Arab race. Its founder is Mohammed born around 570 in a poor family

A people is a group of people united by some specific characteristics, there are more than 300 of them on Earth. There are numerous, for example, Chinese, and there are also small ones, for example, Ginukh, whose representation does not even reach 450 people.

The Arab people are the second largest group of people in the world, with about 400 million people. They inhabit the states of the Middle East and North Africa, but also recently they have been actively emigrating to Europe due to wars and political conflicts. So what kind of people are they, what is their history, and are there countries where Arabs live?

Where did the Arab people come from?

The forerunners of the Arabs are the wild tribes of Africa and the Middle East. In general, the first mention of them was found in various Babylonian writings. More specific instructions are written in the Bible. It is in it that it is said that in the 14th century BC. e. in Transjordan, and then in Palestine, the first shepherd tribes from the Arabian oases appear. Of course, this is a rather controversial version, but in any case, scientists agree that it was in Arabia that this people originated, and from there the history of the Arabs began.

The vast majority of Arabs profess Islam (90%), and the rest are Christians. In the 7th century, a previously unknown merchant Mohammed began to preach a new religion. After several years, the prophet created a community, and later a state - the Caliphate. This country began to rapidly expand its borders, and literally a hundred years later it stretched from Spain through North Africa and southwestern Asia to the borders of India. Due to the fact that the Caliphate had a vast territory, the state language was actively spreading on the lands subject to it, due to which the local population was transferred to the culture and customs of the Arabs.

The spread of Islam allowed the caliphates to establish close contact with Christians, Jews, etc., which contributed to the formation of one of the greatest civilizations in the world. During its existence, many great works of art were created, there was a rapid rise in science, including astronomy, medicine, geography and mathematics. But in the 10th century, the fall of the Caliphate (the state of the Arabs) began due to wars with the Mongols and Turks.

By the 16th century, Turkish subjects conquered the entire Arab world, and this continued until the 19th century, when the British and French already dominated North Africa. Only after the Second World War, all the people, except for the Palestinians, gained independence. They received freedom only by the end of the 20th century.

We will consider later where the Arabs live today, but for now it is worth dwelling on the linguistic and cultural characteristics of this people.

Language and culture

The Arabic language, the official language of all countries in which this group of people lives, belongs to the Afroasian family. About 250 million people speak it, and another 50 million people use it as a second language. The writing is based on the Arabic alphabet, which has changed slightly over its long history. The language is constantly changing. Arabic is now written from right to left and has no capital letters.

Along with the development of the people, culture also developed. It acquired its dawn during the period of the Caliphate. It is noteworthy that the Arabs based their culture on the basis of Roman, Egyptian, Chinese and others, and in general, this people made a big step in the development of human civilization. Studying the language and heritage will help to understand who the Arabs are, what are their values.

Science and literature

Arabic science developed on the basis of ancient Greek, for the most part on military affairs, since vast territories could not be captured and defended only with the help of human resources. At the same time, various schools open. There are also scientific centers thanks to the development of the natural sciences. Great strides have been made in the historical and geographical areas of research. Mathematics, medicine and astronomy received a great leap in development in the Caliphate.

The main literary work of the Arab world is the Koran. It is written in the form of prose and serves as the basis of the religion of Islam. However, even before the appearance of this religious book, great written masterpieces were created. Mostly Arabs composed poetry. The themes varied, such as self-praise, love, and depictions of nature. In the Caliphate, such world works were written that are popular to this day, these are: "A Thousand and One Nights", "Maqamat", "Messages of Forgiveness" and "The Book of the Miser".

Arabic architecture

Many art objects were created by the Arabs. At the initial stage, the influence of Roman and Byzantine traditions affected, but over time, their architecture acquires its own unique look. By the 10th century, a peculiar type of columned mosque was created with a rectangular courtyard in the center, surrounded by numerous halls, galleries with graceful arcades. This type includes the Amir Mosque in Cairo, where Arabs have lived for many hundreds of years.

From the 12th century, various letter and floral patterns began to gain popularity, with which buildings were decorated both outside and inside. Domes appear from the 13th century. In the 15th century, the decoration of buildings was based on the Moorish style, an example of this trend is the Alhambra castle in Granada. After the conquest of the Arab Caliphate by the Turks, the architecture acquires Byzantine features, which affected the Mohammed Mosque in Cairo.

The Status of Women and Religion in the Arab World

It is impossible to answer the question: who are the Arabs, if you do not study the position of women in their world. Until the middle of the 20th century, girls were at their most lowest level in society. They did not have the right to vote, one might say, they were not considered people, but interestingly, the attitude towards mothers was always respectful. Now, especially in large cities, the attitude towards women has changed. Now they can attend schools, higher educational institutions and even hold high political and government positions. Polygamy, which is allowed in Islam, is slowly disappearing. You rarely see a man with more than two wives these days.

With regards to religion, then, of course, mostly Arabs profess Islam, about 90 percent. Also a small part are adherents of Christianity, mostly Protestants and a small part of the Orthodox. In ancient times, this people, like most ancient tribes, worshiped the stars, the sun and the sky. They honored and paid tribute to the most famous and influential ancestors. Only in the 7th century, when Muhammad began to preach, did the Arabs actively begin to convert to Islam, and now they are commonly considered Muslims.

Arab countries

The world has enough a large number of states where the Arab people live. Countries in which the vast majority of the population is precisely this nationality can be considered their original ones. For them, the place of residence is mostly in Asian countries. The largest representation of Arabs in the following countries: Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Sudan and Tunisia. Of course, Arabs still live in Africa and European countries.

Arab emigration

Throughout history, this nationality has moved around the world, for the most part this is due to great civilization Caliphate. Now there is a much more active emigration of Arabs from Africa and the Middle East to Europe and America due to the unstable and threatening situation that has developed as a result of military and political conflicts. Currently, Arab immigrants are distributed in such territories: France, the USA, Germany, Italy, Austria, etc. About 10 thousand immigrants currently live in Russia, this is one of the smallest representations.

United Arab Emirates

The UAE is a well-known, influential and successful Arab state. This is a country in the Middle East, which is divided, in turn, into 7 emirates. The UAE is one of the most modern, advanced and wealthy countries in the world and is considered a leading oil exporter. It is thanks to this natural reserve that the Emirates are developing so quickly. Only in the 1970s, the country gained independence, and in such a short time it reached great heights. The most famous cities in the UAE are Abu Dhabi, the capital of the country, and Dubai.

Dubai Tourism

Now the United Arab Emirates attracts tourists from all over the world, but, of course, the center of attraction is Dubai.

This city has everything: any vacationer will be able to satisfy their desires, even lovers of skiing will find a place here. The best beaches, shops and entertainment centers. The most famous object not only in Dubai, but throughout the UAE, is the Burj Khalifa. It is the tallest building in the world, reaching 830 meters in height. Inside this massive structure are retail space, offices, apartments, hotels and much more.

The largest water park in the world is also in Dubai. Thousands of different specimens of animals and fish live here. Entering the aquarium, you plunge into the world of a fairy tale, you feel like an inhabitant of the marine world.

In this city, everything is always the largest and largest. The largest and most beautiful artificial archipelago "Mir" is located here. The outlines of the island copy the contours of our planet. The view from the top is magnificent, so it's worth taking a helicopter tour.

Thus, the Arab world is a fascinating history, culture and modern way of life. Everyone should get acquainted with the peculiarities of this people, go to the states where the Arabs live, for recreation and entertainment, because this is an amazing and unique phenomenon on planet Earth.

The Arab classical anthroponymic model, which finally took shape in the late Middle Ages, became the basis for further development personal name systems in all Arab countries. At the same time, the spread of Islam and, at the same time, the Arab-Muslim personal name led to fundamental changes in the anthroponymic systems of many peoples of Asia and Africa. Without taking into account the influence of Arabic AM, it is unthinkable to study the systems of personal names of these peoples.

During his life, an Arab could have several names. The first name was given in infancy (at birth or circumcision), the name of the father was added to it; then he could receive a title corresponding to his social position, or nicknames that reflect his personal qualities or describe his appearance. He could be named after the name of the country (locality) where he was born or where he came from. The name of the religious sect to which he belonged could also be part of his name, as well as the name of the profession, position, title of dignitary, etc. If a person was known as a writer, then he could also have a pseudonym. In relation to one person, these names, nicknames, titles have never been used all together. Their numerous and changing combinations reflect only those names by which the person was known to his contemporaries and which have survived to this day. It is clear that the names built according to the most complete AM are found among rulers, nobility, scientists, writers, historical figures. The names of ordinary people that have come down to us often consist of one or two elements.

All types of names are usually denoted Arabic terms. Their number varies from four to eight among different researchers, depending on the subdivisions of nicknames and titles.

1. Alam (Ismalam)- the primary and integral component of the Arabic AM, a personal name in the narrow sense of the word. It was given to a child at birth or (to boys) at circumcision and was usually consumed among relatives and acquaintances. Alam could be simple, consisting of one element (Assad, Zaid, Muhammad, Ibrahim, Hassan), or complex, consisting of two elements. These are usually theophoric names with elements abd slave + Allah (or one of his 99 epithets). Epithets are often used ar-Rahman"merciful" and al-Rahim merciful. Other types of names with elements are sometimes used as alam abu, umm, ibn, -ad-din, -Allah and etc.

2. Cunha— (a) a tectonym derived from alam, which necessarily includes the elements abu father or umm mother, denoting the name after the son; for example, caliph Ali in addition to his numerous names, he also bore the names of his sons: Abu-l-Hasan And Abu-l-Hussein, i.e. father Hassan and father Hussain;(b) a special kind of nickname, used metaphorically and denoting the personal qualities of its bearer. In this case, the elements abu or umm are not translated as "father" and "mother", but are understood as "possessor" and in combination with common lexicon acquire their special anthroponymic meaning. A similar way of forming names was very popular among the Arabs: Abu Mashar owner of society (i.e. "sociable"), Abu l-Khair possessor of goodness (i.e. "good"), Abu-l-Farah possessor of joy (i.e. "joyful"). Similar nicknames could also be used in an ironic sense, for example Abu Hurairah the owner of a kitten (i.e. "cat owner").

Sometimes at birth both alam and kunya were given at once. In this case, the kunya expressed the desire that a son be born to a person with this name.

Kunya in some cases could be derived from a personal name (alam). Multiple names (Abu Bakr, Umm Kulthum) from the category of kunya they moved to the category of alam, retaining the element abu/umm.

The names of the kunya type sometimes include names of the father, brother, grandfather. However, based on the syntactic difference between names and elements abu/umm And ibn / bandage, they should be classified as nasab.

3. Nasab— a teknonym derived from alam, with the element ibn/bint or ibna son / daughter, denoting the name of the father, grandfather, great-grandfather, etc. in the genealogical series: A, son B, son C, son D, son D, etc. Attempts to trace one's ancestry sometimes led to excessive the length of the nasab name chain. So, the author of the well-known dictionary Ibn Khallikan had 12 nasab names: Abu-l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abu Bakr ibn Khallikan ibn Bawak ibn Shakal ibn al-Hussain ibn Malik ibn Jafar ibn Yahya ibn Khalid ibn Barmak nicknamed Shamsu-d-Din. The purpose of such a genealogical chain is to trace your origin from the famous surname Barmakids. In practice, the use of names like nasab rarely went beyond the name of the grandfather, i.e. A, son of B, son of C.

