question with which the work begins: "Where shall we begin to mourn, alas! such a fall of glorious, lucid, great Russia? What source will fill the abyss of tears, our sobs and groans?" "Lamentation" is an attempt to give a detailed account of the events of recent years, starting with the appearance of the first impostor, the "forerunner of the Antichrist", the "son of darkness", as well as an invitation to think not only about the consequences, but also about the causes of the Troubles. And here again, like the ancient Russian preachers of the era Tatar-Mongol invasion(for example, Serapion Vladimirsky), the author of "Lament ..." saw the causes of the disasters that struck the Russian land, not only in the power, deceit and treachery of external enemies, but also in the damage to the morals of Russian people who had forgotten God and were immersed in numerous vices, likened to residents the ancient cities of Sodom and Gomorrah: "Truth is poor in men, and untruth reigns ... and malice is exposed, and we cover ourselves with lies."
In the 10s of the XVII century. the cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn wrote "The Tale" - one of the most famous and popular literary monuments of the Time of Troubles. The text of the Tale was revised several times between 1611 and 1620. and in total has 77 chapters. In the center of the narrative is the famous siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the story is brought to the Deulinsky truce of 1618. Historians rate this text quite highly for its scrupulous factuality, philologists pay attention to Palitsyn’s special flair for contemporary innovative trends in literature (noting, in particular, the use of presyllabic verses in the Tale).
Trying to uncover the causes of the Troubles, Avraamiy Palitsyn speaks of a general decline in morals and emphasizes social contradictions the previous period. Mention is made of the terrible famine that occurred under Boris Godunov and as a result of which a huge number of people died: then it turned out that the barns of the rich were bursting from a huge amount of bread hidden from people. The rich did not spare their people, so our enemies did not spare us.
Another reason for the Troubles is, according to Palitsyn, the transformation of autocracy into autocracy by Boris Godunov. The publicist condemns the tsar's arbitrariness and the blind obedience to the monarch of his advisers, who are called to govern the state, associated with it. However, even more than the autocracy of the tsar, Palitsyn is afraid of the autocracy of the people.
One of the important problems for Avraamy Palitsyn is connected with the theme of power and attitude towards the new royal dynasty. For contemporaries, the Time of Troubles also meant a crisis of autocracy, the fall of a legitimate dynasty (the very one whose ideological justification for property rights was enshrined in numerous monuments of the 16th century). The embodiment of this social ill-being was an event that had never been seen before - the appearance on the throne of "false kings", impostors. As a result, publicists (and Avraamy Palitsyn, in particular) faced the need to reconcile the principles of hereditary and elective monarchy and take into account the role of the people's will in the election of pretenders to the kingdom. Palitsyn writes that popular unanimity on the issue of choosing a tsar is an indisputable evidence that this particular candidate was chosen by God, an instrument of Divine Providence. Tsar Mikhail Romanov is a sovereign, "granted by God ... before his birth, chosen from God and anointed from the womb." He is contrasted in the "Tale" by Vasily Shuisky, who reigned not by God's will, but only by "the desire of the hearts" and that is why he could not receive popular recognition.
In the "Tale" of Avraamy Palitsyn, the biographical, memoir component is clearly felt. As you know, his work was not completely flawless, at one time he served False Dmitry II. And now he is trying to whitewash his reputation, exaggerate his own significance, telling in detail about his trip to the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma for Mikhail Romanov, about his participation in the solemn meeting of the new sovereign at the gates of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, about his activities in the process of concluding the Deulinsky truce and a number of other events.
In 1616-1619. clerk Ivan Timofeev creates "Vremennik", which depicts the history of Russia from Ivan the Terrible to Mikhail Romanov. The author of Vremennik is a supporter of hereditary monarchy; he sees in the succession to the throne within the limits of one surname the order established by God. From the point of view of this order, Ivan Timofeev speaks of Ivan the Terrible, the legitimate heir to the great princes of the Russian state. This principle is interrupted after the death of the son of the Terrible, Fyodor Ivanovich, who left the kingdom "without children and without inheritance." Thus ended the great family of Russian autocrats, whose roots go back to ancient times. And then illegal rulers appeared on the throne, whom Timofeev calls "false tsars", "worker-tsars", "self-crowned", etc. Along with such rulers, those who did not arbitrarily seize power, but were elected Zemsky Cathedral, - such is, for example, Boris Godunov. But in this case, the expression of human will was not accompanied by divine recognition, so Godunov on the throne turned out to be not an autocrat, but a lawless "autocrat". Mikhail Romanov is fundamentally different from all these rulers, a worthy descendant of an ancient family, in the act of electing which the will of the people was an expression of the will of God.
D.S. Likhachev noted the duality of the characteristics that certain figures in Russian history receive in Timofeev's work (as well as in a number of other works of the Time of Troubles). Next to the rhetorically embellished praise of Ivan the Terrible is a story full of passionate condemnation of his "fiery anger." Speaking of Boris Godunov, the author sees his duty to speak not only about his evil, but also about his good deeds, so that no one has the opportunity to reproach him for partiality or one-sidedness: do not conceal his blessings to the world." Good and evil are not inherent in a person and are not given to him in an unchanged form. Some people can be influenced by others: for example, Anastasia Romanova had a very positive influence on Grozny, and after her death, his character changes not at all for the better. Boris Godunov, in turn, was positively influenced by the kind Fyodor Ioannovich. According to Timofeev, Godunov was most radically changed by the power he unexpectedly received, to which he had no legal right: "Upon receiving this majesty, the Abiya pretended to be unbearable in every way, he would be cruel and heavy about everything."
The researchers noted that, by the nature of his service, Ivan Timofeev had access to archives where the most important documents were stored, therefore his "Vremennik" describes important historical events that are no longer recorded in any other source. But along with this, Ivan Timofeev acts not only as a historian, but also as a memoirist, recording those events that he himself witnessed. So, he talks about people going to the Novodevichy Convent, when people asked Boris Godunov to accept the royal crown. During this event, a certain youth specially climbed under the very window of the cell of Tsaritsa Irina and there loudly yelled, begging her to bless her brother for the kingdom, and Boris himself hypocritically wrapped a scarf around his neck, "showing to understand, as if to strangle yourself for the sake of the compelled, at least, if the prayers do not stop" .
Another source that Ivan Timofeev boldly and often used is, according to D.S. Likhachev, a variety of rumors, rumors, rumors and conversations that create a polyphonic sound in the narrative, the effect of multiple points of view. This feature is most pronounced when the author speaks of different versions interpretation of events connected with the death of Ivan the Terrible.
Another historian of the Time of Troubles is Ivan Andreevich Khvorostinin, who came from the family of the Yaroslavl princes and in his youth was close to False Dmitry I, who granted him a kravchi. Under Shuisky, he was sent to repentance at the Joseph-Volokolamsky Monastery, then returned to Moscow, at the beginning of 1613 he already served as a governor in Mtsensk, then in Novosili, and in 1618 in Pereyaslavl Ryazansky. Tsar Michael rewarded him for his service and appointed him as a stolnik. The accusation of high treason was forgotten, but soon it was replaced by another - of freethinking and atheism. In 1623 he was exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery under the supervision of a "kind" and "strong life" monk. Khvorostinin received forgiveness from the tsar and patriarch shortly before his death, which followed in 1625.
Wanting to whitewash himself and give his own view of the historical events of the early 17th century, Khvorostinin, apparently shortly before his death, wrote a large-scale work "Words of days and tsars and saints of Moscow". Like Avraamiy Palitsyn, Khvorostinin pays much attention to his role in certain events: he writes that he tried to expose the vain pride of False Dmitry and was worried about saving his soul; claims that he was valued and at one time singled out from others by Patriarch Hermogenes himself, etc.
Like Ivan Timofeev, Khvorostinin gives complex, sometimes dual and contrasting characteristics to the historical figures of that time. Boris Godunov turns out to be both power-hungry and God-loving at the same time. On the one hand, he builds temples, decorates cities, tames the covetous; he is "in the wisdom of the life of this world, like a good giant, clothed and receiving glory and honor from the kings." On the other hand, it is reported that he embittered people against each other, provoked "hatred and flattery" in his subjects, restored slaves to masters, killed many noble people and, in general, "seduce the world and introduce hatred."
