FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution
Medium vocational education
Orsk Industrial College
REVIEW LECTURES
AND METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF LABORATORY WORKS
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND NETWORK SOFTWARE
(name of the discipline)
For the specialty 080802 Applied Informatics (by industry)
base
(SPO level)
Deputy Director for Academic Affairs
In area information technologies learning
GOU SPO "Orsk Industrial College" Chernikov E.V.
Lecturer GOU SPO "Orsk Industrial College" Katugin A.P.
Introduction
The course is an introduction to networking and provides basic knowledge on the organization and functioning of networks. The lectures give general concepts of computer networks, their structure, network components in a simple and accessible form. Here are the types of topology used to physically connect computers in a network, methods of accessing a communication channel, and physical media for data transmission. The transmission of data in the network is considered on the basis of the reference base model developed by the International Organization for Interoperability of Open Networks. The rules and procedures for transferring data between information systems are described. Types of network equipment, their purpose and principles of operation are given. Describes the network software used to organize networks. The most popular network operating systems, their advantages and disadvantages are studied. The principles of inter-network interaction are considered. Basic concepts from the field of network security are given.
To prepare the course, a large amount of information located on the information retrieval servers of the Internet was worked out, and the literature given in the list was used.
Rules for performing laboratory work
Laboratory work is performed by each student independently in full and in accordance with the content of the guidelines.
Before completing the work, the student must report to the teacher for the performance previous work(to submit the report).
The student must, at the level of understanding and reproduction, first acquire the theoretical and practical information necessary for performing laboratory work.
A student who has received a positive assessment and submitted a report on the previous laboratory work is allowed to perform the next work.
A student who missed a laboratory work for a good or bad reason closes the debt in the process of performing subsequent practical work.
REVIEW LECTURE №1
Basic definitions and terms. Network architecture.
Network is a set of objects formed by data transmission and processing devices. The International Organization for Standardization has defined a computer network as a serial bit-oriented transmission of information between independent devices connected to each other.
Networks are usually privately run by the user and occupy a certain territory and are divided into:
Local Area Networks (LANs) or Local Area Networks (LANs) located in one or more closely spaced buildings. LANs are usually located within an organization (corporation, institution), so they are called corporate.
Distributed computer networks, global or Wide Area Network (WAN), located in different buildings, cities and countries, which are territorial, mixed and global. Depending on this, global networks are of four main types: urban, regional, national and transnational. As examples of distributed networks, very large scale can be called: Internet, EUNET, Relcom, FIDO.
The network generally includes the following elements:
Network computers (equipped with a network adapter);
Communication channels (cable, satellite, telephone, digital, fiber-optic, radio channels, etc.);
Various kinds of signal converters;
Network hardware.
There are two concepts of a network: communication network and information network(Fig. 1.1).
Communication network designed to transfer data, it also performs tasks related to data conversion. Communication networks differ in the type of physical means of connection used.
Information network designed to store information and consists of information systems. On the basis of a communication network, a group of information networks can be built:
Under information system should be understood as a system that is a supplier or consumer of information.
The computer network consists of information systems and communication channels.
Under information system should be understood as an object capable of storing, processing or transmitting information. Part information system includes: computers, programs, users and other components intended for the process of processing and transmitting data. In the future, an information system designed to solve user problems will be called - workstation (client). A workstation on a network differs from a conventional personal computer (PC) in that it has network card (network adapter), data channel and network software.
Rice. 0.1 Information and communication networks
Under communication channel one should understand the path or means by which the signals are transmitted. The signaling medium is called subscriber, or physical, channel.
Communication channels (data link) are created over communication lines using network equipment and physical means of communication. Physical means of communication are built on the basis of twisted pairs, coaxial cables, optical channels or ether. Between interacting information systems through the physical channels of the communication network and switching nodes are established logical channels.
Logical channel is a way to transfer data from one system to another. A logical link is routed along one or more physical links. Logical channel can be characterized as a route laid through physical channels and switching nodes.
Information on the network is transmitted data blocks on exchange procedures between objects. These procedures are called data transfer protocols.
Protocol - it is a set of rules that establish the format and procedures for the exchange of information between two or more devices.
Network load is characterized by a parameter called traffic.Traffic - is the flow of messages in a data network. It is understood as a quantitative measurement at selected points of the network of the number of passing data blocks and their lengths, expressed in bits per second.
A significant impact on the characteristics of the network has access method. Access Method- this is a way to determine which workstation can next use the communication channel and how to control access to the communication channel (cable).
In the network, all workstations are physically interconnected by communication channels according to a certain structure, called topology. Topology- This is a description of the physical connections in the network, indicating which workstations can communicate with each other. The topology type determines the performance, operability, and reliability of the workstations, as well as the access time to the file server. Depending on the network topology, one or another access method is used.
The composition of the main elements in the network depends on its architecture. Architecture is a concept that defines the relationship, structure and functions of the interaction of workstations in a network. It provides for the logical, functional and physical organization of the hardware and software of the network. The architecture defines the principles of construction and operation of the hardware and software of the network elements.