4. Lakab- additional name, nickname, nickname, honorary title, exalting epithet. This type of names is the most complex in Arabic anthroponymy both in form and in semantic composition, as well as in syntactic use. Lakab-type names always carry a certain semantic load, often of a metaphorical and metonymic nature. These names are closely connected with the realities of medieval life,

with the ideas of the Arab-Muslim culture. Often the translation of a name like Lakab requires a detailed knowledge of the cultural and historical background. It should also be borne in mind that such names, as a rule, were given to a person after his death. Representatives of different social strata were characterized by different groups of names Lakab. For example, among rulers, military leaders, state dignitaries, titles with elements -din, -davla, -amir, al-muminin, -mulk, -islam, -milla. Lakab in the narrow sense of the nickname is known in all historical periods and in all social groups. Often this is a contemptuous nickname (distinguished by the term nabaz or storehouse); it may reflect some bodily defect or negative character trait (Tawil long, al-Kazzab"liar", etc.).

Sometimes naming by occupation or position is denoted by a special term mansab(For example, al-Hagib, an-Nahhas, ar-Rawiya), which, in our opinion, is a special case of names like lacab.

Honorary titles are sometimes combined by the term hitab. Usually these are names like lacab with the element ad-din (Nur-ad-Din, Shamsu-d-Din).

Many names of Lakab caliphs and emirs eventually passed into the category of alam and began to be used in all social groups, for example: al-Rashid, Rida, Zaki, Taki and formed by the type of marten Abu-l-Fath, Abu-Nasr, Abu-l-Fadl.

Close to names like lakab are the pseudonyms of poets and writers, united by the term tahallus(or mahlas). The names tahallus may have some connection with the personal qualities of the bearer, with the nature and style of his works, with the names of patrons, with the name of the place of residence, etc. Thus, the poet al-Bais was named after a verse that begins with a word of the same root, al-Mutanabbi by the nature of his political activity.

5. Nisba- a name denoting the ethnic, religious, political, social affiliation of a person, the place of his birth or residence, etc. Usually nisba has a morphological indicator of a relative adjective - suffix -i: Makki, Sharani, Iamani. As a rule, nisba is a one-syllable name, even if it is formed from compound name: Abu Bakr - Bakri, Ibn al-Zubayr - Zubayri, Fakhru-d-Din - Fakhri. One person could have several nisba at the same time, for example, a name in relation to a religious sect - Shii (Shiite) and in relation to the place of residence or origin - Basri(from the city of Basra). The reasons for choosing the name nisba could be very different. So, for example, nisba Badri worn by Muslims - participants in the Battle of Badr; a slave bought for 1000 coins was named Alfie (alf thousand). Names like nisba, like other types of Arabic names, are also included in the group of names lakab, and mansab, and tahallus.

There is a traditionally established order of the AM elements: 1) kunya, 2) alam, 3) nasab, 4) lakab, or nabaz, or mansab, 5) nisba or tahallus. Sometimes the hitab comes first, and the lakab and nisba may change places. Alam and nasab are almost always present in AM, while the remaining components may vary or be absent altogether.

Female names in the bulk are much simpler than male ones in terms of the number of elements. The absence of the names lakab and nisba and the more rare use of the names kunya and nasab greatly shorten their AM. Only especially noble and famous women in history had nicknames and titles. The most common female names are those worn by the wives and daughter of the prophet Muhammad (Khadija, Hind, Fatima etc.) Theophoric names are formed with the element Amat (Amat Allah, Amat al-Wahid). Nicknames were sometimes used with the name alam (Kurratu-l-ain, Shajaru-d-durr).

In terms of composition, Arabic anthroponyms are mostly of Semitic origin. Those names that are borrowed from the related Semitic languages ​​"got used" to the actual Arabic mass of personal names. The share of borrowed names is relatively small. There are several layers of borrowed anthroponyms and their elements: 1) Greek-Latin (Sukrat, Aflatun, Iklidis and etc.); 2) Iranian (morphemic elements -an, -vaikh, names Farhad, Husruf); 3) Turkish (morphemic elements - coals, - bash, names Arslan, Fog, Urkhan). There are also a number of borrowings from Berber, Indian and other languages.

A person could be known to his contemporaries and subsequent generations under any of the listed types of names. Alam was also used as a similar name of fame. (Muhammad) and nasab (ibn Batuta), and marten (Abu Nuwas), and nisba (at-Tabari) and others. It is impossible to clearly distinguish between the types of names of the classical Arabic language: they intersect, complement each other. The same name can belong to several types, depending on whether it is considered in terms of form, or semantics, or origin, or function.

In the majority, Arabic anthroponyms carry a certain semantic load, which may differ significantly from the meanings of those appellatives from which they are formed. The semantics of proper names is the relationship between the called (the bearer of the name) and the concept that is expressed by the base word in the minds of the callers. According to the scheme of V. A. Nikonov, the main semantic types of personal names of the Arabs are as follows.

I. Descriptive names (descriptives). These are names that state the signs of a newborn, various circumstances and conditions of his birth, contain information about the parents.

This also includes names given to an already adult person for some bodily defects or other signs.

1. Names associated with kinship: al-Walid child, Wuhai"little brother" Ubay ’ little father’, Umaima"little mother".

2. Names given by individual characteristics, for physical handicaps: (a) vision - Ahwal oblique, Ahbas narrow-eyed, Ama, Darir, Kafif blind, Basir with good eyesight, Amash blind-sighted; (b) hearing - Asamm, Atrash deaf; (c) body - Kabir big, Tawil long, Adkan"dark brown, Ahdab humpback, Araj lame.

3. Circumstances of birth: (a) time - names of months lunar calendar (Rajab, Safar, Ramadan; Juma Friday, Subhi morning); (b) place - Basra, Samarkand; this includes nisba names associated with place names: at-Tantawi, Makki.

4. Case names: Shabaka net, Katran resin, tar. Probably, some names from the names of animals and plants can also be attributed here.

5. Designation by parents: names like nasab.

6. Feelings of parents in relation to the child: joy, tenderness, love - Mahbub favorite, Khubba love, Wahb And mauhab gift.

II. Names-wishes (desideratives).

1. Wishes to the child: (a) long life - Yahya"he will live" Taglib you will prevail Amr life; this group includes the names of strong and durable plants - Talha acacia; (b) wishes for happiness - Said happy, Cad happiness, Taufik success, happiness; (c) wishes of strength and courage (to boys) - Assad, Osama lion, Nimr tiger, Nasr eagle, Saqr falcon; this includes names related to the war - Dhu-l-Fikar metaphorically "sword"; (d) wishes for power, nobility - al-Amir emir, as-Sayyid sir, ar-Rais chapter; this also includes names from the category of Lakab, former exalting titles; (e) wishes of beauty, tenderness (to girls) - Varda rose, Halima meek, Hassan beautiful; this includes the names of some planets, precious stones; (f) best wishes spiritual qualities — Afif virtuous, modest, fahmy smart, Fakhri proud, Kamil perfect, al-Fadl honor, dignity.

2. Deceptive (protective) names protecting from evil spirits, evil eye: (a) names negative qualities, repulsive names, disgusting - Cabija ugly, murra bitter; here you can include names by the names of reptiles, insects - al-Khanash snake, Shabbat"tarantula", etc.; (b) for cheating - iamut“he will die.”

3. Wishes of parents to themselves: yazid he will add

III. Names-dedications (memoratives)- memorable, linking the bearer of the name with another person, deity or idea denoted in his name.

1. Totem names. It is possible that totemic names go back Kalb dog (the plural form is also used Kilab), Dib wolf.

2. Names of a Religious Character: (a) Names of a Prophet Muhammad his relatives and closest associates - al-Abbas, Fatima, Ali, Omar, Hamza and etc.; (b) biblical names, which, due to their assimilation by Islam, carry a certain religious load, – Yakub, Ibrahim, Idris, Ismail, Suleiman, Iusuf and etc.; (c) theophoric names - Abdallah slave of Allah and other names formed according to the model abd + epithets of Allah; (d) names expressing the ideas of Islam; these are names with elements -ad-Din, -Allah al-Islam, -Sunnah and etc.; (e) names associated with the Qur'an - al-Kurani, Hafiz Knowing the Quran by heart. Individual letters found in the Qur'an gave rise to names Taha And Iasin.

3. Names in honor of famous historical figures or ancestors. As such, the nicknames of imams, military leaders, famous relatives were given.

The modern anthroponymic model adopted in Egypt (ARE) is close to the Arabic classical one and includes the personal name of a person, followed by the name of his father, then the family name, for example: Kamal Muhammad Ibrahim, Hussein Kamil adDin, Muhammad Osman Jalal (Galal), Nura Ismail Hasanein, Zakiya Abd al-Aziz al-Sanu si, Mahmud Khattab al-Baguri (al-Bajuri). In this form, the name is recorded in the passport and in other official documents. Element ibn son, which in Arabic classical AM is present between the name of son and father, is omitted in modern Egyptian AM. However, in a number of cases, if necessary or desired, to honor someone (in certificate of honor, official diploma, etc.) word ibn they restore, sometimes adding the name of the grandfather and even the great-grandfather. In everyday communication, it is customary to omit the name of the father as well, thus, a person is usually referred to by a personal name and surname, for example: Mahmoud Teymur, Muhammad Teymur, Ahmad Teymur, Suhair al-Kalamawi, Ibrahim al-Muwaylihi etc.

Egyptian women don't change their last names when they get married.

In the sphere of everyday communication, especially in Egyptian villages, instead of the word ibn son usually use the word abu father 1 . The well-known Egyptian scholar, folklorist and historian, Ahmad Amin, in his Dictionary of Egyptian Customs, Traditions and Expressions, indicates the possibility of such use.

In Egypt, an individual name is often replaced by another according to some well-known association, i.e. a name borrowed from biblical Qur'anic stories or associated with historical events, for example, Ibrahima called Abu Khalil, because the Arabs have a biblical name Abraham(Arab. Ibrahim) joins the honorific Khalil Allah or al-Khalil(i.e. friend of God); Suleiman called Abu Dawud, because Suleiman- Arabic form biblical name Solomon, son David; Hassan called Abu Ali, because Hassan- son Ali, the fourth Arab caliph (who ruled in 656 - 661), etc. A similar phenomenon is also characteristic of other Arab countries.

Comparing the anthroponymy of the Arabic literary language and the spoken language of Egypt, first of all, one should point out the phonetic variants of names, the existence of which is due to differences in the sound systems of these languages ​​and the regular alternation of phonemes. Accounting for phonetic differences is extremely important, since the Arabic script (consonant writing) does not convey local features pronunciation, and when transliterating Egyptian names, such differences must be taken into account. They are as follows:

1) sound j in Egypt it is pronounced like G(lit. Jamal - eg. Gamal, lit. Majid- eg. Magid);

2) in names formed according to the type of participle of the I breed of the active voice of the feminine gender, a vowel falls out and with the second root consonant (lit. Fatima - eg. fatma, lit. Aisha- eg. Yesha);

3) in some names, especially those borrowed from the Hebrew language, in the second syllable at is replaced by And(lit. Yusuf- eg. Yusif);

4) sound To in the Egyptian dialect it is usually pronounced as a guttural explosion (lit. Farouk- eg. Faro);

5) sound l in some cases, especially in borrowings, it is pronounced as n(lit. Ismail- eg. Simain) 2 ;

6) sound m may in some cases be replaced by sound n(eg. Fatna- lit. Fatima).