Around the same time, two stories were created dedicated to tragic death a brave commander, who especially proved himself in the fight against False Dmitry II, Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin-Shuisky. The prince died suddenly after a feast at Prince Borotynsky, and the cause of death among the people was poison, which was allegedly given to him by the wife of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Shuisky Maria. About these events in question in "The Tale of the Death and Burial of Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin-Shuisky". The traditional features of the "Tale ..." include close attention the author to the genealogy of his hero (Skopin-Shuisky was of a royal family, belonged to "a single branch with the owner of the universe Augustus, Caesar of Rome" and among the direct ancestors had "the founder of the single Orthodox Christian faith, Prince of Kyiv and All Russia Vladimir"), mention of devilish instigation as a force that prompts Mary to commit a crime, a combination of elements of lamentation and glory (in this case, however, with a significant predominance of the first over the second). The mourning of the hero is exaggerated: "And the same princesses, his mother and wife, who came to her house, and fell down on her table, crying highlander ... pouring her tears with her tears, and tear rapids, like a river stream, spilled onto the floor from the table" .
A.S. Demin drew attention to the description of the appearance of the mortally poisoned Mikhail. When the prince returned home after the feast, "his eyes were brightly indignant, and his face was terribly marked with blood, and his hair on his head, standing, wavered." According to the researcher, the manifestations of a fatal disease in this case "are more like anger: cloudy, burning eyes; a bloodshot face; hair standing on end." Mikhail is poisoned by a fierce evil potion - as a result, ferocity and malice flow into Mikhail and manifest in him.
Finally, another work of the Time of Troubles - "Chronicle Book" attributed by some scientists to Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Katyrev-Rostovsky, and by others to Prince Semyon Ivanovich Shakhovsky. The very title of this work, according to researchers, indisputably testifies to the importance for the author of the ancient Russian chronicle tradition, on which he tries to rely, although he transforms its individual elements. The work begins with a lengthy title, which is at the same time an "announcement", a presentation of the content of the text, which will set out the history of the "reigning city of Moscow" from its beginning, about the origin of the great princes of Moscow, "about the suppression of the root of the royal from Augustus the king", about the reign of Boris Godunov and about the attack on Moscow by the heretic Grishka Otrepiev (False Dmitry I). As in the Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn, in the Chronicle Book the prose exposition is interspersed with presyllabic verses.
A common feature of the literature of the Time of Troubles A.S. Demin considered an exaggerated image of feelings. Indeed, the authors of that time did not skimp on colors when describing emotional experiences. Anger makes a man insane, makes him bark at the air like a dog and throw absurd words like stones. Grief not only causes river streams of tears, but also encourages you to beat your head on the ground, scratch your chest with your nails. Fear plunges right into human heart. Noting that such an exaggeration of feelings is generally not typical of oral folk art, A.S. Demin drew attention to the analogy of this hyperbolization in the song about the murder of Tsarevich Dimitri:
Not a whirlwind twists along the valley,
Not a gray feather grass tends to the ground.
That is the terrible wrath of God
For Orthodox Russia.
According to A.S. Demin, "the spread of a new manner of narrating feelings was largely due to the current difficult situation, which gave rise to feelings of uncertainty, distrust and fear in the country ... The authors used exaggerations to expose the secret and reveal the hidden ... Even in documents, there are references to exaggerated manifestations of feelings, for example, abundant tears, were considered a kind of proof of the truth of statements.
Researchers of the literature of the Time of Troubles also drew attention to the very noticeable heterogeneity of the writers' layer of that time. Here is a monk, and an orderly clerk, and princes from the Rurik family, although they represent minor families. All this testifies to the fact that there were no professional writers yet, that the writers' class had not yet formed, and that there was no monopoly on writer's work at that time it was not, anyone who wished, guided by one or another motive, could become a writer - to tell about the events that he witnessed; try to uncover the causes of events and evaluate them; finally, whitewash yourself and present your own activities in a favorable light.
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The turbulent events of the beginning of the 17th century, which received the names of "troubles" from contemporaries (such a definition was held for a long time in historical science, fixed by noble and bourgeois historiography), found wide reflection in literature. Literature acquires an exclusively topical journalistic character, promptly responding to the demands of the time, reflecting the interests of various social groups participating in the struggle. wiring diagram
Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent faith in the power of the word, in the power of conviction, seeks to propagate certain ideas in literary works, achieving specific effective goals.
Among the stories that reflected the events of 1604-1613, one can single out works that express the interests of the ruling boyars. Such is the "Tale of 1606" - a journalistic work created by a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The story actively supports the policy of the boyar tsar Vasily Shuisky, tries to present him as a popular choice, emphasizing the unity of Shuisky with the people. The people turn out to be a force that the ruling circles cannot but reckon with. The story glorifies Shuisky's "courageous daring" in his struggle with the "evil heretic", "defrocked" Grishka Otrepyev. To prove the legitimacy of Shuisky's rights to the royal throne, his family is elevated to Vladimir Svyatoslavich of Kyiv.
The author of the story sees the causes of "distemper" and "disorganization" in the Muscovite state in the pernicious rule of Boris Godunov, who, by the villainous murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, stopped the existence of the family of lawful tsars of Moscow and "took the royal throne in Moscow by falsehood."
Subsequently, "The Tale of 1606" was revised into "Another Legend". Defending the positions of the boyars, the author portrays him as the savior of the Russian state from adversaries.
"The Tale of 1606" and "Another Legend" are written in the traditional book manner. They are built on the contrast of the pious champion of the Orthodox faith Vasily Shuisky and the "sly, sly" Godunov, "evil heretic" Grigory Otrepyev. Their actions are explained from traditional providentialist positions.
This group of works is opposed by stories that reflect the interests of the nobility and the townspeople's trade and craft strata of the population. Here we should first of all mention those journalistic messages that Russian cities exchanged, rallying their forces to fight the enemy.
"A NEW STORY ABOUT THE MOST GLORIOUS RUSSIAN KINGDOM…" The journalistic propaganda appeal - "A new story about the glorious Russian Tsardom and the great State of Moscow" draws attention to itself. Written in late 1610 - early 1611, at the most intense moment of the struggle, when Moscow was occupied by Polish troops, and Novgorod was captured by Swedish feudal lords, the New Tale, addressing "people of all ranks", called them to active actions against the invaders. She sharply denounced the treacherous policy of the boyar government, which, instead of being a "land holder" native land, turned into a domestic enemy, and the boyars themselves into "earth-eaters", "crooks".
A characteristic feature of the story is its democracy, a new interpretation of the image of the people - this "great ... waterless sea." The calls and messages of Hermogenes are addressed to the people, enemies and traitors are afraid of the people, the author of the story appeals to the people. However, the people in the story do not yet act as an effective force.
The turbulent events of the beginning of the 17th century, which were called “troubles” by contemporaries, were widely reflected in literature. Literature acquires an exclusively topical journalistic character, promptly responding to the demands of the time, reflecting the interests of various social groups participating in the struggle.
Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent faith in the power of the word, in the power of conviction, seeks to propagate certain ideas in literary works, achieving specific effective goals.
Among the stories that reflected the events of 1604-1613, one can single out works that express the interests of the ruling boyars. Such is the Tale of 1606, created by a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The story actively supports the policy of the boyar tsar Vasily Shuisky, tries to present him as a popular choice, emphasizing the unity of Shuisky with the people. The people turn out to be a force that the ruling circles cannot but reckon with. The story glorifies "courageous courage" Shuisky in his fight against "Evil heretic", "defrocked" Grishka Otrepyev. To prove the legitimacy of Shuisky's rights to the royal throne, his family is elevated to Vladimir Svyatoslavich of Kyiv.
The author of the story sees the causes of "distemper" and "disorganization" in the Muscovite state in the pernicious rule of Boris Godunov, who, by the villainous murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, stopped the existence of the family of lawful kings of Moscow and "catch the tsar's throne in Moscow with unrighteousness."
Subsequently, "The Tale of 1606" was revised into "Another Legend". Defending the positions of the boyars, the author portrays him as the savior of the Russian state from adversaries.