Basically, there are three types of architectures: architecture terminal - main computer, architecture client - server and peer-to-peer architecture.
Modern networks can be classified according to various criteria: remoteness of computers, topology, purpose, list of services provided, management principles (centralized and decentralized), switching methods, access methods, types of transmission media, data transfer rates, etc. All these concepts will discussed in more detail as the course progresses.
The network architecture defines the main elements of the network, characterizes its general logical organization, technical support, software, describes coding methods. The architecture also defines the principles of operation and the user interface.
This course will cover three types of architectures:
Architecture terminal - main computer;
Peer-to-peer architecture;
Client-server architecture.
Terminal architecture - main computer
The terminal-host computer architecture is the concept of an information network in which all data processing is carried out by one or a group of host computers.
Rice. 0.2 Terminal-host architecture
The architecture under consideration assumes two types of equipment:
The main computer where network management, data storage and processing is carried out.
Terminals designed to transmit commands to the host computer to organize sessions and perform tasks, enter data to complete tasks, and receive results.
A classic example of a host network architecture is the System Network Architecture (SNA).
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Peer-to-peer architecture is the concept of an information network in which its resources are dispersed across all systems. This architecture is characterized by the fact that in it all systems are equal.
To peer-to-peer networks include small networks where any workstation can simultaneously perform the functions of a file server and a workstation. AT peer-to-peer LANs disk space and files on any computer can be shared. For a resource to be shared, it must be shared using the remote access services of peer-to-peer network operating systems. Depending on how data protection is set, other users will be able to use the files as soon as they are created. Peer-to-Peer LANs only good enough for small workgroups.
Rice. 0.3 Peer-to-peer architecture
Peer-to-Peer LANs are the easiest and cheapest type of networks to install. They require on a computer, in addition to a network card and network media, only an operating system Windows 95 or Windows for Workgroups. By connecting computers, users can share resources and information.
Peer-to-peer networks have the following advantages:
They are easy to install and configure;
Individual PCs do not depend on a dedicated server;
Users are able to control their resources;
Low cost and easy operation;
Minimum hardware and software;
No need for an administrator;
Well suited for networks with up to ten users.
The problem with peer-to-peer architecture is when computers are disconnected from the network. In these cases, species disappear from the network service that they provided. Network security can only be applied to one resource at a time, and the user must remember as many passwords as there are network resources. When accessing a shared resource, a drop in computer performance is felt. A significant disadvantage of peer-to-peer networks is the lack of centralized administration.
The use of a peer-to-peer architecture does not preclude the use of a terminal-host or client-server architecture on the same network.
Client-server architecture
Client-server architecture(client-server architecture) is the concept of an information network in which the bulk of its resources are concentrated in servers serving their clients (Fig. 1.4). The architecture in question defines two types of components: servers and clients.
Server - is an object that provides service other network objects at their request. Service is a customer service process.
Rice. 0.4 Client-server architecture
The server works on the instructions of clients and manages the execution of their tasks. After executing each job, the server sends the results to the client that sent the job.
The service function in the client-server architecture is described by the complex application programs, in accordance with which various application processes are performed.
A process that calls a service function with certain operations is called client. It can be a program or a user. On fig. 1.5 lists the services in the client-server architecture.
Clients are workstations that use server resources and provide convenient user interfaces. User interfaces These are the procedures for user interaction with a system or network.
The client is the initiator and uses email or other server services. In this process, the client requests a service, establishes a session, gets the results it wants, and reports when it's done.
Rice. 0.5 Client-server model
AT networks with a dedicated file server on a dedicated standalone PC a server network operating system is installed. This PC becomes server. Software ( ON), installed on the workstation allows it to communicate with the server. The most common network operating systems are:
NetWare by Novel;
Microsoft's Windows NT;
UNIX by AT
In addition to the network operating system, network applications are needed to take advantage of the benefits of the network.
Server-based networks have best performance and increased reliability. The server owns the main network resources accessed by other workstations.
In the modern client-server architecture, four groups of objects are distinguished: clients, servers, data, and network services. Clients are located in systems at user workstations. Data is mostly stored in servers. Network services are shared servers and data. In addition, services manage data processing procedures.
Client-server architecture networks have the following advantages:
Allow to organize networks with a large number of workstations;
Provide centralized user account, security, and access management that simplifies network administration;
Efficient access to network resources;
The user needs one password to log into the network and to gain access to all resources that are subject to user rights.
Along with the advantages of a network, the client-server architecture also has a number of disadvantages:
A server failure can render the network unusable, at least loss of network resources;
Require qualified personnel for administration;
Have a higher cost of networks and network equipment.
Choice of network architecture
The choice of network architecture depends on the purpose of the network, the number of workstations, and the actions performed on it.