Some features characterize the names of the Egyptian Copts (the Christian population of the country). In addition to names borrowed from the Old and New Testaments, among the Copts there are names associated with pharaonic and Hellenistic Egypt, or names that came from Europe. Copts have common names such as Michael, Hannah, Toma, Sesostris, Euclidos, Marie, Elizabeth, Louise, Joseph, George, Amalia, Julia, Victoria, Yvonne etc. Among the full names of Copts you can find the following: Sadiq Mikhail Antonius, Madeleine Ayyub Andreus and so on.

In the spoken language of Egypt, diminutive forms of names with an emotional connotation of caress or neglect are widely used when referring to children or when addressing adults intimately, familiarly. Abbreviations are formed in various ways:

1) repetition of one of the consonants (often the initial) of the full name with the same vowel (Lulu- reduce from Layla, Susu- reduce from Suhair, Zuzu- reduce from Mazuza);

2) repetition of one of the consonants (often the initial) of the full name with different vowels (Nani- reduce from Naval, Zuza- reduce from Zaki);

3) the use of the last two consonants of a full name, consisting of three or more consonants, with vowels at And a (Duka- reduce from Madika, Suma- reduce from Umm Coolsum, Suna- reduce from Hasan);

4) the use of any two consonants of a full name, consisting of three or more consonants, with vowels at And a (Nusa- reduce from Nafisa);

5) repetition of a closed syllable formed by combining two consonants of the full name with a vowel a, and or at between them (Tamtam- reduce from Fatma, Simsim- reduce from Sami, Sunsun- reduce from Hasan);

6) the use of models faala And faali (Hamada - reduce from Muhammad, Fatani- reduce from Fatna);

7) using the model fula (Suma- reduce from Simain);

8) using the model faula (Fattum- reduce from Fatma, Halluma- reduce from Halima, Zannuba- reduce from Zeinab, Nauma- reduce from Naima);

9) using suppletive formations (Darsh and Abu Darsh- reduce from Mustafa, Watta- reduce from Fatma).

Many proper names have multiple diminutives, for example: Nawal - Nani And Lulu, Hassan - Suna And Sunsun, Fatma - Tamtam, Fattuma, Fatani And Batta. Some pet names refer to various full names: Suna- To Hassan And Husniyya, and also to others in which there are sounds With And n, Lulu - To Leila And Naval, Zuzu - To Mazuza And Zakiya, as well as to other female names containing the sound h, or generally replaces the word favorite. Diminutive names are formed according to the general rules for the formation of words by breed.

In Egyptian families, the custom is widespread, according to which children are given names derived from the same root as the name of the father (grandfather); for example, in a famous family Teimurov Name father - Ahmad and sons were called Muhammad And Mahmoud i.e. all three names have a root hmd.

Among the names and nicknames common in Egypt, many are associated with animals and flora countries, for example: Gurab raven, Kutt cat, Far mouse, Barda rose, etc. Some of the names reflect individual details of everyday life, economic and family life, highlight ethnic characteristics, sometimes emphasize the physical shortcomings of people, etc., for example: gundi soldier, Gundiya soldier, Simsar broker, intermediary, Sitt ad-Dar lady of the house, Sitt al-Ahl Mistress of the Family, Hanim lady, Hannuma young lady, Umm al-Khair mother of goodness, al-Avar curve, al-Arag lame, Abu Sumra swarty, Haragi mighty, fertile land.

Ahmad Amin cites in his dictionary a folk story ridiculing such names and nicknames: In a village named ae Zariba(i.e. cattle corral) near the city of Bilbisa there was a chelbvek named haji Ali al-Fahl(i.e. Haji Ali the Stallion). Once he was called as a witness in court in the city of Zakazik. When the judge asked about his name and village, he replied, "Ali the Stallion of the Cattle Corral." The judge laughed. And here is how Abd ar-Rahman al-Abnudi interprets the name of the hero of his poem: Haragi in the area of ​​the city of Kena is known. Residents of many villages call them their sons. This name did not fall from the sky. The lands that wait every year for the flood [of the Nile], the lands of basin irrigation, are called in our villages khirgan, plural] haraga. This is a muddy land, powerful and fertile, which is covered with very wide and deep cracks, disappearing every year with the flood of the Nile; during the dry season they reappear. The name of this land is taken as a name for their sons, so that they enter into life as strong as their native land, able to bear fruit and bring gifts.

The names of the Egyptians were also influenced by Turkish anthroponymy. For example, Teymur(tour. timur iron), Gulfidan(Persian-tur. rozan). Under Turkish influence, double names-phrases such as Muhammad-Ali, MunirFahmi, Samir-Husni, Nasma-Lutfi 3 . It can be noted that the usual for the European system arrangement of names in directories - first the surname, then the name - when transferring Arabic double names often leads to inaccuracies. So, the name of the largest Egyptian poet Ahmad Shawki(1868 - 1932) is usually referred to in European dictionaries and encyclopedias as Shawki, Ahmad. In fact, as the anthroponymic code of al-Zirikli testifies, Ahmad Shawki is the double name of the poet. Such names in the anthroponymy of ARE are not uncommon.

The anthroponymic system of the Arabs of Algeria is characterized by a natural tendency to simplify AM, which inevitably leads to the use of one or two elements of the name and is aimed at reducing it. One of the reasons for this can be considered the influence of the French language, which was very strong in Algeria. For 130 years of colonial rule, French was the official language of Algeria. The French language played the same role after the country gained independence. The spoken Arabic language of Algeria lacks many concepts of science, technology, etc. The modern literary Arabic language, in which magazines and newspapers are published in Algeria, official speeches are made, is not a means of mass communication, since it is incomprehensible to more than half of the population. The proclamation of Arabic as the state language is of fundamental importance, it testifies to the desire of the Algerians to make their language a means of communication. In the meantime, the French language continues to serve the sphere of official business communication. In connection with the foregoing, it should be recalled about the influence of a fairly large Algerian emigration in Dakhli would stand at the end of the whole name: Muhammad ibn Ahmad ad-Dahli. In common parlance, the appeal will also sound in the French version - Monsieur Dakhli, sometimes in Arabic si Dahli, where is the polite form seyyid Mr is replaced by the North African abbreviation si. In the role of a surname, an individual name, a father's name, different elements can be used: alam, kunya, lakab (but not nisba).

The composition of names in Algeria is the usual Arabic-Muslim. But there are some differences that relate to the old Berber names common among the Berbers, for example: Hammu, Vetka, Dergal, and used in combination with Arabic names, for example: Ait Ahmad, Muhammad Hammu etc. However, the Arabs use only Arabic names. The influence of the Berber language affects the phonetic form of Arabic names, usually in the reduction of the first syllable, for example Rshid instead of Rashid, Brahim instead of Ibrahim, and sometimes the second syllable: Ashmi instead of Hashimi. Due to growth national identity along with the most common names in all Arab countries associated with Koranic plots, the names of the heroes of the struggle for independence, and first of all the name of the national hero, gained wide popularity. Abd al-Kader.

The Arabs of Iraq profess Islam of two main persuasions - Shiite and Sunni. Until recently, hostile relations persisted between adherents of these varieties of religion, and this was reflected in the anthroponymy of the Iraqis. The Shiites generally named their children after their direct descendants. Muhammad i.e. the sons of the daughter of the prophet - Fatma and caliph Ali - Hasan, Hussein, and Fatma, Ali. The names of Shiite saints, preachers, for example, are very popular among Shiites. Mahdi, Kazimi. Sometimes Shiites named their children after Sunni caliphs and prophets, for example Osman, Umar. The naming of these names is explained not by the worship of Sunni religious and statesmen, but by the fact that the child named by this name seemed to be completely alien to the Shiite community in order to deceive evil spirits hostile to this family, community, tribe.

With the establishment of Turkish domination in Iraq, which lasted about four centuries, Iraqi anthroponymy began to penetrate Turkish names. Semantically, morphologically and phonetically Turkish names, for example Sabri, Nouri, Shaker Husbak, Sidqi al-Zahavi, Rasij, Kamil Chadarchi, Fadyl al-Jamali etc., are different from Arabic. Borrowings from Turkish anthroponymy include names that include such morphemic elements as -chi (-ji), -bek (-bak), -basha. Quite often there are Arabic names in combination with a Turkish address. effendi Mr, educated person, for example: Abbas Effendi, Hamid Efendi.

Iraqi anthroponymy has been slightly influenced by Iranian and Kurdish. Common names like Shirin, Nasrin, Nargis, Sarkar, Jamshid, came from neighboring Iran and are most commonly found in Southern Iraq where there are many Persians. And the influence of Kurdish anthroponymy is stronger in the north of the country - the main area where the Iraqi Kurds live.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the intensified penetration of Europeans into the Arab countries began; in particular, Iraq became a British mandated territory in 1920, and until 1945 the British retained their influence in this country, which also affected the anthroponymy of the Iraqis, though very slightly. European names are found only among the intelligentsia and senior officials: Edmond Sabri(writer), Lorna Dzawad(artist) John, Marie, Louis Khalil etc.

Modern Iraqi anthroponymy, in addition to the listed categories of names, also includes names associated with the names of real life phenomena. Most of these names performed and continue to perform ritual and ceremonial functions, reflect the nature of national identity, maintain a close connection with the history of the people, their way of life, worldview, and traditions. The motives for choosing names are very diverse, and most often such names do not lose their original etymological meaning, that is, they originate from common lexicon.

If something in the appearance of a newborn struck his relatives, then the name of the child can be chosen by the name of the corresponding feature, property, for example: Munir light (whiteness of the skin), Shukriya blonde, blonde, Jamila, Jamal beautiful, beautiful. But children were born not only with an unusual given people hair and skin color, endowed not only with positive physical qualities, but also with physical defects, congenital diseases, for example, Ahwal cross-eyed, Araj lame. Many names reflected the time of birth, the circumstances that accompanied the birth of the baby, for example: Ramadan, Safar, Rajab- months of the Arabic lunar calendar, Mutar"born in the rain" Juma Friday (holiday for Muslims), layla night, Shihab comet.

Often found in the names of animals that had Iraqis, especially young animals: Jahshun donkey, Sahloun“lamb”, Acad lion, Ziyab wolf. A large group consists of names associated with the profession, for example: Nakkash house dyer, Hadad blacksmith, Samak fisherman, fishmonger, Sabbagh dyer, Hakim healer, Jaridi newspaper salesman.

There are cases when a person, due to many circumstances, lost his original name given at birth, and acquired a nickname. So, for a pregnant woman abandoned by her husband, the name Hajjar abandoned or Mazlum offended. Nicknames include such names as Nadeem drinker, Sameer interlocutor (night), swarthy, Madlul mind, Kanbar work 4 .