"The Tale of 1606" and "Another Legend" are written in the traditional bookish manner. They are built on the contrast of the pious champion of the Orthodox faith Vasily Shuisky and "cunning, crafty" Godunov, "evil heretic" Grigory Otrepiev. Their actions are explained from traditional providentialist positions.
This group of works is opposed by stories that reflect the interests of the nobility and the townspeople's trade and craft strata of the population. Here we should first of all mention those journalistic messages that Russian cities exchanged, rallying their forces to fight the enemy.
Takova "A new story about the glorious, Russian kingdom" - publicistic propaganda appeal. Written in late 1610 - early 1611, at the most intense moment of the struggle, when Moscow was captured by Polish troops, and Novgorod - by Swedish feudal lords. "New Tale" to "all sorts of ranks to people", called them to action against the invaders. She sharply denounced the treacherous policy of the boyar government, which, instead of being "landowner" native land, turned into a domestic enemy, and the boyars themselves "earth-eaters", "crooks". The story revealed the plans of the Polish magnates and their leader Sigismund III, who sought to lull the Russian vigilance with false promises. glorified courageous feat Smolensk, who selflessly defended their city, preventing the enemy from seizing this important key position. « Tea, as if small children heard the wonder of that of their citizens of courage and strength and generosity and an unbending mind, ”- the author notes. The New Tale depicts Patriarch Hermogenes as the ideal patriot, endowing him with the traits of a faithful Christian, martyr and fighter for the faith against apostates. On the example of behavior "strong" Smolyan and Hermogenes "The New Tale" highlighted resilience as required quality behavior of a true patriot.
A characteristic feature of the story is its democracy, a new interpretation of the image of the people - this "great ... waterless sea." The calls and messages of Hermogenes are addressed to the people, enemies and traitors are afraid of the people, the author of the story appeals to the people. However, the people in the story do not yet act as an effective force.
Unlike other works of that time, there are no historical excursuses in the New Tale; it is filled with topical material, calls Muscovites to armed struggle against the invaders. This is what determines the peculiarities of the style of the New Story, in which business-like energetic speech is combined with an excited pathetic appeal. The "lyrical element" of the story is the author's patriotic mood, the desire to raise Muscovites to armed struggle against the enemy.
The author more than once resorts to rhythmic speech and "speech verse", which goes back to folk rhythmic tales and paradise verse. For example: “And our landowners themselves, as before, are land-eaters, they have long been from him(Hermogene.- V.K.) lagged behind, and gave up their minds to the last madness, and they stuck to them as an enemy, and to others, fell at their feet and changed their sovereign birth into a bad slavish service, and they submitted and worshiped who knows - themselves you know."
The general pathetic tone of presentation is combined in the New Tale with numerous psychological characteristics. For the first time in literature, there is a desire to discover and show the contradictions between the thoughts and actions of a person. In this growing attention to the disclosure of a person’s thoughts that determine his behavior, lies the literary significance of the New Tale. Thematically close to the "New Tale" "Lament for the Captivity and Final Destruction of the Muscovite State", created, obviously, after the capture of Smolensk by the Poles and the burning of Moscow in 1612. The fall of "pie(pillar) piety", devastation "God-planted grapes". The burning of Moscow is interpreted as a fall "multinational state". The author seeks to find out the reasons that led to "the fall of high Russia", using the form of an edifying short "conversation". In an abstract generalized form, he speaks of the responsibility of the rulers for what happened. "over the highest Russia." However, this work does not call for struggle, but only mourns, convinces to seek consolation in prayer and hope in God's help.
The immediate response to the events was "The Tale of the Death of Prince Mikhail Vasilievich Skopin-Shuisky". With his victories over False Dmitry II, Skopin-Shuisky gained fame as a talented commander. His sudden death at the age of twenty (April 1610) gave rise to various rumors that, allegedly out of envy, he was poisoned by the boyars. These sentiments were reflected in folk songs and legends literary processing which is the story.
It begins with a rhetorical book introduction, in which genealogical calculations are made, tracing the Skopin-Shuisky family to Alexander Nevsky and Augustus Caesar.
The central episode of the story is a description of the christening feast at Prince Vorotynsky. Including a number of everyday details, the author tells in detail about how the hero was poisoned by the wife of his uncle Dmitry Shuisky, the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov. Preserving the speech and rhythmic structure of the folk epic song, the story conveys this episode as follows:
And what will be after a fair table a feast for fun,
And ... the villain is that princess Marya, godmother godmother,
She brought the drink of drink to the godfather
And she beat her forehead, greeted her godson Alexei Ivanovich.
And in that chalice in drink, a fierce drink of death is prepared.
And Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich drinks that drink to dryness,
But he does not know that evil drinking is fierce mortal.
In the above passage, it is not difficult to detect the characteristic elements of epic poetics. They also stand out clearly in the dialogue between a mother and her son, who has returned prematurely from a feast. This dialogue is reminiscent of the conversations of Vasily Buslaev with Mamelfa Timofeevna, Dobrynya with his mother.
The second part of the story, dedicated to the description of the death of the hero and the nationwide grief over his death, is made in the traditional book style. The same techniques are used here as in The Life of Alexander Nevsky and The Tale of the Life of Dmitry Ivanovich. The author of the story conveys the attitude to the death of Skopin of various groups of society. Muscovites express their grief, as well as their assessment of the activities of Skopin-Shuisky, the German governor Yakov Delagardie, Tsar Vasily Shuisky, mother, wife. The laments of mother and wife almost entirely go back to the tradition of oral folk tales.
The story has an anti-boyar orientation: Skopin-Shuisky is poisoned "on the advice of evil traitors" - boyars, only they do not mourn for the commander.
The story glorifies Skopin-Shuisky as a national hero, defender of the motherland from adversary enemies.
In 1620, the “Tale of the Repose...” was supplemented by “The Tale of the Birth of the Governor M. V. Skopin-Shuisky”, written in the traditional hagiographic manner.
The historical events of those years are comprehended in their own way in the people's mind, as evidenced by the recordings of historical songs made in 1619 for the Englishman Richard James. These are the songs “About the dog-thief Grishka-cutting”, “About Marinka - an evil heretic”, about Ksenia Godunova. The songs denounce the invaders and their accomplices "boyars squint-bellied", folk heroes are exalted - the hero Ilya, Skopin-Shuisky, standing guard over the interests of their native land.
"The Tale" by Avraamy Palitsyn. An outstanding historical work that vividly reflected the events of the era is the “Tale” by the cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn, written in 1609-1620.
Clever, cunning and rather unscrupulous businessman Avraamy Palitsyn was in close relations with Vasily Shuisky, secretly communicated with Sigismund III, seeking benefits for the monastery from the Polish king. Creating the Tale, he sought to rehabilitate himself and tried to emphasize his merits in the fight against foreign invaders and the election of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the throne.
The story consists of a series independent works:
I. Small historical sketch, reviewing the events from the death of Grozny to the accession of Shuisky. Palitsyn sees the reasons for the "distemper" in the illegal abduction of the royal throne by Godunov and in his policy (ch. 1-6).
II. Detailed description 16-month siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by the troops of Sapieha and Lisovsky. This central part of the "Tale" was created by Abraham by processing the notes of the participants in the defense of the monastery fortress (ch. 7-52).
III. Narration about the last months of Shuisky's reign, the ruin of Moscow by the Poles, its liberation, the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne and the conclusion of a truce with Poland (ch. 53-76).
Thus, the "Tale" gives an account of historical events from 1584 to 1618. They are covered from traditional providentialist positions: the causes of troubles, “If you have done it all over Russia, it’s a righteous, wrathful quick punishment from God for all that evil created from us”: The victories won by the Russian people over foreign invaders are the result of the beneficence and mercy of the Mother of God and the intercession of Saints Sergius and Nikon. Religious and didactic reasoning is given in the traditional rhetorical form of teachings, supported by references to the text of "scripture", as well as abundant religious-fiction pictures of all kinds of "miracles", "phenomena", "visions", which, in the author's opinion, are indisputable evidence of special patronage heavenly forces to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Russian land.