You should choose a peer-to-peer network if:
The number of users does not exceed ten;
All machines are close to each other;
There are few financial opportunities;
There is no need for a specialized server such as a database server, fax server or any other;
There is no possibility or need for centralized administration.
You should select a client/server network if:
The number of users exceeds ten;
Requires centralized management, security, resource management or backup;
Requires a specialized server;
Need access to global network;
It is required to share resources at the user level.
REVIEW LECTURE №2
The seven-layer OSI model.
For a unified representation of data in networks with heterogeneous devices and software, the international organization for ISO standards (International Standardization Organization) has developed a basic model for communication of open systems OSI (Open System Interconnection). This model describes the rules and procedures for transferring data in various network environments when organizing a communication session. The main elements of the model are levels, application processes and physical means connections. On fig. 2.1 shows the structure of the basic model. Each layer of the OSI model performs a specific task in the process of transferring data over the network. The base model is the basis for the development of network protocols. OSI divides communication functions in a network into seven layers, each of which serves a different part of the open systems interoperability process.
Rice. 0.2 OSI model
The OSI model only describes system-wide means of interaction, not end-user applications. Applications implement their own communication protocols by accessing system facilities. If an application can take over the functions of some of the upper layers of the OSI model, then for communication it accesses directly the system tools that perform the functions of the remaining lower layers of the OSI model.
The OSI model can be divided into two different models, as shown in Figure 2.2:
A horizontal model based on protocols that provides a mechanism for the interaction of programs and processes on different machines;
A vertical model based on services provided by neighboring layers to each other on the same machine.
Rice. 0.2 The scheme of interaction of computers in the basic OSI reference model
Each layer of the sending computer interacts with the same layer of the receiving computer as if it were directly connected. Such a connection is called a logical or virtual connection. In fact, the interaction is carried out between adjacent levels of one computer.
So, the information on the sending computer must pass through all levels. It is then transmitted over the physical medium to the receiving computer and again passes through all the layers until it reaches the same level from which it was sent on the sending computer.
In the horizontal model, two programs need a common protocol to exchange data. In a vertical model, neighboring layers communicate using application interfaces. API programs(Application Programming Interface).
Before being fed into the network, the data is broken into packets. A packet is a unit of information transmitted between stations on a network. When sending data, the packet passes sequentially through all layers of the software. At each level, control information of this level (header) is added to the packet, which is necessary for successful data transmission over the network, as shown in Fig. 2.3, where Zag- packet header, Kon- end of packet.
On the receiving side, the packet goes through all the layers in reverse order. At each layer, the protocol of that layer reads the packet information, then removes the information added to the packet at the same layer by the sending side, and transmits the packet next level. When the package reaches Applied level, all control information will be removed from the packet, and the data will return to its original form.
Rice. 0.3 Formation of a package of each level of the seven-level model
Each level of the model has its own function. The higher the level, the more difficult the task it solves.
Separate model levels OSI convenient to consider as program groups designed to perform specific functions. One layer, for example, is responsible for providing data transformation from ASCII in EBCDIC and contains programs necessary to complete this task.
Each layer provides a service to a higher layer, in turn requesting a service from the lower layer. The upper layers request a service in much the same way: as a rule, it is a requirement to route some data from one network to another. The practical implementation of the principles of data addressing is assigned to the lower levels.
The model under consideration determines the interaction of open systems from different manufacturers in the same network. Therefore, it performs coordinating actions for them on:
Interaction of applied processes;
Data presentation forms;
Uniform data storage;
Network resource management;
Data security and information protection;
Diagnostics of programs and hardware.
On fig. 2.4 given short description functions at all levels.
Rice. 0.4 Level functions
REVIEW LECTURE №3
Many organizations experience constant difficulties and are in constant search of synchronization of the goals and objectives of the business and the development processes of their information systems. There is, as it were, a "cloud of uncertainty" between the definition of the organization and the IT infrastructure that provides it with its goals and objectives.
The process of translating these goals into specific IT systems is often very undeveloped and limited to the annual budget process, in which business and IT representatives are the main way to communicate and interact.
Rice. 3.1."Cloud of uncertainty" between organizational goals and information technology
The architecture of information technology and the architecture of the enterprise as a whole is precisely the main mechanism for interpreting and implementing the goals of the organization through adequate IT infrastructure and systems. This is achieved through the creation of a certain number of interconnected architectural representations. There are many methodologies for describing an architecture, and they all break down an enterprise architecture into different quantity models and definitions that relate to areas such as business, information, application systems, technological infrastructure.
Business models describe the organization's strategy, governance structures, requirements, constraints, and rules, as well as key business processes, including the relationships and dependencies between them. Those. business architecture describes at the enterprise level as a whole how the main functions of the organization are implemented, including organizational and functional structures, roles and responsibilities.
Information architecture defines key assets associated with structured and unstructured information required by the business, including location, time, types of files and databases and other information stores.
Describes those systems that provide the necessary functionality to implement the logic of the organization's business processes.