The 1958 revolution in Iraq brought new names associated with it: Saura revolution, Fatika liberation, Kefah fight, Fusion(female name) and Faiz(male name) victory. They entered the Iraqi names as full members of their anthroponymy.

Development of Soviet-Iraqi relations

Ow, pl. arabes pl. 1. The people of the Semitic ethno-linguistic group. BAS 2. We took the science of rhyming from the Arapov. East rum. 69. I decided to call myself not a European, but a Baghdad Arab. Pant. in. sl. 2 255. This respect is not only for women ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

Modern Encyclopedia

- (self-name al Arab) a group of peoples (Algerians, Egyptians, Moroccans, etc.), the main population of the Arab countries Zap. Asia and North. Africa. The total number of St. 199 million people (1992). Arabic language. Most Muslims... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

ARABS, Arabs, unit. arab, arab, male The people of Arabia. Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

ARAB, ov, units arab, a, husband. The peoples inhabiting Western Asia and North Africa, the Crimea includes Algerians, Egyptians, Yemenis, Lebanese, Syrians, Palestinians, etc. | female arab, i. | adj. Arabic, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Arabs- (self-name al Arab) a group of peoples with a total number of 199,000 thousand people. Settlement regions: Africa 125200 thousand people, Asia 70000 thousand people, Europe 2500 thousand people, America 1200 thousand people, Australia and Oceania 100 thousand people. Main countries ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Ov; pl. An extensive group of peoples inhabiting the countries of Southwest Asia in the Persian Gulf and North Africa; representatives of these peoples. ◁ Arab, a; m. Arabka, and; pl. genus. side, dat. bcam; and. * * * Arabs (self-name al Arab), a group ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Arabs Ethnopsychological dictionary

ARAB- representatives of twenty-two states of the Near and Middle East, having common ethnic roots and similar psychology. Arabs are cheerful, cheerful and cheerful people, distinguished by observation, ingenuity, friendliness. However… Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Arabs- Africa (self-name al Arab), a group of peoples. They make up the majority of the population of Egypt (Egyptian Arabs), Sudan (Sudanese Arabs), Libya (Libyan Arabs), Tunisia (Tunisian Arabs), Algeria (Algerian Arabs), Morocco (Moroccan Arabs) ... Encyclopedic reference book "Africa"

Books

• Arabs, . Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1897 edition (publishing house ʻpublishing the Bookstore of P.V. Lukovnikov`). IN…
• Arabs, . This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1897 edition (publishing house "Edition of the Book ...

The Arabs call Arabia their homeland - Jazirat al-Arab, that is, the “Island of the Arabs”.

Indeed, from the west, the Arabian Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, from the south - by the Gulf of Aden, from the east - by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The rugged Syrian Desert stretches to the north. Naturally, with such a geographical position, the ancient Arabs felt isolated, that is, "living on an island."

Speaking about the origin of the Arabs, they usually single out historical and ethnographic areas that have their own characteristics. The allocation of these areas is based on the specifics of socio-economic, cultural and ethnic development. The Arabian historical and ethnographic region is considered to be the cradle of the Arab world, the borders of which by no means coincide with the modern states of the Arabian Peninsula. This includes, for example, the eastern regions of Syria and Jordan. The second historical and ethnographic zone (or region) includes the rest of Syria, Jordan, as well as Lebanon and Palestine. Iraq is considered a separate historical and ethnographic zone. Egypt, Northern Sudan and Libya are united into one zone. And finally, the Maghrebino-Mauritanian zone, which includes the countries of the Maghreb - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, as well as Mauritania and Western Sahara. This division is by no means universally recognized, since the border regions, as a rule, have features characteristic of both neighboring zones.

Economic activity

The agricultural culture of Arabia developed quite early, although only some parts of the peninsula were suitable for land use. These are, first of all, those territories on which the state of Yemen is now located, as well as some parts of the coast and oases. St. Petersburg orientalist O. Bolshakov believes that "in terms of the intensity of agriculture, Yemen can be put on a par with such ancient civilizations as Mesopotamia and Egypt." The physical and geographical conditions of Arabia predetermined the division of the population into two groups - settled farmers and nomadic pastoralists. There was no clear division of the inhabitants of Arabia into settled and nomads, because there were various types of mixed economy, relations between which were maintained not only through the exchange of goods, but also through family ties.

In the last quarter of the II millennium BC. the cattle breeders of the Syrian desert had a domesticated dromedary camel (dromedary). The number of camels was still small, but this already allowed part of the tribes to move on to a truly nomadic way of life. This circumstance forced pastoralists to lead a more mobile lifestyle and carry out many kilometers of transitions to remote areas, for example, from Syria to Mesopotamia, directly through the desert.

First state formations

On the territory of modern Yemen, several states arose, which in the 4th century AD. were united by one of them - the Himyarite kingdom. The South Arabian society of antiquity is characterized by the same features that are inherent in other societies of the Ancient East: a slave-owning system was born here, on which the wealth of the ruling class was based. The state carried out the construction and repair of large irrigation systems, without which it was impossible to develop agriculture. The population of cities was mainly represented by artisans who skillfully made high-quality products, including agricultural implements, weapons, household utensils, leather products, fabrics, decorations from sea shells. Gold was mined in Yemen, and fragrant resins were also collected, including frankincense, myrrh. Later, the interest of Christians in this product constantly stimulated transit trade, due to which the interchange of goods between the Arabian Arabs and the population of the Christian regions of the Middle East expanded.

With the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom at the end of the 6th century by Sasanian Iran, horses appeared in Arabia. It was during this period that the state fell into decline, which affected primarily the urban population.

As for the nomads, such collisions affected them to a lesser extent. The life of the nomads was determined by the tribal structure, where there were dominant and subordinate tribes. Within the tribe, relations were regulated depending on the degree of kinship. The material existence of the tribe depended solely on the harvest in the oases, where there were cultivated plots of land and wells, as well as on the offspring of the herds. The main factor influencing the patriarchal life of the nomads, in addition to the attacks of unfriendly tribes, were natural disasters - drought, epidemics and earthquakes, which are mentioned by Arab legends.

The nomads of central and northern Arabia have long been raising sheep, cattle, and camels. Characteristically, the nomadic world of Arabia was surrounded by economically more developed regions, so there is no need to talk about the cultural isolation of Arabia. In particular, this is evidenced by the excavation data. For example, in the construction of dams and reservoirs, the inhabitants of southern Arabia used cement mortar, which was invented in Syria around 1200 BC. The presence of links that existed between the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast and southern Arabia as early as the 10th century BC confirms the story of the trip of the ruler of Saba (“Queen of Sheba”) to King Solomon.

Advance of Semites from Arabia

Approximately at III millennium BC. Arabian Semites began to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. began an intensive movement of Arabs outside the "Jazirat al-Arab". However, those Arabian tribes that appeared in Mesopotamia in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC were soon assimilated by the Akkadians living there. Later, in the XIII century BC, a new advancement of the Semitic tribes began, who spoke Aramaic dialects. Already in the 7th-6th centuries BC. Aramaic becomes the spoken language of Syria, replacing Akkadian.

ancient Arabians

By the beginning of the new era, significant masses of Arabs moved to Mesopotamia, settled in southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula. Some tribes even managed to create state formations. So, the Nabataeans founded their kingdom on the border of Arabia and Palestine, which lasted until the 2nd century AD. Along the lower reaches of the Euphrates, the Lakhmid state arose, but its rulers were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Persian Sassanids. The Arabs who settled in Syria, Transjordan and southern Palestine united in the 6th century under the rule of representatives of the Ghassanid tribe. They also had to recognize themselves as vassals of the stronger Byzantium. It is characteristic that both the Lakhmid state (in 602) and the Ghassanid state (in 582) were destroyed by their own overlords, who feared the strengthening and growing independence of their vassals. Nevertheless, the presence of Arab tribes in the Syrian-Palestinian region was a factor that subsequently contributed to softening the new, more massive invasion of the Arabs. Then they began to penetrate into Egypt. Thus, the city of Koptos in Upper Egypt, even before the Muslim conquest, was half inhabited by Arabs.

Naturally, the newcomers quickly joined the local customs. Caravan trade allowed them to maintain ties with kindred tribes and clans within the Arabian Peninsula, which gradually contributed to the convergence of urban and nomadic cultures.

Prerequisites for the unification of the Arabs

In the tribes living near the borders of Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations developed faster than among the population of the interior regions of Arabia. IN V-VII centuries underdevelopment was observed internal organization tribes, which, in combination with the remnants of the maternal account and polyandry, testified that, due to the specifics of the nomadic economy, the decomposition of the tribal system in Central and Northern Arabia developed more slowly than in neighboring regions of Western Asia.

Periodically, kindred tribes united in unions. Sometimes there was a fragmentation of tribes or their absorption by strong tribes. Over time, it became obvious that large formations are more viable. It was in tribal unions or confederations of tribes that the preconditions for the emergence of a class society began to take shape. The process of its formation was accompanied by the creation of primitive state formations. As early as the 2nd-6th centuries, large tribal unions began to take shape (Mazhidj, Kinda, Maad, etc.), but none of them could become the core of a single pan-Arab state. The prerequisite for the political unification of Arabia was the desire of the tribal elite to secure the right to land, livestock and income from caravan trade. An additional factor was the need to join forces to resist external expansion. As we have already pointed out, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, the Persians captured Yemen and liquidated the Lakhmid state, which was in vassal dependence. As a result, in the south and north, Arabia was under the threat of absorption by the Persian state. Naturally, the situation had a negative impact on Arabian trade. The merchants of a number of Arabian cities suffered significant material damage. The only way out of this situation could be the unification of kindred tribes.

The Hejaz region, located in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, became the center of the unification of the Arabs. This area has long been famous for its relatively developed agriculture, handicrafts, but most importantly - trade. The local cities - Mecca, Yasrib (later Medina), Taif - had strong contacts with the surrounding tribes of nomads who visited them, exchanging their goods for the products of urban artisans.

However, the religious situation prevented the unification of the Arabian tribes. The ancient Arabs were pagans. Each tribe revered its patron god, although some of them can be considered pan-Arab - Allah, al-Uzza, al-Lat. Even in the first centuries in Arabia it was known about Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, in Yemen, these two religions have practically supplanted pagan cults. On the eve of the Persian conquest, Yemenite-Jews fought with Yemenite-Christians, while the Jews focused on Sasanian Persia (which subsequently facilitated the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom by the Persians), and Christians - on Byzantium. Under these conditions, its own form of Arabian monotheism arose, which (especially at an early stage) to a large extent, but in a peculiar way, reflected some of the postulates of Judaism and Christianity. Its adherents - hanifs - became carriers of the idea of ​​a single god. In turn, this form of monotheism set the stage for the emergence of Islam.

The religious beliefs of the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period are a conglomeration of various beliefs, among which were female and male deities, the veneration of stones, springs, trees, various spirits, genies and shaitans, who were intermediaries between people and gods, was also widespread. Naturally, the absence of clear dogmatic ideas opened up wide opportunities for the ideas of more developed religions to penetrate into this amorphous worldview and contributed to religious and philosophical reflections.