The value of the "Tale" is its factual material associated with the depiction of heroic feats of arms peasants of monastic villages, monastic servants, when “And the non-warriors are brave, and the ignorant, and never the custom of the military who saw and girded themselves with a gigantic fortress.” Abraham reports the names and exploits of many folk heroes. Such, for example, is the peasant of the village of Molokovo - Vanity, "Great in age and strong Velmy, we always make fun of incompetence for the sake of fighting." He stops the fleeing warriors, fearlessly flogs with a reed in his hand "on both countries of enemies" and holds Lisovsky's regiment, saying: “Behold, I will die this day, or I will receive glory from everyone.” "Soon, galloping, like a lynx, The vanity of many then armed and armored." Servant Piman Teneev "shoot" "from the bow in the face" of the "fierce" Alexander Lisovsky, who "fell off your horse." Servant Mikhailo Pavlov caught and killed the voivode Yuri Gorsky.
Abraham repeatedly emphasizes that the monastery was saved from adversaries "young people" a "multiplication in the city"(monastery.- V. K.) "lawlessness and unrighteousness" associated with people of "warlike rank". The "Tale" sharply condemns the treachery of the monastery treasurer Joseph Devochkin and his patron "cunning" governor Alexei Golokhvastov, as well as treason "sons of the boyars".
Abraham has no sympathy for "slaves" and serfs who "because the Lord wants to be, and unwavering to freedom jumps." He sharply condemns the rebellious peasants and "in charge of the villain" serfs Petrushka and Ivan Bolotnikov. However, a zealous defender of the inviolability of the foundations of the feudal system, Abraham is forced to recognize the decisive role of the people in the fight against the interventionists: “All Russia is conducive to the reigning city, because the misfortune is common to everyone.”
One of the features of the "Tale" is the depiction of the life of the besieged monastery: terrible crowding, when people plunder “every tree and stone for the creation of a booth”, “and women give birth to children before all people”; due to crowding, lack of fuel, for the sake of "washing out the port" people are forced to periodically leave the fortress; description of the outbreak of scurvy, etc. “It is not proper, therefore, to lie against the truth, but with great fear it is proper to observe the truth,” Abraham writes. And this observance of the truth is a characteristic feature of the central part of the Tale. And although Abraham's concept of truth also includes a description of religious-fiction pictures, they cannot obscure the main thing - folk heroism.
Outlining "all in a row" Avraamy tries to "document" his material: he accurately indicates the dates of events, the names of their participants, enters "letters" and "replies" i.e. purely business documents.
In general, the "Legend" - epic work, but it uses dramatic and lyrical elements. In a number of cases, Abraham resorts to the manner of a rhythmic tale, including rhymed speech in the narration. For example:
And we multiply our hands from warfare;
always about firewood fights are evil byvahu.
Outgoing for the abode of firewood for the sake of getting it,
and I return to the city without the demon of bloodshed.
And having bought with blood rash and sickness,
and the more building everyday food;
to a martyr's feat greener excitingly,
and sympathize with each other.
Much attention in the "Tale" is given to the depiction of the deeds and thoughts of both the defenders of the monastery fortress, and enemies and traitors.
Based on the traditions of the "Kazan Chronicler", "The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople", Avraamy Palitsyn creates an original historical work, in which a significant step has been taken towards recognizing the people as an active participant in historical events. "Chronicle book", attributed to Katyrev-Rostovsky. The events of the first Peasant War and the struggle of the Russian people against the Polish-Swedish intervention are dedicated to the Chronicle Book, attributed by most researchers to Katyrev-Rostovsky. It was created in 1626 and reflected the official government point of view on the recent past. The purpose of the Chronicle Book is to strengthen the authority of the new ruling dynasty Romanovs. The Chronicle Book is a coherent pragmatic narrative from the last years of Grozny's reign to the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne. The author strives to give an epicly calm "objective" narrative. The "Chronicle Book" is devoid of the journalistic sharpness that was characteristic of the works that appeared in the midst of events. It almost lacks religious didactics; the narrative is purely secular. Unlike the "Tale" by Avraamy Palitsyn, the "Chronicle Book" brings to the fore the personalities of the rulers, "chiefs of the army" Patriarch Hermogenes and seeks to give them deeper psychological characteristics, to note not only positive, but also negative character traits of a number of historical figures. The author relied on the Chronograph edition of 1617, where in the narrative of the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. attention was drawn to internal contradictions human nature, because "no one from the earthly" can't stay "blameless in his life", because "The human mind is sinful, and a good disposition is corrupted by evil ones."
The chronicle book contains a special section “Writing in brief about the kings of Moscow, images of their age and morals”, where are given verbal portraits historical figures, characterization of their conflicting moral qualities.
An interesting verbal portrait of Ivan IV, which coincides with his famous image- parsuna kept in the Copenhagen National Museum: “Tsar Ivan in an absurd way, having gray eyes, a long nose and a curse; he is big with age, having a dry body, having high splashes, wide breasts, thick muscles.
The verbal portrait is followed by a description of the contradictions in Grozny's character and his actions related to them: “... a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book teaching, is pleased and eloquently talkative, insolent to the militia and stands up for his fatherland. On his servants, from God given to him, he is hard-hearted, and on the shedding of blood and on killing he is impudent and implacable; Destroy many people from small to large in your kingdom, and capture many cities of your own, and imprison many holy orders and destroy them with a merciless death, and many other deeds over your servants, wives and maidens desecrate fornication. The same tsar Ivan did many good things, loving the army and demanding them from his treasure generously.
The "Chronicle Book" departs from the tradition of a one-sided depiction of a person. She even notes the positive aspects of character "Rostrigi" - False Dmitry I: he is witty, "Satisfied in book learning" bold and brave and only "simple denunciation", absence "royal property", "obscurity" body testifies to his imposture.
A characteristic feature of the "Chronicle Book" is the desire of its author to introduce into the historical narrative landscape sketches, which serve as a contrasting or harmonizing background to ongoing events. Emotionally colored landscape dedicated to glorification "red year" awakening life, contrasts sharply with the brutal abuse of the troops "predatory wolf" False Dmitry and the army of Moscow. If we compare this landscape with Cyril of Turov's "Word for Anti-Easter", we will immediately see those significant changes in the method of depicting reality that took place in the literature of the first quarter of the 17th century. At first glance, S. Shakhovsky uses the same images as Cyril: “winter”, “sun”, “spring”, “wind”, “ratai”, but the writers have different attitudes towards these images. For Cyril, these are only symbols of sin, Christ, the Christian faith, "word rattling". The author of the Book of Chronicles does not give a symbolic interpretation of these images, but uses them in a direct, "earthly" sense. For him, they are only a means of artistic evaluation of current events.
This assessment is also given in the direct author's lyrical digressions, which are devoid of Christian didacticism, they do not refer to the authority of "scripture". All this gives the style of the Chronicle Book an "original, beautiful epic warehouse" that contributes to its popularity. Moreover, wanting to beautifully complete the story, the author puts “verses” (30 rhymed lines) at the end of the work:
The beginning of the verse
rebellious thing,
Let's read them wisely.
And then we understand the compiler of this book ...
With these pre-syllabic verses, the author seeks to declare his individuality as a writer: he "I myself saw this significantly," and others “things” “heard from the graceful without application”, “he found a lot of things, he wrote a fraction of this”. About himself, he reports that he belongs to the Rostov family and is the son "Foreshadowed Prince Michael".
Works of the period of the struggle of the Russian people with the Polish-Swedish intervention and the Peasant War under the leadership of Bolotnikov, continuing to develop the traditions of historical narrative literature XVI century, reflected the growth of national consciousness. This was manifested in a change in the view of the historical process: the course of history is determined not by God's will, but by the activities of people. Tales from the beginning of the 17th century. they can no longer stop talking about the people, about their participation in the struggle for the national independence of their homeland, about the responsibility of "the whole earth" for what has happened.