From point of view technological architecture, important models include a description of the IT services that are required to implement the other three architecture areas listed above. Moreover, the logical models of IT services are built in an abstract, technologically independent form and leave freedom for the optimal choice of specific technologies.
But, in the end, the architecture of the enterprise ends with physical models that are determined by the technologies, hardware and software platforms chosen to implement IT services.
The term "IT architecture" can mean many similar in meaning, but, nevertheless, different concepts. For various people The meaning of the same term can be different.
One of the simplest (Webster's Dictionary) is that IT architecture is "the way that is used to organize and integrate the components of a computer system".
Another definition is that "The architecture of a system consists of several components, external properties and interfaces, connections and imposed restrictions, as well as the architecture of these internal components". Iterative, hierarchical construction of the architecture allows us to solve another important task - to facilitate its perception by a person.
Rice. 3.2. Enterprise Architecture Elements
The "architectural view" of systems (both IT systems and business systems) is defined in ANSI/IEEE 1471-2000 as "the fundamental organization of a system, consisting of a set of components, their interconnections, and external environment, and the principles that guide their creation and development.
In its most general form, according to Gartner definitions, an architecture is:
1. a general plan or concept used to create a system, such as a building or an information system, or "an abstract description of a system, its structure, components, and their relationships";
2. a family of guidelines, concepts, rules, patterns, interfaces, and standards used in building the enterprise information technology suite.
Note that the first definition focuses on the description of existing and future systems, the second on the process of building them.
A few more definitions:
1. "Architecture is an investment in standards of processes, technologies, and interfaces to improve the capabilities of organizations and reduce the cost of developing and maintaining information systems. The benefits of investing in architecture extend to several projects at once, but not all of these projects may be known at the time of architecture development ";
2. "Enterprise IT architecture is the vision, principles and standards that guide organizations in the development and implementation of technologies" (Giga Group);
The IT architecture and the principles of its construction, on the one hand, depend on the overall strategic plans, business needs of the organization, the general vision of the role of IT in the activities of the organization, and on the other hand, determine many aspects, such as the accepted practice for planning capital expenditures, ensuring life cycle systems, etc..
Let us now consider in more detail what separate concepts exist within the concept of "architecture" and how they are related to each other:
hierarchy of architectures of various organizational systems;2. relationship between objective reality and subjective perception;
3. relationships between system-wide architecture and private architectures.
Just like in construction, there are different levels of architecture (city plan, area plan, plans for individual buildings), further detailing of high-level definitions and classification of business and information technology architecture is required. various levels. Thus, we can talk about the architecture of the enterprise as a whole, the architecture of the level of individual projects or a family of products, we can talk about the architecture of a separate application system. And in the first, and in the second, and in the third case, these are all architectures. The question lies in the decomposition of complex systems and at what level certain architectural decisions are made.
Enterprise architecture defines the overall structure and function of systems (business and IT) throughout the organization as a whole (including partners and other organizations that form the so-called "extended enterprise") and provides a common framework (framework), standards and guidelines for the architecture level of individual projects. The common vision provided by the enterprise architecture creates the possibility of a unified design of systems that are adequate in terms of meeting the needs of the organization, and capable of interoperability and integration where necessary. A little later we will return to the definition of the concept of enterprise architecture.
Project Level Architecture defines the structure and functions of systems (business and IT) at the level of projects and programs (sets of projects), but in the context of the entire organization as a whole, i.e. not in an isolated consideration of individual systems. The individual project-level architecture details, conforms to, and exists within the enterprise architecture.
Application systems architecture defines the structure and functions of applications that are developed to provide the required functionality. Some elements of this architecture may be defined at the enterprise or project architecture level (in the form of standards and guidelines) in order to use best practice and conform to the principles of the architecture as a whole.
Rice. 3.3. Levels of architectural decision making
The distinguishing characteristic of architecture decisions is that these decisions must be made from a broad, or systems, perspective. Any decision that can be made locally (for example, within a subsystem) is not architectural for the system as a whole. This makes it possible to distinguish between detailed design and decision-making about the practical implementation of the system, on the one hand, and architectural decisions, on the other. The former decisions have a local impact, while the latter have a systematic effect. Therefore, design decisions need an appropriate broader perspective to take into account the systemic impact of decisions more high level, which makes it possible to achieve the desired level of compromises and agreements between constituent parts to ensure the proper level of quality of the system as a whole.
For example, if the system we are considering is an application software system, then the freedom to make decisions that can be made at the level of its individual components or modules should be given to the respective developers of these subsystems.
The application system architect must consider issues that are important to the system as a whole.If the subject of consideration is the architecture of a project or some solution (for example, a project to create an organization portal that integrates information from a number of information systems), then decisions about the architecture of individual application systems should be made, respectively, by the developers of these systems. At the level of the project architecture, only those issues that are of systematic importance or important to the project as a whole should be considered. For example, in our portal example, these might be decisions about the metadata structure that all application systems must follow so that information from these systems can be published on a single portal.