By that time, writing began to become more and more widespread, which subsequently played a huge role in the formation of medieval Arab culture, and at the stage of the birth of Islam contributed to the accumulation and transmission of information. The need for this was colossal, as evidenced by the practice of oral memorization and reproduction of ancient genealogies, historical chronicles, poetic narratives, common among the Arabs.

As noted by the St. Petersburg scholar A. Khalidov, "most likely, the language was formed as a result of a long development based on the selection of different dialectal forms and their artistic comprehension" . In the end, it was the use of the same language of poetry that became one of the most important factors that contributed to the formation of the Arab community. Naturally, the process of mastering the Arabic language did not occur at the same time. This process took place most rapidly in those areas where the inhabitants spoke the related languages ​​of the Semitic group. In other areas, this process took several centuries, but a number of peoples, once under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, managed to maintain their linguistic independence.

Arab caliphs

Abu Bakr and Omar

Omar Ibn Khattab

Caliph Ali

Harun ar Rashid

Abd ar Rahman I

Arab Caliphate

The Arab caliphate is a theocratic state headed by a caliph. The core of the Caliphate arose on the Arabian Peninsula after the advent of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. It was formed as a result of military campaigns in the middle of the 7th - beginning of the 9th century. and the conquest (with subsequent Islamization) of the peoples of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Southwestern Europe.

Abbasids, the second great dynasty of Arab caliphs

Caliphate conquests

Trade in the Caliphate

Arabic dirhams

• In c.6 c. Arabia lost a number of territories - trade was disrupted.

• Unification became necessary.

• The unification of the Arabs was helped by the new religion of Islam.

• Its founder, Mohammed, was born around 570 in a poor family. He married his former mistress and became a merchant.

Islam

The science

Arab army

applied arts

Bedouins

Bedouin tribes: At the head - the leader The custom of blood feuds Military clashes over pastures At the end of the VI century. - Arab trade disrupted.

The conquests of the Arabs - VII - n. 8th century A huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the capital of Damascus.

The heyday of the Baghdad caliphate - the years of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809).

In 732, as the chroniclers testified, the 400,000-strong army of the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Later studies lead to the conclusion that the Arabs could have from 30 to 50 thousand warriors.

Not without the help of the Aquitaine and Burgundian nobility, who opposed the process of centralization in the kingdom of the Franks, the Arab army of Abd el-Rahman moved across Western Gaul, reached the center of Aquitaine, occupied Poitiers and headed for Tours. Here, on the old Roman road, at the crossing of the Vienne River, the Arabs were met by a 30,000-strong army of Franks, led by the mayor of the Carolingian family Pepin Karl, who had been the de facto ruler of the Frankish state since 715.

Even at the beginning of his reign, the Frankish state consisted of three long-separated parts: Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy. Royal power was purely nominal. This was not slow to take advantage of the enemies of the Franks. The Saxons invaded the Rhine regions, the Avars invaded Bavaria, and the Arab conquerors moved across the Pyrenees to the Laura River.

Karl had to pave his way to power with weapons in his hands. After the death of his father in 714, he was thrown into prison along with his stepmother Plektruda, from where he was able to escape the following year. By that time, he was already a fairly well-known military leader of the Franks of Austrasia, where he was popular among free peasants and medium landowners. They became his main support in the internecine struggle for power in the Frankish state.

Having established himself in Austrasia, Karl Pepin began to strengthen his position on the lands of the Franks by force of arms and diplomacy. After a bitter confrontation with his opponents, in 715 he became the major of the Frankish state and ruled it on behalf of the infant king Theodoric IV. Having established himself at the royal throne, Charles began a series of military campaigns outside of Austrasia.

Charles, having gained the upper hand in battles over the feudal lords who tried to challenge his supreme power, in 719 won a brilliant victory over the Neustrians, led by one of his opponents, Major Ragenfrid, whose ally was the ruler of Aquitaine, Count Ed. At the Battle of Sausson, the Frankish ruler put the enemy army to flight. Having extradited Ragenfried, Count Ed managed to conclude a temporary peace with Charles. Soon the Franks occupied the cities of Paris and Orleans.

Then Karl remembered his sworn enemy - his stepmother Plectrude, who had her own large army. Starting a war with her, Karl forced his stepmother to surrender to him the rich and well-fortified city of Cologne on the banks of the Rhine.

In 725 and 728, Major Karl Pepin made two large military campaigns against the Bavarians and eventually subjugated them. This was followed by campaigns in Alemannia and Aquitaine, in Thuringia and Frisia ...

The basis of the combat power of the Frankish army until the battle of Poitiers was the infantry, which consisted of free peasants. At that time, all the men of the kingdom who were able to bear arms were liable for military service.

Organizationally, the Frankish army was divided into hundreds, or, in other words, into such a number of peasant households that in wartime could field one hundred foot soldiers in the militia. Peasant communities themselves regulated military service. Each Frankish warrior was armed and equipped at his own expense. The quality of weapons was checked at the reviews, which were conducted by the king or, on his behalf, military leaders-counts. If the warrior's weapon was in an unsatisfactory condition, then he was punished. There is a known case when the king killed a warrior during one of these reviews for the poor maintenance of personal weapons.

The national weapon of the Franks was the "francisca" - an ax with one or two blades, to which a rope was tied. The Franks deftly threw axes at the enemy at close range. For close hand-to-hand combat, they used swords. In addition to Francis and swords, the Franks were also armed with short spears - angons with teeth on a long and sharp tip. The teeth of the angon had the opposite direction and therefore it was very difficult to remove it from the wound. In battle, the warrior first threw angon, which pierced the enemy's shield, and then stepped on the shaft of the spear, thereby pulling back the shield and hitting the enemy with a heavy sword. Many warriors had bows and arrows, which were sometimes saturated with poison.

The only defensive armament of the Frankish warrior in the time of Karl Pepin was a shield of a round or oval shape. Only rich warriors had helmets and chain mail, since metal products cost big money. Part of the armament of the Frankish army was military booty.

In European history, the Frankish commander Karl Pepin became famous primarily for his successful wars against the Arab conquerors, for which he received the nickname "Martell", which means "hammer".

In 720, the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded what is now France. The Arab army took the well-fortified Narbonne by storm and laid siege to the large city of Toulouse. Count Ed was defeated, and he had to seek refuge in Austrasia with the remnants of his army.

Very soon, the Arab cavalry appeared on the fields of Septimania and Burgundy and even reached the left bank of the Rhone River, entering the lands of the Franks. So on the fields of Western Europe, for the first time, a major clash matured between the Muslim and christianity. The Arab commanders, having crossed the Pyrenees, had big conquest plans in Europe.

We must pay tribute to Karl - he immediately understood the danger of the Arab invasion. After all, the Moorish Arabs by that time had managed to conquer almost all the Spanish regions. Their troops were constantly replenished with new forces that came through the Strait of Gibraltar from the Maghreb - North Africa, from the territory of modern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Arab commanders were famous for their martial arts, and their warriors were excellent riders and archers. The Arab army was partially staffed by North African Berber nomads, for which in Spain the Arabs were called Moors.

Karl Pepin, having interrupted the military campaign in the upper reaches of the Danube, in 732 gathered a large militia of Austrasians, Neustrians and Rhine tribes. By that time, the Arabs had already plundered the city of Bordeaux, captured the fortress city of Poitiers and moved towards Tours.

The Frankish commander resolutely moved towards the Arab army, trying to prevent its appearance in front of the fortress walls of Tours. He already knew that the Arabs were commanded by the experienced Abd el-Rahman and that his army was much superior to the militia of the Franks, which, according to the same European chroniclers, numbered only 30 thousand soldiers.

At the point where the old Roman road crossed the river Vienne, across which a bridge had been built, the Franks and their allies barred the Arab army from reaching Tours. Nearby was the city of Poitiers, after which the battle was named, which took place on October 4, 732 and lasted several days: according to Arabic chronicles - two, according to Christian ones - seven days.

Knowing that the enemy army was dominated by light cavalry and many archers, Major Karl Pepin decided to give the Arabs, who adhered to active offensive tactics on the fields of Europe, a defensive battle. Moreover, the hilly terrain made it difficult for large masses of cavalry to operate. The Frankish army was built for the battle between the rivers Clen and Vienne, which, with their banks, well covered his flanks. The basis of the battle formation was the infantry, built in a dense phalanx. The cavalry, heavily armed in a knightly manner, was stationed on the flanks. The right flank was commanded by Count Ed.

Usually, the Franks lined up for battle in dense battle formations, a kind of phalanx, but without proper support for the flanks and rear, trying to solve everything with one blow, a general breakthrough or a swift attack. They, like the Arabs, had a well-developed mutual assistance based on family ties.

Approaching the river Vienne, the Arab army, not immediately getting involved in the battle, spread their camp not far from the Franks. Abd el-Rahman immediately realized that the enemy was in a very strong position and it was impossible to cover him with light cavalry from the flanks. The Arabs did not dare to attack the enemy for several days, waiting for an opportunity to strike. Karl Pepin did not move, patiently waiting for an enemy attack.

In the end, the Arab leader decided to start the battle and built his army in a fighting, dissected order. It consisted of battle lines familiar to the Arabs: horse archers composed the "Morning of the Barking Dog", then came the "Day of Help", "Evening of Shock", "Al-Ansari" and "Al-Mugadzheri". The reserve of the Arabs, intended for the development of victory, was under the personal command of Abd el-Rahman and was called the "Banner of the Prophet."

The battle of Poitiers began with the shelling of the Frankish phalanx by Arab horse archers, to which the enemy responded with crossbows and longbows. After that, the Arab cavalry attacked the positions of the Franks. The Frankish infantry successfully repulsed attack after attack, the enemy's light cavalry could not break through their dense formation.

A Spanish chronicler contemporary with the Battle of Poitiers wrote that the Franks "stood close together, as far as the eye could see, like an immovable and icy wall, and fought fiercely, hitting the Arabs with swords."

After the Frankish infantry repulsed all the attacks of the Arabs, which, line by line, rolled back to their original positions in some disorder, Karl Pepin immediately ordered the knightly cavalry, which was still inactive, to launch a counterattack in the direction of the enemy camp located behind the right flank of the combat formation of the Arab army .

Meanwhile, the Frankish knights, led by Ed of Aquitaine, launched two ramming attacks from the flanks, overturning the light cavalry that opposed them, rushed to the Arab camp and captured it. The Arabs, demoralized by the news of the death of their leader, could not hold back the onslaught of the enemy and fled from the battlefield. The Franks pursued them and inflicted considerable damage. This ended the battle near Poitiers.

This battle had extremely important consequences. The victory of Majordom Karl Pepin put an end to the further advancement of the Arabs in Europe. After the defeat at Poitiers, the Arab army, hiding behind detachments of light cavalry, left French territory and, without further combat losses, went through the mountains to Spain.

But before the Arabs finally left the south of modern France, Karl Pepin inflicted another defeat on the Berre River south of the city of Narbonne. True, this battle was not among the decisive ones.

The victory over the Arabs glorified the commander of the Franks. Since then, they began to call him Karl Martell (i.e., war hammer).