This, in turn, determined the increased interest in the human person. For the first time there is a desire to portray the internal contradictions of character and to reveal the reasons by which these contradictions are generated. Rectilinear characteristics of a person in literature of the 16th century. are beginning to be replaced by a deeper depiction of the contradictory properties of the human soul. At the same time, as D.S. Likhachev points out, the characters of historical figures in the works of the early 17th century. shown in the background folk talk about them. Human activity is given in a historical perspective and for the first time begins to be evaluated in its "social function".
Events 1604-1613 called a number significant changes in the public mind. The attitude towards the king has changed as to God's chosen one, who received his power from the forefathers, from Augustus Caesar. The practice of life convinced that the tsar was elected by the "zemstvo" and was morally responsible to his country, to his subjects for their fate. Therefore, the actions of the king, his behavior are not subject to the Divine, but to the human court, the court of society.
The events of 1604-1613 dealt a crushing blow to religious ideology, the undivided dominance of the church in all spheres of life: not God, but man creates his own destiny, not God's will, but the activity of people determines the historical destinies of the country.
The role of the trade and craft townspeople in public, political and cultural life has increased. This was facilitated by education in the middle of the 17th century. "single all-Russian market", as a result of which the political unification was secured by the economic unification of all Russian lands. A new democratic writer and reader is emerging.
Strengthening the role of the settlement in cultural life entails the democratization of literature, its gradual liberation from providentialism, symbolism and etiquette - the leading principles of the artistic method of Russian medieval literature. The integrity of this method is already beginning to collapse in the literature of the 16th century, and in the 17th century. conditionally symbolic representation of reality is displaced "aliveness". The beginning of this process is associated with the widespread penetration into the book rhetorical style of Business stationery, on the one hand, and oral folk art, on the other.
All this testifies to the intensification of the process of "secularization" of culture and literature, i.e., its gradual liberation from the tutelage of the church, religious ideology.
Troubled times at the beginning of the 17th century. marked the beginning of a new stage in the history of Russia. Significant changes took place in society: a new ruling dynasty appeared, a negative attitude to the bearers of Western European culture, the country was ruined. The consequences of the Time of Troubles were overcome for decades, and yet it was impossible to completely restore the former forms of life. Trouble has become in a certain sense frontier in the history of late medieval Russia. 17th century people worried and interested in these changes in their lives, which they tried to comprehend through an assessment of the events of the Time of Troubles. In this regard, the Troubles is dedicated large complex literary and historical works of the 17th century, the genre of which can be defined as historical journalism. This literature, created throughout the 17th century, is dedicated to the events of the turn of the 16th–17th centuries. and the first decade of the 17th century.
Some of the works about the Time of Troubles are distinguished by the detail of their presentation, others by the figurativeness of their characteristics, but all of them are united by the desire to comprehend the era of the recent past, which has so strongly influenced the present.
The most popular of them early writings about the Troubles became "A Tale of How the All-Seeing Eye of Christ Takes Revenge on Godunov by Shedding the Innocent Blood of the New Passion-Bearer, Right-Believing Tsarevich Dmitry Uglichsky"and her later revision" Tale, how to steal the tsar's throne in Moscow Boris Godunov by unrighteousness ... ".
“The Tale of How the All-Seeing Eye of Christ Christ Godunov to Take Revenge on the Shedding of Innocent Blood of the New Passion-Bearer, the Blessed Tsarevich Dmitry Uglichsky” was compiled in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by one of the monks who was an eyewitness to most of the events (with the exception of Grigory Otrepyev’s foreign adventures and a few more episodes), about which wrote. The work describes the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. (before the election of Vasily Shuisky to the kingdom), and the author not only does not hide his political views, but even passionately promotes them: Boris Godunov, the murderer of Tsarevich Dimitri and the actual usurper of the royal throne, is declared the culprit of all misfortunes. Compared to Godunov, even Grigory Otrepiev does not look like a villain, although the author condemns him. positive character story - the newly married Tsar Vasily Shuisky, whose name is associated with hopes for the end of the Troubles. The work is written in literary language. The author himself declares that he took the Chronicle of Constantine Manasia as a model for narration. Perhaps it was the literary merits that ensured the popularity of this story in the historical literature of the 17th century.
One of the earliest literary works about the Time of Troubles is the so-called "The Tale of the Troubles from the article list", which was compiled immediately after the assassination of False Dmitry I as a guide for the ambassadors to the Commonwealth, Prince G. K. Volkonsky and deacon A. Ivanov, sent by the new Tsar Vasily Shuisky immediately after the coronation. The description of the coronation of Shuisky, which took place on June 1, 1606, completes the text of the work. Apparently, at this time the story was composed. The text of "The Tale of the Troubles from the article list" came as part of the article list of the embassy of G. K. Volkonsky and A. Ivanov. Sending ambassadors to the Polish king Sigismund III, Vasily Shuisky tried to establish peaceful relations with the Commonwealth. Hence, in the story, harsh accusations against False Dmitry I, which should justify his overthrow from the throne and reprisal against him.
The works created during the Time of Troubles are of a pronounced journalistic nature, which is also expressed in their mutual influence: once found, a successful form of presenting the material passes from text to text. This is especially evident in the miraculous vision genre. People were so exhausted by the incessant military operations, robberies and murders that the end of disasters was expected not from the government, but from divine intervention. In such an environment, mystical moods, generally quite strong in society, manifested themselves more and more often. The consequence of this was visions to various persons, which spoke of the end of the Troubles and which were recorded and made out in the form of independent works.
The first of these works, which influenced subsequent ones, was "The Tale of a Vision to a Spiritual Man" archpriest of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral Terenty, written in 1606 in anticipation of an attack on Moscow by the troops of I. Bolotnikov. "The Tale of a Vision in Novgorod" tells about the vision of the Novgorod miracle workers to a certain monk Varlaam in Sophia Cathedral on the eve of the capture of Novgorod by the Swedes in 1611. Using the work of Archpriest Terenty as a source, the author of the Novgorod story changes it main idea. Terenty tells of a vision of "a certain holy man" of the Theotokos and Jesus Christ in Moscow's Assumption Cathedral. According to the vision, the Mother of God begged the salvation of Russia from Christ, prerequisite which was declared a general repentance. In the Novgorod vision, the Mother of God, surrounded by a host of Novgorod saints, will betray the city into the hands of enemies for the sins of people. From this, the researchers conclude that the Novgorod story was written after the occupation of Novgorod by the Swedes. "The Tale of a Vision in Nizhny Novgorod", also written in 1611, but even before the capture of Novgorod by the Swedes (in any case, the author did not know about it), also uses Terenty's story as a source, introducing Nizhny Novgorod realities into the plot. In particular, the call for nationwide unity in the face of enemies deserves attention, which later played a decisive role in the formation of the second militia. The Tale of a Vision in Vladimir is also connected with the Nizhny Novgorod story, similar in plot; only in Vladimir did the woman, whom the Mother of God appeared to, become a visionary. Both stories, Nizhny Novgorod and Vladimir, were sent in 1611 to the cities, being an integral part of the patriotic correspondence between the latter, which preceded the creation of the militia.
A number of works were created after the end of the Time of Troubles, but their authors were direct participants in the events. These works should also include chapters on the Troubles Chronograph edition 1617, and new chronicler, and some monuments of hagiography (for example, "The Life of Tsarevich Dimitri"). A special place is occupied by author's writings, in which attempts are made to understand recent events. At the same time, contradictions are smoothed out, more neutral characteristics are given to some odious figures. So, the authors speak much more reservedly about Vasily Shuisky and his reign.
In addition, the description of the Time of Troubles is used by the authors to express their political and ideological positions. One of these stories was written by Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Katyrev-Rostovsky, who, despite the relatively low rank of a Moscow nobleman, belonged to the highest nobility of Russia at that time. Apart from noble birth, I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky was in a peculiar relationship with the new dynasty: his first wife was the daughter of Patriarch Filaret and, accordingly, the sister of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. The prince did not pursue the ranks, but served honestly, as far as possible with the general "reeling" in the Time of Troubles. In 1608, he nevertheless fell out of favor with Vasily Shuisky and was sent to the province in distant Tobolsk, where he stayed until the end of the Troubles. Thus, I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky was not an eyewitness to all the events he wrote about. His story is not replete with emotional assessments, and there is no retelling of minor facts in it. Boris Godunov is given a generally positive characterization, impartiality towards Vasily Shuisky is maintained. Grigory Otrepiev, no doubt, is drawn as the negative hero of the story, but it is remarkable that the author blames him for specific actions and actions. Despite his obvious closeness to the Romanovs, I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky avoids direct praise of Filaret. In this essay, written immediately after the end of the Troubles, there are elements of historicism, which makes it possible to attribute it not to journalism, but to historical prose.