In this sense, to further clarify the subject of the content of this course, we can say that we are discussing issues and approaches that relate mainly to the level of the enterprise as a whole. In this case, an enterprise is understood as an organization (or government department) with the entire set of its information systems, or a state (region, city) with a corresponding set of information systems of departments.
The defining characteristic that distinguishes an enterprise architecture (or Enterprise Architecture) from other types of architectures is the appropriate enterprise scale and scope. It crosses and permeates all internal organizational boundaries: the boundaries of various business units and the boundaries of individual functions.
Each information system is a complex, complex object, which, moreover, dynamically changes over time. Thus, the architecture will be some model of a real system that changes dynamically, keeping the same as the original, as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Rice. 3.4. Architecture as a model of a real information system
The second postulate is that two concepts are distinguished:
1. the actual architecture of the information system - as an objective reality, including existing components and their connections;
2. description of architecture (architecture description) - a reflection of the objective or planned reality in some documented form.
The interrelation of these concepts is illustrated in fig. 3.5
Rice. 3.5. Description of architecture as a projection of reality
The separation of these concepts leads to interesting consequences. System architecture (outer area - Fig. 3.5) is by definition an infinitely complex, deep and implicit concept. Only a part of this general concept, which in principle is accessible to architects, can be translated into an explicit documented form - a model or a set of models with inevitable simplifications, limitations and subjective distortions.
Thus, the IT architecture exists independently of the projects undertaken in the organization for its description, ordering and development. Let us turn once again to the construction analogy: the lack of IT solutions or their unsystematic adoption in practice leads to the emergence of a "zoo" of hardware and applications, reminiscent of spontaneous development in the absence of urban plans, the appearance of wagons and "shanghai" with all the ensuing consequences.
In the following, we will use the term "architecture", which, depending on the context, can mean both existing reality, and the corresponding description.
Another formal definition is given in the IEEE 1471 standard of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, which provides a metamodel for defining an architecture.
This standard defines the abstract elements of an architecture such as views, systems, environments, rationales, stakeholders, and so on. in accordance with the scheme shown in fig. 3.6.
Rice. 3.6. IEEE 1471 architecture framework
In accordance with this view, the system has a certain architecture, which can be described in a certain way from different points of view, depending on the interest of those people (participants) who consider the architecture of the system. Each point of view on the architecture of the system corresponds to a certain representation, which is based on a certain set of models.
The development of system architecture is close in meaning to the concept of system design. Generally speaking, Systems engineering(Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and tools designed to create successful systems. It focuses on identifying customer needs and required functionality at the beginning of the development cycle, on requirements documentation, moving to design synthesis and comprehensive system validation, with full consideration of such issues as operation, performance, testing, manufacturing, cost and planning, training and support, through to decommissioning Systems engineering integrates all relevant disciplines and teams into a team effort, creating a structured development process that runs from concept to production of the system • System design takes into account both the business needs and the technical needs of all customers in order to obtain a quality product that meets the needs of users.
Under "software architecture", again depending on the context, can be understood as the architecture of application interaction within an enterprise information system (i.e. application architecture), and the architecture of program modules or the architecture of interaction of different classes within a single application. Each of the marked architectures, in turn, can be considered with one or another level of detail and from a certain point of view. So, for software architecture, the following perspectives or levels of architecture description are traditional:
1. conceptual architecture defines the components of a system and their purposes, usually informally. This view is often used to discuss with non-technical people such as management, business managers, and end users the system's functionality (what the system should be able to do, mainly from the end user's point of view);
2. logical architecture highlights, first of all, the issues of interaction between the system components, interfaces and protocols used. This view allows efficient organization of parallel development;
3. physical implementation, which describes binding to specific hosts, types of equipment, characteristics of the environment, such as, for example, the operating systems used, etc.
All these "private" architectures - system architecture, software architecture - are nevertheless of significant interest for our attention, since they rely on the same approaches and methods, and also use similar means of describing and presenting results.
Enterprise Architecture (Enterprise Architecture)
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De Architecture, by the Roman architect Vitruvius (early 1st century AD). According to Vitruvius, a good building must satisfy the three principles firmitas, utilitas, venustas, the well-known original translation - firmness, goods and pleasures. Equivalent modern language will:Durability - the building must be sustainable and remain in good condition long time.
Functionality - it must be suitable for the purposes for which it is created.
Beauty - it should be aesthetically pleasing.
According to Vitruvius, an architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who develops the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise De Re Aedificatoria, mainly dealt with beauty, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that defined the idealized human figure, the golden mean.
Thus, the most important aspect beauty was an integral part of the subject, not something superficial, and it was based on universal, recognizable truths. The concept of style in art was not developed until the 16th century, until the work of Vasari by the 18th century, which described the lives of the most outstanding artists, sculptors and architects, the works have been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836), in which he contrasted the modern, industrial world he had debased with an idealized image of the neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian form of architecture".