Usually little is said about this, but the battle of Poitiers is also known for being one of the first battles when numerous heavy knightly cavalry entered the battlefield. It was she who, with her blow, provided the Franks with a complete victory over the Arabs. Now not only riders, but also horses were covered with metal armor.

After the battle of Poitiers, Charles Martel won several more great victories, conquering Burgundy and regions in southern France, up to Marseilles.

Charles Martell significantly strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. However, he stood only at the origins of the true historical greatness of the state of the Franks, which will be created by his grandson Charlemagne, who reached the highest power and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

Arab army

Hamdanid army X - XI centuries.

Late Fatimid army (11th century)

Ghaznavid army (late 10th - early 11th centuries): Ghaznavid palace guard. Karakhanid equestrian warrior in full dress. Indian mounted mercenary.

ancient arabia

City of Petra

The cistern of the Genies in Petra, with a hole at the bottom

Monument of the Serpent in Petra

Obelisk (top) next to the altar (bottom), Petra

Nabataean sundial from Hegra (Museum of the Ancient East, Archaeological Museum of Istanbul

Literature during the Caliphate

Thousand and One Nights

Islamic script

Applied art of the Arabs

Bronze candlestick with silver inlay. 1238. Master Daoud ibn Salam from Mosul. Museum of Decorative Arts. Paris.

Glass vessel with enamel painting. Syria. 1300. British museum. London.

Dish with luster painting. Egypt. 11th c. Museum of Islamic Art. Cairo.

Sculptural ceiling in the Khirbet al-Mafjar castle. 8th c. jordan

Jug with the name of Caliph al-Aziz Billah. Rhinestone. 10th c. Treasury of San Marco. Venice.

Arabic architecture

Architecture at Almoravids and Almohads

The Almohad tower and the Renaissance style bell section merge into one harmonious whole at La Giralda Campanile, Seville

Almoravides invaded al-Andalus from North Africa in 1086 and united the taifas under their rule. They developed their own architecture, but very few examples of it survived, due to the next invasion, by the now Almohads, who imposed Islamic ultra-orthodoxy and destroyed almost every significant Almoravid building, including Madina al-Zahra and other caliphate structures. Their art was extremely austere and simple, and they used brick as their main building material. In a literal sense, their only external decoration, the "sebka", is based on a grid of rhombuses. The Almohads also used palm-pattern ornaments, but these were little more than a simplification of the much more luxuriant Almoravid palms. As time went on, the art became a little more decorative. The most famous example of Almohad architecture is the Giralda, the former minaret of the mosque of Seville. Considered a Mudejar style, but this style is absorbed into the Almohad aesthetic here, the Santa Maria la Blanca synagogue in Toledo is a rare example of the architectural collaboration of the three cultures of medieval Spain.

Umayyad dynasty

dome of the rock

Umayyad Grand Mosque, Syria, Damascus (705-712)

Mosque Tunisia XIII century.

Arab invasion of Byzantium

Arab-Byzantine wars

the entire period of the Arab-Byzantine wars can be divided (roughly) into 3 parts:
I. Weakening of Byzantium, offensive of the Arabs (634-717)
II. Period of relative calm (718 - middle of the 9th century)
III. Counteroffensive of Byzantium (late 9th century - 1069)

Main events:

634-639 - Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine with Jerusalem;
639-642 - campaign of Amr ibn al-As to Egypt. The Arabs conquered this populous and fertile country;
647-648 - Construction of the Arab fleet. Capture of Tripolitania and Cyprus by the Arabs;
684-678 - First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. Ended unsuccessfully;
698 - the capture of the African Exarchate (belonging to Byzantium) by the Arabs;
717-718 - Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. It ended unsuccessfully. Arab expansion in Asia Minor was halted;
IX-X centuries - Arabs capture the southern Italian territories of Byzantium (the island of Sicily);
X century - Byzantium goes on a counteroffensive and conquers part of Syria from the Arabs, and in particular such an important outpost as Antioch. The Byzantine army at that time even put Jerusalem in immediate danger. The Arab Sultanate of Aleppo recognized itself as a Byzantine vassal. At that time, Crete and Cyprus were also reconquered.

Rise of the Caliphate of Baghdad under Haroun-ar-Rashid

Arabic culture

Caliphate of Baghdad

Architecture of Baghdad

In Baghdad, there was a kind of intellectual center of the Islamic Golden Age - the House of Wisdom. It included a huge library, a huge number of translators and scribes worked in it. The best scientists of their time gathered in the House. thanks to the accumulated works of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, Galen, research was carried out in the field of humanities, Islam, astronomy and mathematics, medicine and chemistry, alchemy, zoology and geography.
This greatest treasury of the best works of antiquity and modernity was destroyed in 1258. It, along with other libraries in Baghdad, was destroyed by the Mongol troops after the capture of the city. Books were thrown into the river, and the water remained colored with their ink for many months ...
Almost everyone has heard about the burned-out Library of Alexandria, but for some reason, few people remember the lost House of Wisdom...

Fortress Tower Talisman in Baghdad.

Necropolis Shakhi Zinda

The emergence of the Shakhi-Zindan memorial on the slope of the Afrasiab hill is associated with the name of Kusam ibn Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he participated in the first campaigns of the Arabs in Maverannahr. According to legend, Kusam was mortally wounded near the walls of Samarkand and took refuge underground, where he continues to live. Hence the name of the memorial Shakhi-Zindan, which means "The Living King". By the X-XI centuries. the martyr of the faith Kusam ibn Abbas acquired the status of an Islamic saint, the patron saint of Samarkand, and in the XII-XV centuries. Along the path leading to his mausoleums and funeral mosques, their exquisite beauty, as it were, denies death.

On the northern outskirts of Samarkand, on the edge of the Afrasiab hill, among the vast ancient cemetery, there are groups of mausoleums, among which the grave attributed to Kussam, the son of Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, is the most famous. According to Arabic sources, Kussam came to Samarkand in 676. According to some sources, he was killed, according to others, he died of natural causes; according to some reports, he died not even in Samarkand, but in Merv. The imaginary or real grave of Kussam under his Abbasid relatives (VIII century), perhaps not without their participation, became the object of the Muslim cult. Among the people, Kussam became known as Shah-i Zinda - "The Living King". According to legend, Kussam left the earthly world alive and continues to live in the “other world”. Hence the nickname "The Living King".

Mausoleum of Zimurrud Khatun in Baghdad

Conquest of Spain

At the end of the 7th century AD. Arabs after long wars expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. Once the land of Africa was a battlefield between Rome and Carthage, it gave the world such great generals as Jugurtha and Masinissa, and now it has passed into the hands of Muslims, albeit with difficulty. After this conquest, the Arabs set out to conquer Spain.

They were driven to this not only by the love of conquest and the dream of expanding the Islamic State. The locals of North Africa - the Berber tribes - were very brave, warlike, violent and temperamental. The Arabs feared that after some time of calm, the Berbers would set out to avenge the defeats, raise an uprising and then the Arabs would miss the victory. Therefore, the Arabs, having aroused interest among the Berbers in the conquest of Spain, wanted to distract them from this and extinguish their thirst for bloodshed and revenge by war. As Ibn Khaldun notes, it is not surprising that the Muslim army, which was the first to cross the Jabalitarik Strait and entered Spanish soil, could be said to have consisted entirely of Berbers.

From ancient history it is known that the main inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, Iberians and Ligors. The peninsula was divided into territories that once belonged to Phenicia, Carthage and Rome. After the conquest of Spain, the Carthaginians built the majestic city of Carthage here. Around 200 BC. in the Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage, took possession of these fertile lands, and up to the B century AD. dominated these lands. At this time, from Spain, which was considered the most important and flourishing place of the empire, came such great thinkers as Seneca, Lucan, Marsial and such famous emperors as Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius.

Just as the prosperity of Rome created the conditions for the progress of Spain, so the fall of this city led to the decline of Spain. The peninsula once again became the scene of battles. At the beginning of the B century, the tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, who destroyed Rome and France, also devastated Spain. However, soon the tribes of the Goths expelled them from the peninsula and took possession of Spain. From the YOU century until the attack of the Arabs, the Goths were the dominant force in Spain.

Soon the Goths mixed with the local population - the Latin peoples, and adopted the Latin language and Christianity. It is known that before the XNUMXth century, the Goths prevailed among the Christian population of Spain. When the Arabs expelled them towards the Asturian mountains, the Goths, thanks to mixing with the local population, were again able to maintain their superiority. For example, among the Christian population of Spain, it was considered pride to be a descendant of the Goths and to bear the nickname "son of the Goths."

A little earlier, before the conquest of the Arabs, the nobility of the Goths and the Latin peoples united and created an aristocratic government. This association, engaged in the oppression of the oppressed masses, has gained the hatred of the people. And it is natural that this state, built on money and wealth, could not be strong and could not adequately defend itself from the enemy.

Also, the appointment of the ruler by election led to eternal strife and enmity for power between the nobility. This enmity and wars eventually hastened the weakening of the Gothic state.

General strife, internal wars, people's dissatisfaction with the local government and for this reason a weak rebuff to the Arabs, the lack of loyalty and the spirit of self-sacrifice in the army, and other reasons ensured an easy victory for the Muslims. It even came to the point that because of the above reasons, the Andalusian ruler Julian and the Bishop of Seville were not afraid to help the Arabs.

In 711, Musa ibn Nasir, who was the governor of North Africa under the rule of the Umayyad caliph Walid ibn Abdulmelik, sent a 12,000-strong army formed from Berbers to conquer Spain. The army was led by a Berber Muslim Tarig ibn Ziyad. The Muslims crossed the Jabalut-tarig strait, which got its name from the name of this famous commander Tariq, and entered the Iberian Peninsula. The wealth of this land, its fresh air, the delightful nature and its mysterious cities so impressed the army of the conquerors that in a letter to the Caliph, Tarig wrote: “These places are similar to Syria in terms of air purity, similar to Yemen in temperate climate, similar to India in vegetation and incense, in terms of fertility and abundance of crops similar to China, in terms of accessibility of ports similar to Adena.
The Arabs, who spent half a century conquering the coastline of North Africa and met with fierce resistance from the Berbers, expected to face a similar situation when they conquered Spain. However, contrary to expectations, Spain was conquered in a short time, in just a few months. The Muslims defeated the Goths in the first battle. In this battle they were assisted by the Bishop of Seville. As a result, having broken the resistance of the Goths, the coastal zone passed into the hands of the Muslims.

Seeing the success of Tarig ibn Ziyad, Mussa ibn Nasir gathered an army consisting of 12 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Berbers and moved to Spain in order to be a partner in success.

Throughout its journey, the Muslim army can be said not to have met a single serious resistance. The people dissatisfied with the government and the nobility, torn by strife, voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and even sometimes joined them. Such major cities in Spain as Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Toledo surrendered without resistance. In the city of Toledo, which was the capital, 25 valuable crowns of Gothic rulers, decorated with various precious stones, fell into the hands of Muslims. The wife of the Gothic king Rodrigue was captured and the son of Musa ibn Nasir married her.