The essay about the Time of Troubles by Prince Ivan Andreevich Khvorostinin also reflects the character and views of the author. Quite young, I. A. Khvorostinin served at the court of False Dmitry I, was in favor with him, and then, after his overthrow, fell into disgrace. The further service of I. A. Khvorostinin was accompanied by periodic accusations of sympathy for Catholicism and Western European culture. Contemporaries speak of him as an arrogant, unpleasant person. To match the author and his work "Words of days, and kings, and saints of Moscow ...", in which I. A. Khvorostinin focuses on his own figure, and tries in every possible way to whitewash himself and emphasize his significance in the events of the Time of Troubles. In reality, it was not so great. The series of events in the work of I. A. Khvorostinin is presented extremely poorly, we point out as an example that there are no dates in the text. Despite this, it looks central hero era, which, according to the author, was Patriarch Hermogenes.
The work of Prince Semyon Ivanovich Shakhovsky is a treatise on Tsarevich Dimitri. The source of the treatise was the story of I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky. The work of S. I. Shakhovsky brings together with the "Words of the Days, and the Tsars, and the Hierarchs of Moscow ..." I. A. Khvorostinin is precisely the literary component, the minimum number of facts is mentioned in the text. The work consists of two parts: the life of Tsarevich Dimitry and the story of False Dmitry I ("The Tale of a certain Mnis, which was sent from God to Tsar Boris"). These parts are connected chronologically, thematically and literary. The idea of retribution to Boris Godunov for his sins and the theme of humility, which is salutary in any life situation. We are trying to comprehend historical experience Troubled times, give historical narrative moralizing character.
Troubles were described not only by aristocrats, but also by representatives of other segments of the population. Of the works written by church authors, the most famous was " Story"The cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn - an active participant in the events of the Time of Troubles. During the period of the siege by the Polish troops of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, A. Palitsyn participated in composing letters of patriotic content, which were sent around the cities and played a significant role in the unity of society. In "History" the Trinity cellar tells about events well known to him: about the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.The author writes about his role in the defense of the monastery, emphasizing, like I. A. Khvorostinin, the significance of his actions. At the same time, A. Palitsyn's work is filled with factual details , dialogues of characters. The author clearly sought to capture the historical process in all its diversity, and in this "History" approaches the story of I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky. It is important in the work of A. Palitsyn to realize the role of the masses in the historical process, in this he how the historian turned out to be wealthier than his contemporaries.
Ivan Timofeev, the author of another well-known work about the Troubles, the so-called "Temporary".
"Vremennik" is written in a heavy ornate language, testifying to the author's attempt to imitate the style of church literature, and also to the fact that he did not master this style. I. Timofeev describes the disasters that befell the Russian land, and, wondering about the cause of these disasters, criticizes the domestic policy of Ivan the Terrible and Boris
Godunov, who changed the "legal order" of the reform, etc. Here, as in other works created by contemporaries of the Time of Troubles after its end, there is a noticeable desire to comprehend the events of the recent past.
A separate group consists of compilations based on the works of contemporaries of the Time of Troubles. Often they combine fragments of several sources that contradict one another in their assessments of events. These sources seem to "speak with different voices."
For example, in compiled in the 1630s-1640s. text "Another story" the narrative is conducted with the involvement of "The Tale of How the All-Seeing Eye of Christ Godunov will take revenge on the shedding of the innocent blood of the new passion-bearer, the faithful Tsarevich Dmitry Uglichsky" and the Chronograph of the edition of 1617. In turn, "Another Tale" is widely used in the text of the Chronograph of the edition of 1620.
Compilation is also the so-called "Manuscript of Philaret", actually having nothing to do with Patriarch Filaret (this baseless attribution appeared in late XVII in.). It was written in the 1620s. on a column, believed to be in the Posolsky Prikaz. Among its sources are the story of I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky and, presumably, the New Chronicler.
New Chronicler was compiled around 1630. It covered the events of the Time of Troubles from the positions of the Romanovs and, in particular, Patriarch Filaret. Despite its name, this work is not a chronicle. It is divided into chapters, each of which is a complete narrative in which dates, although present, are not the main and indispensable part of the story. The heading of the New Chronicler contains the words "degree of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich", which suggests that the author or authors of the work aimed to continue the text of the Book of Degrees, which ends with the degree of Ivan the Terrible. The new chronicler was extremely popular in the 17th century; several dozen lists of him are known. The style of his narration significantly influenced the historical writings of subsequent times.
Troubles occupied the minds of Russian people throughout the entire 17th century. On the example of stories and legends about the Time of Troubles, one can trace the process of turning modernity into history, and journalism into historiography.
The turbulent events of the beginning of the 17th century, which were called “troubles” by contemporaries, were widely reflected in literature. Literature acquires an exclusively topical journalistic character, promptly responding to the demands of the time, reflecting the interests of various social groups participating in the struggle.
Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent faith in the power of the word, in the power of conviction, seeks to propagate certain ideas in literary works, achieving specific effective goals.
Among the stories that reflected the events of 1604-1613, one can single out works that express the interests of the ruling boyars. Such is the Tale of 1606, created by a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The story actively supports the policy of the boyar tsar Vasily Shuisky, tries to present him as a popular choice, emphasizing the unity of Shuisky with the people. The people turn out to be a force that the ruling circles cannot but reckon with. The story glorifies "courageous courage" Shuisky in his fight against "Evil heretic", "defrocked" Grishka Otrepyev. To prove the legitimacy of Shuisky's rights to the royal throne, his family is elevated to Vladimir Svyatoslavich of Kyiv.
The author of the story sees the causes of "distemper" and "disorganization" in the Muscovite state in the pernicious rule of Boris Godunov, who, by the villainous murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, stopped the existence of the family of lawful kings of Moscow and "catch the tsar's throne in Moscow with unrighteousness."
Subsequently, "The Tale of 1606" was revised into "Another Legend". Defending the positions of the boyars, the author portrays him as the savior of the Russian state from adversaries.
"The Tale of 1606" and "Another Legend" are written in the traditional bookish manner. They are built on the contrast of the pious champion of the Orthodox faith Vasily Shuisky and "cunning, crafty" Godunov, "evil heretic" Grigory Otrepiev. Their actions are explained from traditional providentialist positions.
This group of works is opposed by stories that reflect the interests of the nobility and the townspeople's trade and craft strata of the population. Here we should first of all mention those journalistic messages that Russian cities exchanged, rallying their forces to fight the enemy.
Takova "A new story about the glorious, Russian kingdom" - publicistic propaganda appeal. Written in late 1610 - early 1611, at the most intense moment of the struggle, when Moscow was captured by Polish troops, and Novgorod - by Swedish feudal lords. "New Tale" to "all sorts of ranks to people", called them to action against the invaders. She sharply denounced the treacherous policy of the boyar government, which, instead of being "landowner" native land, turned into a domestic enemy, and the boyars themselves "earth-eaters", "crooks". The story revealed the plans of the Polish magnates and their leader Sigismund III, who sought to lull the Russian vigilance with false promises. The courageous feat of the Smolensk people was glorified, selflessly defending their city, preventing the enemy from seizing this important key position. " Tea, as if small children heard the wonder of that of their citizens of courage and strength and generosity and an unbending mind, ”- the author notes. The New Tale depicts Patriarch Hermogenes as the ideal patriot, endowing him with the traits of a faithful Christian, martyr and fighter for the faith against apostates. On the example of behavior "strong" Smolyan and Hermogenes, "The New Tale" brought to the fore steadfastness as a necessary quality of behavior of a true patriot.