English artistic critic XIX century, John Ruskin, in his work The Seven Lamps of Architecture, published in 1849, was much more specific in his idea of what architecture is. Architecture was "an art that so disposes and decorates the buildings created by people ... that the sight of them contributes to his mental health, strength and pleasure."
For Ruskin, aesthetics were of paramount importance. His work states that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is "decorated" in some way. For Ruskin, a well-built, well-proportioned, functional building at the very least needed string courses or rustication.
On the difference between the ideals of architecture and the ease of construction, the famous 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: “You use stone, wood and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: this is construction. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I'm happy and I say: it's beautiful. This is Architecture."
Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said: “Architecture begins when you carefully put two bricks together. It starts there."
2. Epochs and styles of architecture
3. Architecture as a monument of culture and history
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
As you know, the law of uneven development of art forms, formulated by G. Hegel in his time, manifests itself in the fact that the hierarchy of art forms is very mobile and often weakly associated with changes in socio-political and economic aspects. public life. As a result, a dominant art form appears in the cultural field, which, to one degree or another, “sets” artistic activity in general, imprinting on it the imprint of its specificity.
The promotion of a certain type of art to the top of the hierarchy is apparently associated with its ability to most fully and adequately represent the picture of the world that prevails in society. For example, medieval painting worlds with a weakened temporal coordinate are best suited for spatial art forms - temples decorated with sculpture. The dominant position in the picture of the world of modern man of the time factor leads to the promotion of temporal and space-time art forms.
But at every moment in time art culture is a dynamic and self-consistent system with interacting elements. As a result of the emergence of new elements - for example, types of art based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress - the structure of the cultural system and the functions of its individual elements are changing, but in one form or another, all elements of culture, including the most archaic ones, are still preserved, although they may be in a modified form.
The purpose of this work is to consider one of the spatial art forms - architecture.
Reveal the concept and essence of architecture;
Consider the development of architecture in various historical periods;
To study the issues of architecture as a cultural monument.
1. The concept and essence of architecture
Architecture is an artistic and figurative organization of space based on building structures. It is necessary to distinguish utilitarian construction and the concept of construction corresponding to this technical activity from architecture as artistic creativity in stone, wood and clay. The architect operates with the concept of composition and uses expressive (compositional) means: meter and rhythm, symmetry and asymmetry, ratios of magnitudes and proportions. These means correspond to the techniques of accentuation, balancing, proportioning.
Architecture is classified as a bifunctional (dual) art, in the composition of which the utilitarian and artistic function. Their combination and interaction are determined by the genre of architectural creativity (sacred or temple architecture, palace and residential buildings, technical structures).
Architecture is also referred to as spatial arts, or more precisely, spatio-temporal, since the architect organizes masses, volumes, lines, silhouettes not only in three-dimensional space, but also in the time of perception of the composition by the viewer. Only in movement, that is, in time and direction of the unfolding of the composition in space, with points of view changing in a certain sequence, passing by the viewer along, around and inside the building, the concept, idea and artistic image of the architectural composition is revealed. In this sense, as noted by the theorist of architecture A. I. Nekrasov, not a stone or a tree, but space and time are a composite material, the main thing artistic medium- organization of the movement.
Accordingly, all architectural compositions can be divided into two types: "stay in space" and "promotion in space". The first type includes centric and hall compositions, the second - alleys, galleries, enfilades, arcades. The attribution of architecture to the "non-fine arts" is highly controversial. In comparison with painting, sculpture, graphics, the architect really (with the exception of decorative details) does not depict specific subjects. On the other hand, architecture is capable of not only expressing, but also depicting abstract, sublime ideas and images: ascension, elevation of the spirit, flight of the soul, strength, power, tranquility, confidence. Neither the painter nor the sculptor can convey such images directly, bypassing the Aesopian language of allegories. Therefore, B. R. Wipper called architecture “in the highest degree fine arts» . The artistic meaning of the art of architecture, therefore, lies in the transformation of a utilitarian building structure into a composition. For example, a supporting pillar that can withstand the weight of the ceiling is an optimal, durable and reliable building structure, and a column that expresses the idea of spiritual resistance to gravity and ascension to heaven is architectural image, composition.
Outwardly, these forms look almost the same, but their content is different. This difference is defined in the theory of architecture by the concept of an order. This is where the boundaries of architecture as art work pass. Hence also the traditional comparisons of architecture with the cosmos emerging from chaos, "humanized matter", the stone book of humanity, frozen music.
2. Epochs and styles of architecture
The Italian Renaissance is a turning point in the development of art in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. In architecture, it was marked by an appeal to the ancient heritage and a rethinking architectural compositions Ancient Rome, primarily the order system. The architecture of the Italian Renaissance includes two main periods: Florentine (the second half of the 15th century, or Quattrocento, - "four hundred years") and Roman (the beginning of the 16th century, or Cinquecento, - "five hundred years"). The French name for the era is the Renaissance. The Florentine period, or the Tuscan Renaissance, was marked by the influence of medieval traditions and the innovative activity of F. Brunelleschi, who for the first time in Italian architecture combined the Roman arch with the Arab technique of supporting arches directly on the capitals of the columns. The largest theorist of architecture was L. B. Alberti. The Roman period began with the activities of D. Bramante, the author of the first project for the church of St. Peter in Rome.