In the eyes of the Arabs, the Spaniards were on a par with the populations of Syria and Egypt. The laws observed in the conquered countries were also enforced here. The conquerors did not touch the property and temples of the local population, local customs and orders remained the same as before. The Spaniards were allowed to turn to their judges in contentious matters, to obey the decisions of their own courts. In return for all this, the population was obliged to pay a meager tax (jizya) for those times. The amount of tax for the nobility and the rich was set at the limit of one dinar (15 francs), and for the poor half a dinar. That is why the poor, driven to despair by the oppression of local rulers and countless dues, voluntarily surrendered to Muslims, and even by converting to Islam, were exempted from taxes. Despite the fact that in some places there were isolated cases of resistance, they were quickly suppressed.

As historians write, after the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nasir intended to reach Constantinople (present-day Istanbul; at that time Constantinople was the capital of the great Byzantine Empire), passing through France and Germany. However, the caliph called him to Damascus and the plan remained unfinished. If Moussa could carry out his intention, could conquer Europe, then at present the divided peoples would be under the flag of a single religion. Along with this, Europe would be able to avoid medieval darkness and medieval, terrible tragedies.

Everyone knows that when Europe groaned in the clutches of ignorance, fratricide, epidemics, senseless crusades, the Inquisition, Spain under the rule of the Arabs flourished, lived a comfortable life and was at the peak of its development. Spain shone in the darkness. In Spain, excellent conditions were created for the development of science and culture, and it owes this to Islam.

In order to define the role of the Arabs in the political, economic and cultural life Spain, it would be more appropriate to consider the ratio of their total number.

As mentioned above, the first Muslim army that entered the Iberian Peninsula consisted of Arabs and
Berbers. Subsequent military units consisted of representatives of the population of Syria. It is known from history that early middle ages in Spain, the leadership of science and culture belonged to the Arabs, and the Berbers were subordinate to them. The Arabs were considered the highest stratum of the population (ashraf), and the Berbers and the local population were considered a secondary and tertiary stratum of the population. Interestingly, even when the Berber dynasties were able to gain power in Spain, the Arabs managed to maintain their dominance.

As for the total number of Arabs, there is no exact data on this matter. One can only assume that after the Emirate of Cordoba separated from the Arab Emirate, the Arabs became isolated from the rest of the countries. However, due to the rapid growth and emigration from North Africa, the Berbers increased in number and gained supremacy in power.
Muslims mixed with the local Christian population of Spain. According to historians, in the very first years of the conquest of Spain, the Arabs married 30,000 Christian women and brought them into their harem (the harem in the Sibyl fortress, nicknamed the "girls' room", is a historical monument). In addition, at the beginning of the conquest, some of the nobility, in order to show their devotion to the Arabs, annually sent 100 Christian girls to the Caliph's palace. Among the women with whom the Arabs entered into marriage were girls from Latin, Iberian, Greek, Gothic and other tribes. It is clear that as a result of such mass mixing, a new generation arose in a few decades, radically different from the conquerors of the 700s.

From 711 (the date of the conquest of Spain) to 756, this area was subject to the Umayyad Caliphate. An emir appointed by the Umayyad caliph ruled over this territory. In 756, Spain seceded from the Caliphate and became independent. It became known as the Caliphate of Cordoba, whose capital was the city of Cordoba.

After 300 years had elapsed since the reign of the Arabs in Spain, their magnificent and glorious star began to fade. The strife that engulfed the Cordoba caliphate shook the power of the state. At this time, Christians living in the north took advantage of this chance and began to attack in order to take revenge.

The struggle of Christians for the return of the lands conquered by the Arabs (in Spanish: reconquista) intensified in the 10th century. In the Asturian region, where the Christians expelled from the Spanish lands concentrated, the Kingdom of Lyon and Castile arose. In the middle of the 11th century, both these kingdoms united. At the same time, the Navarrese, Catalan and Aragonese states, having united, created a new Aragonese kingdom. At the end of the 11th century, a Portuguese county arose in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. Soon this county also turned into a kingdom. Thus, at the end of the XNUMXth century, serious Christian rivals of the Caliphate of Cordoba began to appear on the Spanish map.

In 1085, as a result of a powerful attack, the northerners captured the city of Toledo. The leader of the northerners was the king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VI. The Spanish Muslims, seeing that they could not resist on their own, asked the Berbers of North Africa for help. The al-Murabit dynasty, having established itself in Tunisia and Morocco, entered Spain and tried to resurrect the Caliphate of Cordoba. Al-Murabits in 1086 defeated Alphonse VI, and were temporarily able to stop the movement of the reconquista. In just half a century, they lost to a new dynasty that entered the political arena - al-Muwahhids. Having seized power in North Africa, the al-Muwahhids attacked Spain and subjugated the Muslim regions. However, this state was unable to properly resist the Christians. Despite the fact that they decorated their palaces with such prominent personalities as Ibn Tufeil, Ibn Rushd, the al-Muwahhids became helpless before the reconquista. In 1212, near the town of Las Navas de Tolosa, the united Christian army defeated them, and the al-Muwahhid dynasty was forced to leave Spain.

The Spanish kings, who did not get along with each other, put aside the enmity, and united against the Arabs. The reconquista movement directed against the Muslims involved the combined forces of the Castilian, Aragonese, Navarre and Portuguese kingdoms. In 1236, the Muslims lost Cordoba, in 1248 Seville, in 1229-35 the Balearic Islands, in 1238 Valencia. Capturing the city of Cadiz in 1262, the Spaniards reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.

Only the Emirate of Grenada remained in the hands of the Muslims. At the end of the 13th century, Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed Muhammad al-Ghalib, who was from the Nasrid dynasty, retreated to the city of Granada, and fortified the fortress of Alhambra (al-Hamra) here. He was able to maintain his relative independence, subject to the payment of tribute to the King of Castile. In the palace of the Grenada emirs, who were able to defend their independence for two centuries, such thinkers as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib served.
In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile. The Aragonese-Castilian kingdom united all of Spain. The Grenada emirs refused to pay tribute to them. In 1492, Grenada fell to a powerful onslaught of the Spaniards. The last Muslim fort in the Iberian Peninsula was captured. And with this, all of Spain was conquered from the Arabs and the reconquista movement ended with the victory of the Christians.

The Muslims gave up Grenada on the condition that their religion, language and property be inviolable. However,
soon Ferdinand II broke his promise, and a wave of mass persecution and oppression began against the Muslims. At first they were forced to accept Christianity. Those who did not want to accept Christianity were brought to the terrible court of the Inquisition. Those who changed religion in order to escape torture soon realized that they had been deceived. The Inquisition declared the new Christians to be insincere and dubious, and began to burn them at the stake. At the instigation of the church leadership, hundreds of thousands of Muslims were killed: old people, young people, women, men. A monk of the Dominican order Belida offered to destroy all Muslims, young and old. He said that one should not show mercy even to those who converted to Christianity, because their sincerity is in question: “If we do not know what is in their hearts, then we must kill them so that the Lord God will draw them to his own judgment” . The priests liked the proposal of this monk, but the Spanish government, fearing the Muslim states, did not approve this proposal.

In 1610, the Spanish government demanded that all Muslims leave the country. The Arabs, who remained in a hopeless situation, began to move. Within a few months, more than a million Muslims left Spain. From 1492 to 1610, as a result of massacres directed against Muslims and their emigration, the population of Spain decreased to three million people. Worst of all, Muslims leaving the country were attacked by local residents, as a result of which many Muslims were killed. The monk Belida happily reported that three-quarters of the Muslims who migrated died on the way. The mentioned monk himself personally participated in the murder of one hundred thousand people who were part of the 140 thousandth caravan of Muslims heading towards Africa. Truly, the bloody crimes committed in Spain against the Muslims leave the night of St. Bartholomew in the shade.

The Arabs, having entered Spain, which was very far from culture, raised it to the highest point of civilization, and ruled here for eight centuries. With the departure of the Arabs, Spain underwent a terrible decline and for a long time could not eliminate this decline. Having expelled the Arabs, Spain lost highly developed agriculture, trade and art, science and literature, as well as three million people of science and culture. Once the population of Cordoba was one million people, and now only 300 thousand people live here. Under Muslim rule, the population of the city of Toledo was 200 thousand people, and now less than 50 thousand people live here. Thus, it is safe to say that despite the fact that the Spaniards defeated the Arabs in the war, abandoning the great Islamic civilization, they plunged themselves into the abyss of ignorance and backwardness.

(The article used the book of Gustave le Bon "Islam and Arab Civilization")

Arab capture of Khorezm

The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who inflicted cruel reprisals on the Khorezmian aristocracy. Kuteiba brought down especially cruel repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As al-Biruni writes in the “Chronicles of Past Generations”, “and by all means scattered and destroyed Kuteyba all who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their traditions, all the scientists that were among them, so that all this was covered with darkness and there is no true knowledge about what was known of their history before the establishment of Islam by the Arabs.

Arab sources say almost nothing about Khorezm in the following decades. But from Chinese sources it is known that Khorezmshah Shaushafar in 751 sent an embassy to China, which at that time was at war with the Arabs. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria took place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the VIII century. the grandson of Shaushafar takes the Arabic name of Abdallah and mints the names of the Arab governors on his coins.

In the 10th century, a new flowering of urban life in Khorezm began. Arab sources paint a picture of the exceptional economic activity of Khorezm in the 10th century, with the surrounding steppes of Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan, as well as the Volga region - Khazaria and Bulgaria, and the vast Slavic world of Eastern Europe becoming the arena for the activities of Khorezm merchants. The growth of the role of trade with Eastern Europe put forward the city of Urgench (now Kunya-Urgench) [specify], which became the natural center of this trade, to the first place in Khorezm. In 995, the last Afrigid, Abu-Abdallah Muhammad, was captured and killed by the emir of Urgench, Mamun ibn-Muhammad. Khorezm was united under the rule of Urgench.

Khorezm in this era was a city of high learning. Natives of Khorezm were such outstanding scientists as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Iraq, Abu Reihan al-Biruni, al-Chagmini.

In 1017, Khorezm was subordinated to Sultan Mahmud Gaznevi, and in 1043 it was conquered by the Seljuk Turks.

Arabshahid dynasty

The real name of this country since ancient times was Khorezm. The khanate was founded by nomadic Uzbek tribes who captured Khorezm in 1511, under the leadership of the sultans Ilbars and Balbars, descendants of Yadigar Khan. They belonged to the Genghisid branch, descended from Arab-shah-ibn-Pilade, a descendant of Shiban in the 9th generation, so the dynasty is usually called Arabshahids. Shiban in turn was the fifth son of Jochi.

The Arabshahids, as a rule, were at enmity with another branch of the Shibanids, which settled at the same time in Maverannahr after the captures of Shaibani Khan; the Uzbeks, who occupied Khorezm in 1511, did not participate in the campaigns of Shaibani Khan.

The Arabshahids adhered to steppe traditions, dividing the khanate into estates according to the number of men (sultans) in the dynasty. The supreme ruler, the Khan, was the eldest in the family and chosen by the council of sultans. During almost the entire 16th century, Urgench was the capital. Khiva became the residence of the khan for the first time in 1557-58. (for one year) and only during the reign of Arab-Mohammed-Khan (1603-1622) Khiva became the capital. In the 16th century, the khanate included, in addition to Khorezm, oases in the north of Khorasan and Turkmen tribes in the sands of Kara-Kum. The possessions of the sultans often included areas in both Khorezm and Khorasan. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the khanate was a loose confederation of virtually independent sultanates, under the nominal authority of the khan.