A characteristic feature of the story is its democracy, a new interpretation of the image of the people - this "great ... waterless sea." The calls and messages of Hermogenes are addressed to the people, enemies and traitors are afraid of the people, the author of the story appeals to the people. However, the people in the story do not yet act as an effective force.
Unlike other works of that time, there are no historical excursuses in the New Tale; it is filled with topical material, calls Muscovites to armed struggle against the invaders. This is what determines the peculiarities of the style of the New Story, in which business-like energetic speech is combined with an excited pathetic appeal. The "lyrical element" of the story is the author's patriotic mood, the desire to raise Muscovites to armed struggle against the enemy.
The author more than once resorts to rhythmic speech and "speech verse", which goes back to folk rhythmic tales and paradise verse. For example: “And our landowners themselves, as before, are land-eaters, they have long been from him(Hermogene.- V.K.) lagged behind, and gave up their minds to the last madness, and they stuck to them as an enemy, and to others, fell at their feet and changed their sovereign birth into a bad slavish service, and they submitted and worshiped who knows - themselves you know."
The general pathetic tone of presentation is combined in the New Tale with numerous psychological characteristics. For the first time in literature, there is a desire to discover and show the contradictions between the thoughts and actions of a person. In this growing attention to the disclosure of a person’s thoughts that determine his behavior, lies the literary significance of the New Tale. Thematically close to the "New Tale" "Lament for the Captivity and Final Destruction of the Muscovite State", created, obviously, after the capture of Smolensk by the Poles and the burning of Moscow in 1612. The fall of "pie(pillar) piety", devastation "God-planted grapes". The burning of Moscow is interpreted as a fall "multinational state". The author seeks to find out the reasons that led to "the fall of high Russia", using the form of an edifying short "conversation". In an abstract generalized form, he speaks of the responsibility of the rulers for what happened. "over the highest Russia." However, this work does not call for struggle, but only mourns, convinces to seek consolation in prayer and hope in God's help.
The immediate response to the events was "The Tale of the Death of Prince Mikhail Vasilievich Skopin-Shuisky". With his victories over False Dmitry II, Skopin-Shuisky gained fame as a talented commander. His sudden death at the age of twenty (April 1610) gave rise to various rumors that, allegedly out of envy, he was poisoned by the boyars. These rumors were reflected in folk songs and legends, the literary processing of which is the story.
It begins with a rhetorical book introduction, in which genealogical calculations are made, tracing the Skopin-Shuisky family to Alexander Nevsky and Augustus Caesar.
The central episode of the story is a description of the christening feast at Prince Vorotynsky. Including a number of everyday details, the author tells in detail about how the hero was poisoned by the wife of his uncle Dmitry Shuisky, the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov. Preserving the speech and rhythmic structure of the folk epic song, the story conveys this episode as follows:
And what will be after a fair table a feast for fun,
And ... the villain is that princess Marya, godmother godmother,
She brought the drink of drink to the godfather
And she beat her forehead, greeted her godson Alexei Ivanovich.
And in that chalice in drink, a fierce drink of death is prepared.
And Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich drinks that drink to dryness,
But he does not know that evil drinking is fierce mortal.
In the above passage, it is not difficult to detect the characteristic elements of epic poetics. They also stand out clearly in the dialogue between a mother and her son, who has returned prematurely from a feast. This dialogue is reminiscent of the conversations of Vasily Buslaev with Mamelfa Timofeevna, Dobrynya with his mother.
The second part of the story, dedicated to the description of the death of the hero and the nationwide grief over his death, is made in the traditional book style. The same techniques are used here as in The Life of Alexander Nevsky and The Tale of the Life of Dmitry Ivanovich. The author of the story conveys the attitude to the death of Skopin of various groups of society. Muscovites express their grief, as well as their assessment of the activities of Skopin-Shuisky, the German governor Yakov Delagardie, Tsar Vasily Shuisky, mother, wife. The laments of mother and wife almost entirely go back to the tradition of oral folk tales.
The story has an anti-boyar orientation: Skopin-Shuisky is poisoned "on the advice of evil traitors" - boyars, only they do not mourn for the commander.
The story glorifies Skopin-Shuisky as a national hero, defender of the motherland from adversary enemies.
In 1620, the “Tale of the Repose...” was supplemented by “The Tale of the Birth of the Governor M. V. Skopin-Shuisky”, written in the traditional hagiographic manner.
The historical events of those years are comprehended in their own way in the people's mind, as evidenced by the recordings of historical songs made in 1619 for the Englishman Richard James. These are the songs “About the dog-thief Grishka-cutting”, “About Marinka - an evil heretic”, about Ksenia Godunova. The songs denounce the invaders and their accomplices "boyars squint-bellied", folk heroes are exalted - the hero Ilya, Skopin-Shuisky, standing guard over the interests of their native land.
"The Tale" by Avraamy Palitsyn. An outstanding historical work that vividly reflected the events of the era is the “Tale” by the cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn, written in 1609-1620.
Clever, cunning and rather unscrupulous businessman Avraamy Palitsyn was in close relations with Vasily Shuisky, secretly communicated with Sigismund III, seeking benefits for the monastery from the Polish king. Creating the Tale, he sought to rehabilitate himself and tried to emphasize his merits in the fight against foreign invaders and the election of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the throne.
"The Tale" consists of a number of independent works:
I. A small historical essay, reviewing the events from the death of Grozny to the accession of Shuisky. Palitsyn sees the reasons for the "distemper" in the illegal abduction of the royal throne by Godunov and in his policy (ch. 1-6).
II. A detailed description of the 16-month siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by the troops of Sapieha and Lisovsky. This central part of the "Tale" was created by Abraham by processing the notes of the participants in the defense of the monastery fortress (ch. 7-52).
III. Narration about the last months of Shuisky's reign, the ruin of Moscow by the Poles, its liberation, the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne and the conclusion of a truce with Poland (ch. 53-76).
Thus, the "Tale" gives an account of historical events from 1584 to 1618. They are covered from traditional providentialist positions: the causes of troubles, “If you have done it all over Russia, it’s a righteous, wrathful quick punishment from God for all that evil created from us”: The victories won by the Russian people over foreign invaders are the result of the beneficence and mercy of the Mother of God and the intercession of Saints Sergius and Nikon. Religious and didactic reasoning is given in the traditional rhetorical form of teachings, supported by references to the text of "scripture", as well as abundant religious-fiction pictures of all kinds of "miracles", "phenomena", "visions", which, in the author's opinion, are indisputable evidence of special patronage heavenly forces to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Russian land.
The value of the "Tale" is its factual material associated with the depiction of the heroic feats of arms of the peasants of monastic villages, monastic servants, when “And the non-warriors are brave, and the ignorant, and never the custom of the military who saw and girded themselves with a gigantic fortress.” Abraham reports the names and exploits of many folk heroes. Such, for example, is the peasant of the village of Molokovo - Vanity, "Great in age and strong Velmy, we always make fun of incompetence for the sake of fighting." He stops the fleeing warriors, fearlessly flogs with a reed in his hand "on both countries of enemies" and holds Lisovsky's regiment, saying: “Behold, I will die this day, or I will receive glory from everyone.” "Soon, galloping, like a lynx, The vanity of many then armed and armored." Servant Piman Teneev "shoot" "from the bow in the face" of the "fierce" Alexander Lisovsky, who "fell off your horse." Servant Mikhailo Pavlov caught and killed the voivode Yuri Gorsky.
Abraham repeatedly emphasizes that the monastery was saved from adversaries "young people" a "multiplication in the city"(monastery.- V. K.) "lawlessness and unrighteousness" associated with people of "warlike rank". The "Tale" sharply condemns the treachery of the monastery treasurer Joseph Devochkin and his patron "cunning" governor Alexei Golokhvastov, as well as treason "sons of the boyars".
Abraham has no sympathy for "slaves" and serfs who "because the Lord wants to be, and unwavering to freedom jumps." He sharply condemns the rebellious peasants and "in charge of the villain" serfs Petrushka and Ivan Bolotnikov. However, a zealous defender of the inviolability of the foundations of the feudal system, Abraham is forced to recognize the decisive role of the people in the fight against the interventionists: “All Russia is conducive to the reigning city, because the misfortune is common to everyone.”