In the architecture of the Italian Renaissance, new types of buildings were developed: a palazzo (city palace), a centric temple, a country villa, as well as compositional techniques. The development of architecture in other cities of Italy, for example, in Venice, developed in a special way. Thanks to the work of D. Bramante, Raphael, A. Palladio in the XVI century. in Italy, the foundations of Classicism architecture were created, but already from the middle of the 16th century, primarily in the work of Michelangelo, the Baroque style was formed, other architects leaned towards Mannerism. Italian Renaissance includes various traditions, development trends, artistic trends and styles. Consequently, the phrase "Italian Renaissance" is not the name of a style, but only denotes a certain historical era.
Classicism - artistic direction, focused on rational compositional thinking, the norms of clarity, integrity, simplicity, balance, tectonicity, static and closed form. In most cases, the art of ancient classics is chosen as a model. In the history of architecture, the norms of Classicism were formed during the High Renaissance in Italy (the beginning of the 16th century), programmatically as an artistic direction, they were formalized in the art of France in the second half of the 17th century. Therefore, the Western European architecture of classicism of the second half of XVIII in. ("second wave" of Classicism) is called Neoclassicism. In Italy, France, Germany, Russia, the artistic direction of Classicism gave rise to different historical and regional artistic styles of classic architecture in different historical periods.
Neoclassicism is a historical and regional style of classicism that became widespread in Italy and France in the second half of the 18th century. (in these countries, the classic style arose not for the first time, hence the name). In Russian architecture, the same period is usually called Classicism (the neoclassical trend in Russia was formed at the beginning of the 20th century).
Gothic - the artistic style of Western European architecture of the XIII-XV centuries. It is associated primarily with changes in the composition of medieval cathedrals. The name arose later, in the era of the Italian Renaissance (the ancient Romans called the Germanic tribes "to the north of the Alps" the Goths). The innovations of the Gothic style are associated with the activities of the abbe Suger in the church of Saint-Denis north of Paris (1136-1140), the construction of the cathedral in Durham, England (c. 1133), Notre Dame Cathedral ( Notre Dame of Paris). The rapid growth of the population of European cities in the XII-XIII centuries. demanded the construction of large cathedrals (so that under their arches the entire population of the city could gather for Sunday mass). However, a simple increase in size led to the collapse of heavy stone vaults due to the increased lateral thrust acting on the walls. A new design was required.
Gradually, empirically, lightening the arches by introducing a frame of ribs (French - rib), a system of external supports made of buttresses (French - "counterforce") and flying buttresses (French - arch + ligament, extreme support), it was possible to significantly weaken the lateral thrust . The severity of the vaults was transferred with the help of flying buttresses (in the form of a semi-arch) to the buttresses - rows of supporting pillars, placed outside the volume of the building. This made it possible to significantly increase the space of the temple, and turn the internal supports into thin bundles of columns. The walls were freed from the load, it became possible to cut through them with large windows - this is how Gothic stained-glass windows arose. The space became light and bright. The 150-meter length of the cathedral, the height of the arches 40-50 m, the height of the towers 80 m became the norm. Stone vaults pressed down with incredible weight, but the person inside saw only thin beams of columns carried upwards, ribs lost in the height, bright streams of light pouring through the colored glass of stained-glass windows. This is how the artistic image of the ascension of the soul to heaven arose - an image opposite to the prosaic action of a building structure, a balancing force directed from top to bottom. That's why Gothick style- a vivid example of the metaphysics of the art of architecture, the artistic transformation of a building structure.
Architecture is commonly understood as a field of human activity that deals with the organization of space and solves all kinds of spatial problems. To put it simply, architecture is concerned with the tasks of improving human existence, surrounding it with harmonious and useful objects.
architectural activity
This grouping includes activities aimed at creating an architectural object (buildings, structures, a complex of buildings or structures, their interior, landscaping, landscape or garden art):
Creation architectural project
Coordination of the development of all sections of project documentation for construction or reconstruction
organization professional activity architects
Currently, four types of architectural activity are known:
urban planning . This concept refers to the theory and practice of urban planning and development. This is a separate discipline, covering a complex of artistic and architectural, socio-economic, technical, construction and sanitary problems of mankind. This discipline has two beginnings - the will of the architect (urban planner) and historical conditions. In other words, cities can arise both by the will of some people (a vivid example of this is the city of St. Petersburg, which was built by the will of Peter I), and as a result of any historical events (for example, Moscow, a city that arose as a result of many historically significant events).
Urban development has been around for a very long time. Since ancient times, people began to gather in communities and build dwellings, thus forming small settlements, which later grew to the scale of cities. In the modern world, urban planning includes several stages - regional planning, city master plan, detailed planning project, development project and detailed design.