Already before the arrival of the Uzbeks, Khorezm lost its cultural significance due to the destruction caused by Timur in the 1380s. A significant settled population survived only in the southern part of the country. Many formerly irrigated lands, especially in the north, were abandoned, and urban culture was in decline. The economic weakness of the khanate was reflected by the fact that it did not have its own money until late XVIII Bukhara coins were used for centuries. Under such conditions, the Uzbeks were able to maintain their nomadic way of life longer than their southern neighbors. They were the military class in the khanate, and the settled Sarts (descendants of the local Tajik population) were taxpayers. The authority of the khan and the sultans depended on the military support of the Uzbek tribes; to reduce this dependence, the khans often hired Turkmens, as a result of which the role of Turkmens in the political life of the khanate grew and they began to settle in Khorezm. Relations between the khanate and the Sheibanids in Bukhara were generally hostile, the Arabshahids often allied with Safavid Iran against their Uzbek neighbors and on three occasions; in 1538, 1593 and 1595-1598. The khanate was occupied by the Sheibanids. TO the end of the XVI century, after a series of internal wars in which most of the Arabshahids were killed, the system of dividing the khanate between the sultans was abolished. Shortly thereafter, at the beginning of the 17th century, Iran occupied the lands of the Khanate in Khorasan.

The reigns of the famous historian khan Abu-l-Ghazi (1643-1663) and his son and successor Anush Khan were periods of relative political stability and economic progress. Large-scale irrigation works were undertaken, and new irrigated lands were divided among the Uzbek tribes; who became more and more sedentary. However, the country was still poor, and the khans filled their empty treasury with booty from predatory raids against their neighbors. From that time until the middle of the 19th century, the country was, in the words of historians, a "predatory state."

Culture in Spain during the Caliphate

Alhambra - the pearl of Arabic art

Tiles from the Alhambra. 14th century National Archaeological Museum, Madrid.

Arab harems

The Eastern harem is the secret dream of men and the personified curse of women, the focus of sensual pleasures and the exquisite boredom of beautiful concubines languishing in it. All this is nothing more than a myth created by the talent of novelists. A real harem is more pragmatic and sophisticated, like everything that was an integral part of the life and life of the Arab people.

The traditional harem (from the Arabic "haram" - forbidden) is primarily the female half of the Muslim home. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem." Harem - the realm of luxury and lost hopes ...

Haram - Forbidden Territory
In early Islamic times, the traditional inhabitants of the harem were the wives and daughters of the head of the family and his sons. Depending on the wealth of the Arab, slaves could live in the harem, whose main task was the harem economy and all the hard work associated with it.

The institution of concubines appeared much later, during the time of the Caliphates and their conquests, when the number of beautiful women became an indicator of wealth and power, and the law introduced by the Prophet Muhammad, which did not allow having more than four wives, significantly limited the possibilities of polygamy.

In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, the slave went through a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to checking for innocence, the girl had to convert to Islam without fail.

Entering the harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured as a nun, where instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Candidates for concubines, like God's brides, were forced to break all ties with the outside world, received new names and learned to live in humility. In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of a privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbearing. Showing attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem elevated her to the rank of a temporary wife. This situation was most often shaky and could change at any moment depending on the mood of the master. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. A concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.

Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem."

In addition to the old proven slaves, eunuchs followed the concubines. Translated from Greek, "eunuch" means "guardian of the bed." They got into the harem exclusively in the form of guards, so to speak, to maintain order.

In this article, we present you with a complete list of countries where Arabic is spoken. The list includes not only those countries in which Arabic is the official language, but also those where Arabic is the second official language.

The Arab countries included in the first list are in alphabetical order. The article also includes data on gross domestic product (GDP), population and divisions for each dialect group of spoken Arabic. You will find the same data in the list of countries in which a significant part of the population speaks Arabic or whose second official language is Arabic.

List of Arab countries in alphabetical order

Jordan

Mauritania

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

Palestine

Saudi Arabia

Syria
Tunisia

A Brief History of the Arabic Language and the Arab World

About 420 million people speak Arabic, making it the sixth most widely spoken language in the world. The word "Arab" means "nomad", and this is understandable, because the Arabic language came from nomadic tribes inhabiting the desert regions of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabic language developed in the fourth century AD from the Nabataean and Aramaic scripts. Arabic is written from right to left, the writing resembles italics, and the Arabic alphabet includes 28 letters - almost like in English. It has remained unchanged since the seventh century AD thanks to the revelations of the Prophet Muhammad recorded in the Qur'an. From the 8th century, the Arabic language began to spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa, as many people began to convert to Islam. Muslims are required to pray only in Arabic. Today, the Arab world is called the region, which includes the countries of the Middle East and North Africa, and the Arabic language is official there. Arab countries differ from each other in terms of history, culture, politics and dialects.

List of Arabic-speaking countries with GDP

The combined GDP of Arabic-speaking countries is $2851 trillion. This is approximately 4% of the gross world product (GMP). Many countries in the Arab world are considered emerging market economies. The Arab world, especially the Middle East, is most notable for its oil production. Saudi Arabia ranks second in the world in terms of oil production along with Iraq, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, occupying 7th, 8th and 11th places respectively. The economies of many of these countries depend solely on oil revenues. In Qatar, the Arab state with the highest GDP growth (5.6%), oil accounts for more than 70% of total government revenue, more than 60% of gross domestic product and about 85% of export earnings. However, oil production is not the only industry in the Arab world. For example, Jordan does not have oil or other resources for energy production. Their place is taken by services, which in this country account for more than 67% of GDP. The Jordanian banking sector is one of the most powerful in the region. The Arab Bank, headquartered in the Jordanian capital Amman, is one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East. The standard of living in the countries of the Arab world is very different. Thus, Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the world and is about $93.352, while Yemen has one of the lowest, equal to $1.473.

A country	GDP (billion US dollars)
Saudi Arabia	646,00
	370,29
Egypt	330,78
Iraq	180,07
Algeria	166,84
Qatar	164,60
Kuwait	114,04
Morocco	100,59
Oman	69,83
Libya	29,15
Sudan	97,16
Syria	73,67
Tunisia	43,02
Lebanon	47,10
Yemen	37,73
Jordan	37,52
Bahrain	31,12
Palestine	6,90
Mauritania	5,44

Arabic speaking border financial markets and least developed countries

Many Arabic-speaking countries either fall into the category of frontier financial markets or are considered Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Frontier financial markets tend to have large market opportunities and high potential for rapid growth. On the other hand, these frontier markets are often more risky than mature markets, and the lack of infrastructure can make it difficult to do business. The Arab LDCs are the Arabic-speaking countries with the lowest economic development. Countries like war-torn Syria are having their currency taken out and their economies in decline instead of growth.

It is important to note that even in these markets there are still some emerging industries and products in high demand.

The study of the economy shows that with a decrease in income, the demand for low-grade goods increases. Bus travel is an example of a low-grade product that is chosen by those whose incomes are lower. However, even in countries where the economy is in decline, the demand for some expensive goods may increase. Take, for example, armored personnel carriers. In war-torn Arab countries where security is paramount, they are in high demand.

The following is a list of the four Arab countries in this category:

The population of Arabic-speaking countries

According to 2013 data, the total population of the Arab world is estimated at 369.8 million people. This region stretches from Morocco in North Africa to Dubai in the Persian Gulf. The most populous country in the region is Egypt, while the sparsely populated country is Bahrain. Many countries in the Arab world have very high population growth rates. For example, Oman and Qatar have the highest population growth rates in the world at 9.2% and 5.65 respectively. About 90 percent of people in the Arab world consider themselves Muslims, six percent are Christians, and four percent practice other religions. Most of all these people are ethnic Arabs; other major ethnic groups include Berbers and Kurds.

The following is a complete list of Arabic-speaking countries, arranged according to population:

A country	Population
Egypt	82.060.000
Algeria	39.210.000
Sudan	37.960.000
Iraq	33.042.000
Morocco	33.010.000
Saudi Arabia	28.290.000
Yemen	24.410.000
Syria	22.850.000
Tunisia	10.890.000
United Arab Emirates	9.346.000
Jordan	6.459.000
Libya	6.202.000
Lebanon	4.467.000
Palestine	4.170.000
Mauritania	3.890.000
Oman	3.632.000
Kuwait	3.369.000
Qatar	2.169.000
Bahrain	1.332.000

Other Arabic speaking countries

In many countries, Arabic is either the second official language or there are significant Arabic-speaking communities. However, in all these countries, Arabic is a minority language. For example, Chad has two official languages, French and Literary Arabic, and more than 120 indigenous languages.

A country	GDP (billion US dollars)	Population
Chad	11,02	12.450.000
Comoros	0,5959	717.503
Djibouti	1,239	859.652
Eritrea	3,092	6.131.000
Israel	242,9	7.908.000
Somalia	0,917	100.200.000
South Sudan	9,337	10.840.000

Arabic dialects

There are three forms of Arabic: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), Classical Arabic/Qur'anic, and Colloquial Arabic. MSA is the official modern language of the Arab world, based on the language of the Koran. MSA is widely taught in schools and universities in Arabic-speaking countries. It is also used to varying degrees in the workplace, government and media throughout the Arab world.

Despite the existence of the MSA, Arabic speakers grow up speaking the dialect of the region in which they live. Each Arabic-speaking country has its own form of spoken Arabic, which differs significantly from MSA. Any one dialect of colloquial Arabic can be used in an entire region or even a country. The main dialect groups of Arabic are as follows:

Dialect	Distribution zones	Number of Speakers
Egyptian	Egypt	55,000,000
Dialects of the Persian Gulf	Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE	36,056,000
Mauritanian	Mauritania, Southern Morocco, Southwestern Algeria, Western Sahara	3,000,000
Levantine (Levantine)	Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Syria	21,000,000
Maghreb	Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia	70,000,000
Mesopotamian/Iraqi	Iraq, East Syria	35,000,000
Sudanese	Sudan, South Egypt	40,000,000
Yemeni	Yemen, Somalia, Djibouti, South Saudi Arabia	15,000,000

Map of Arabic dialects

Gulf Arabic - Dialects of the Persian Gulf

Bahrani - Bahraini

Najdi - Najdi

Omani - Omani

Hijazi and Rashaida - Hijazi

Dhofari - Dhofari

Yemeni and Somali - Yemeni and Somali

Chadic and Shuwa - Chadic

Sudanese - Sudanese

Sa'idi - Said

Egyptian - Egyptian

Judeo-Arabic - Jewish-Arabic

Nubi - Nubian

Cypriot Arabic - Cypriot Arabic

Iraqui - Iraqi

Levantine - Levantine (Levantine)

North Mesopotanian - North Mesopotamian

Morrocan - Moroccan

Tunisian - Tunisian

Algerian - Algerian

Lybian - Libyan

Hassaniya - Moorish

Saharans - Saharan