One of the features of the "Tale" is the depiction of the life of the besieged monastery: terrible crowding, when people plunder “every tree and stone for the creation of a booth”, “and women give birth to children before all people”; due to crowding, lack of fuel, for the sake of "washing out the port" people are forced to periodically leave the fortress; description of the outbreak of scurvy, etc. “It is not proper, therefore, to lie against the truth, but with great fear it is proper to observe the truth,” Abraham writes. And this observance of the truth is a characteristic feature of the central part of the Tale. And although Abraham's concept of truth also includes a description of religious-fiction pictures, they cannot obscure the main thing - folk heroism.
Outlining "all in a row" Avraamy tries to "document" his material: he accurately indicates the dates of events, the names of their participants, enters "letters" and "replies" i.e. purely business documents.
In general, "The Tale" is an epic work, but it uses dramatic and lyrical elements. In a number of cases, Abraham resorts to the manner of a rhythmic tale, including rhymed speech in the narration. For example:
And we multiply our hands from warfare;
always about firewood fights are evil byvahu.
Outgoing for the abode of firewood for the sake of getting it,
and I return to the city without the demon of bloodshed.
And having bought with blood rash and sickness,
and the more building everyday food;
to a martyr's feat greener excitingly,
and sympathize with each other.
Much attention in the "Tale" is given to the depiction of the deeds and thoughts of both the defenders of the monastery fortress, and enemies and traitors.
Based on the traditions of the "Kazan Chronicler", "The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople", Avraamy Palitsyn creates an original historical work, in which a significant step has been taken towards recognizing the people as an active participant in historical events. "Chronicle book", attributed to Katyrev-Rostovsky. The events of the first Peasant War and the struggle of the Russian people against the Polish-Swedish intervention are dedicated to the Chronicle Book, attributed by most researchers to Katyrev-Rostovsky. It was created in 1626 and reflected the official government point of view on the recent past. The purpose of the Chronicle Book is to strengthen the authority of the new ruling dynasty of the Romanovs. The Chronicle Book is a coherent pragmatic narrative from the last years of Grozny's reign to the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne. The author strives to give an epicly calm "objective" narrative. The "Chronicle Book" is devoid of the journalistic sharpness that was characteristic of the works that appeared in the midst of events. It almost lacks religious didactics; the narrative is purely secular. Unlike the "Tale" by Avraamy Palitsyn, the "Chronicle Book" brings to the fore the personalities of the rulers, "chiefs of the army" Patriarch Hermogenes and seeks to give them deeper psychological characteristics, to note not only positive, but also negative traits of the characters of a number of historical figures. The author relied on the Chronograph edition of 1617, where in the narrative of the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. attention was drawn to the internal contradictions of the human character, for "no one from the earthly" can't stay "blameless in his life", because "The human mind is sinful, and a good disposition is corrupted by evil ones."
The chronicle book contains a special section “Writing in brief about the kings of Moscow, images of their age and morals”, where verbal portraits of historical figures are given, a description of their contradictory moral qualities.
An interesting verbal portrait of Ivan IV, which coincides with his famous image - a parsuna, stored in the Copenhagen National Museum: “Tsar Ivan in an absurd way, having gray eyes, a long nose and a curse; he is big with age, having a dry body, having high splashes, wide breasts, thick muscles.
The verbal portrait is followed by a description of the contradictions in Grozny's character and his actions related to them: “... a man of wonderful reasoning, in the science of book teaching, is pleased and eloquently talkative, insolent to the militia and stands up for his fatherland. On his servants, from God given to him, he is hard-hearted, and on the shedding of blood and on killing he is impudent and implacable; Destroy many people from small to large in your kingdom, and capture many cities of your own, and imprison many holy orders and destroy them with a merciless death, and many other deeds over your servants, wives and maidens desecrate fornication. The same tsar Ivan did many good things, loving the army and demanding them from his treasure generously.
The "Chronicle Book" departs from the tradition of a one-sided depiction of a person. She even notes the positive aspects of character "Rostrigi" - False Dmitry I: he is witty, "Satisfied in book learning" bold and brave and only "simple denunciation", absence "royal property", "obscurity" body testifies to his imposture.
A characteristic feature of the "Chronicle Book" is the desire of its author to introduce landscape sketches into the historical narrative, which serve as a contrasting or harmonizing background for ongoing events. Emotionally colored landscape dedicated to glorification "red year" awakening life, contrasts sharply with the brutal abuse of the troops "predatory wolf" False Dmitry and the army of Moscow. If we compare this landscape with Cyril of Turov's "Word for Anti-Easter", we will immediately see those significant changes in the method of depicting reality that took place in the literature of the first quarter of the 17th century. At first glance, S. Shakhovsky uses the same images as Cyril: “winter”, “sun”, “spring”, “wind”, “ratai”, but the writers have different attitudes towards these images. For Cyril, these are only symbols of sin, Christ, the Christian faith, "word rattling". The author of the Book of Chronicles does not give a symbolic interpretation of these images, but uses them in a direct, "earthly" sense. For him, they are only a means of artistic evaluation of current events.
This assessment is also given in the direct author's lyrical digressions, which are devoid of Christian didacticism, they do not refer to the authority of "scripture". All this gives the style of the Chronicle Book an "original, beautiful epic warehouse" that contributes to its popularity. Moreover, wanting to beautifully complete the story, the author puts “verses” (30 rhymed lines) at the end of the work:
The beginning of the verse
rebellious thing,
Let's read them wisely.
And then we understand the compiler of this book ...
With these pre-syllabic verses, the author seeks to declare his individuality as a writer: he "I myself saw this significantly," and others “things” “heard from the graceful without application”, “he found a lot of things, he wrote a fraction of this”. About himself, he reports that he belongs to the Rostov family and is the son "Foreshadowed Prince Michael".
The works of the period of the struggle of the Russian people against the Polish-Swedish intervention and the Peasant War under the leadership of Bolotnikov, continuing to develop the traditions of historical narrative literature of the 16th century, reflected the growth of national self-consciousness. This was manifested in a change in the view of the historical process: the course of history is determined not by God's will, but by the activities of people. Tales from the beginning of the 17th century. they can no longer stop talking about the people, about their participation in the struggle for the national independence of their homeland, about the responsibility of "the whole earth" for what has happened.
This, in turn, determined the increased interest in the human person. For the first time there is a desire to portray the internal contradictions of character and to reveal the reasons by which these contradictions are generated. Rectilinear characteristics of a person in literature of the 16th century. are beginning to be replaced by a deeper depiction of the contradictory properties of the human soul. At the same time, as D.S. Likhachev points out, the characters of historical figures in the works of the early 17th century. shown against the backdrop of folk talk about them. Human activity is given in a historical perspective and for the first time begins to be evaluated in its "social function".
Events 1604-1613 caused a number of significant changes in the public consciousness. The attitude towards the king has changed as to God's chosen one, who received his power from the forefathers, from Augustus Caesar. The practice of life convinced that the tsar was elected by the "zemstvo" and was morally responsible to his country, to his subjects for their fate. Therefore, the actions of the king, his behavior are not subject to the Divine, but to the human court, the court of society.
The events of 1604-1613 dealt a crushing blow to religious ideology, the undivided dominance of the church in all spheres of life: not God, but man creates his own destiny, not God's will, but the activity of people determines the historical destinies of the country.
The role of the trade and craft townspeople in public, political and cultural life has increased. This was facilitated by education in the middle of the 17th century. "single all-Russian market", as a result of which the political unification was secured by the economic unification of all Russian lands. A new democratic writer and reader is emerging.
Strengthening the role of the settlement in cultural life entails the democratization of literature, its gradual liberation from providentialism, symbolism and etiquette - the leading principles of the artistic method of Russian medieval literature. The integrity of this method is already beginning to collapse in the literature of the 16th century, and in the 17th century. conditionally symbolic representation of reality is displaced "aliveness". The beginning of this process is associated with the widespread penetration into the book rhetorical style of Business stationery, on the one hand, and oral folk art, on the other.
All this testifies to the intensification of the process of "secularization" of culture and literature, i.e., its gradual liberation from the tutelage of the church, religious ideology.