Architecture. the main branch of architecture associated with the design and construction of buildings and structures. In itself, this concept is synonymous with architecture. Accordingly, their definitions are the same. Earlier in Ancient Rus' architects were called architects, that is, persons involved in the planning and construction of various structures. As a rule, this direction involves working with wooden materials. In our time, architecture is not as in demand as it was in the ancient and Middle Ages. Basically, this direction is used in the construction of private wooden houses according to individual projects.
Landscape design. This is a kind of art on the use of small architectural forms in green building. In other words, these are certain actions for the improvement of parks and gardens, the planning of various compositions from plantations. The task of landscape design is to create harmonious compositions that are combined with the main buildings and structures, or located apart from them. In this case, green spaces (trees, shrubs, flowers, etc.), reservoirs (streams, ponds, waterfalls, fountains) and various small forms (benches, lanterns, obelisks, etc.) can be used.
Interior Design . In this case, it means the design of the interior decoration of the premises, the creation of a certain interior. In other words, it is the creation of a comfortable human environment. In this case, the designer, taking into account the personal preferences of the owner of the premises, creates such an interior of the room, living in which the owner will feel most comfortable.
Question. Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of the customer and the architect.
Civil Code of the Russian Federation.
Civil Code of the Russian Federation, along with those adopted in accordance with it federal laws, is the main source of civil law in Russian Federation. The norms of civil law contained in other normative legal acts cannot contradict the Civil Code. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation, work on which began at the end of 1992, and initially went in parallel with work on Russian Constitution 1993 - Consolidated law, consisting of four parts. In connection with the huge amount of material that required inclusion in the Civil Code, it was decided to accept it in parts.
The first part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which entered into force on January 1, 1995, (with the exception of certain provisions), includes three of the seven sections of the code (section I "General Provisions", section II "Property and other property rights", section III « a common part law of obligations). This part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation contains the fundamental norms of civil law and its terminology (on the subject and general principles of civil law, the status of its subjects (physical and legal entities)), objects of civil law ( various types property and property rights), transactions, representation, statute of limitations, ownership, as well as the general principles of the law of obligations.
The second part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which is a continuation and addition to the first part, was put into effect on March 1, 1996. It is completely devoted to section IV of the code " Separate types obligations." Based on the general principles of the new civil law of Russia, enshrined in the 1993 Constitution and part one of the Civil Code, part two establishes a detailed system of norms on individual obligations and contracts, obligations from causing harm (torts) and unjust enrichment. In terms of its content and significance, the second part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation is a major stage in the creation of a new civil legislation of the Russian Federation.
The third part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation includes Section V "Inheritance Law" and Section VI "International Private Law". In comparison with the legislation in force before the entry into force on March 01, 2002 of part three of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the rules on inheritance have undergone major changes: new forms of wills have been added, the circle of heirs has been expanded, as well as the circle of objects that can be transferred in the order of hereditary succession; introduced detailed rules relating to the protection of the inheritance and its management. Section VI of the Civil Code, dedicated to the regulation of civil law relations complicated by a foreign element, is a codification of the norms of private international law. This section, in particular, contains norms on the qualification of legal concepts in determining the applicable law, on the application of the law of a country with a plurality of legal systems, on reciprocity, back reference, establishing the content of foreign law norms.
The fourth part of the Civil Code (entered into force on January 1, 2008) consists entirely of Section VII "Rights to the results of intellectual activity and means of individualization." Its structure includes general provisions - norms that apply to all types of results of intellectual activity and means of individualization or to a significant number of their types. The inclusion of norms on intellectual property rights in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation made it possible to better coordinate these norms with the general norms of civil law, as well as to unify the terminology used in the field of intellectual property. The adoption of the fourth part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation completed the codification of domestic civil legislation.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation has passed the test of time and extensive practice of application, however, economic offenses, often committed under the guise of civil law, have revealed the lack of completeness in the law of a number of classical civil law institutions, such as the invalidity of transactions, the creation, reorganization and liquidation of legal entities, the assignment claims and transfer of debt, collateral, etc., which necessitated the introduction of a number of systemic changes into the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. As noted by one of the initiators of such changes, the President of the Russian Federation D.A. Medvedev, “The current system needs not to be reorganized, fundamentally changed, ... but to be improved, unlocking its potential and developing implementation mechanisms. The Civil Code has already become and should remain the basis for the formation and development of civilized market relations in the state, an effective mechanism for protecting all forms of ownership, as well as the rights and legitimate interests of citizens and legal entities. The Code does not require fundamental changes, but further improvement of civil legislation is necessary ... "
On July 18, 2008, Decree of the President of the Russian Federation N 1108 "On the improvement of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation" was issued, which set the task of developing a concept for the development of the civil legislation of the Russian Federation. October 7, 2009 The concept was approved by the decision of the Council for Codification and Improvement Russian legislation and signed by the President of the Russian Federation.
