For the artistic culture of the first half of XIX V. were characterized by a rapid change in ideological artistic directions compared to the previous time, the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. In the artistic consciousness of the first decades of the XIX century. there was a gradual departure from the normativity of the educational ideology that underlay the aesthetics of classicism, when the motives for the actions of the hero were primarily civic duty and public service. Increasing attention to the person inner world; feeling, and not duty, becomes the motivating source of his actions.

The main direction in the artistic culture of the first decades of the XIX century. - romanticism. In Russia, it arose during the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of romantic art was the desire to oppose a generalized ideal image to reality. Russian romanticism is inseparable from pan-European, but its peculiarity was a pronounced interest in national identity, national history, the assertion of a strong, free personality.

Attention to national history was characteristic of artistic culture in general. TO historical topics many writers, poets, composers addressed. Domestic history was the subject of thought by A.S. Pushkin, especially in the last period of his work ("Boris Godunov", " Captain's daughter", "The Bronze Horseman", "Arap of Peter the Great", "History of the Pugachev rebellion").

In Russian literature, the emergence of romanticism is associated with the name of V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852). His ballads, full of humanity and lofty human dignity, gave Russian poetry "soul and heart", made up "a whole period moral development of our society,” as Belinsky wrote. The development of lyrics from elegiac dreamy to deeply civil, imbued with a sense of struggle “for the oppressed freedom of man,” was a characteristic feature of romantic poetry. The Decembrist poets contributed to the assertion of the idea of ​​​​its high civil purpose.

In line with the romantic movement, the foundations of the Russian historical novel were laid (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), an understanding of the national identity and nationality of literature was formed. Romantic poets did a lot for literary translation. In essence, they introduced the Russian reader for the first time to the works of modern Western European and ancient writers. VA Zhukovsky was a talented translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller.

The most important problem national culture, in particular literature, - nationality works of art, the evolution of this very concept. The search for the essence of nationality was initially associated with a growing interest in national history. According to N.M. Karamzin, the key to understanding the originality of Russian literature must be sought in history, which determined the widespread development historical genre in the art of romanticism.

The ideological searches of the 1930s and 1940s were increasingly reflected in a deep understanding of the concept of "nationality". If the official nationality proceeded from "boundless devotion and obedience to the autocracy", then in the understanding of the leading cultural figures, nationality meant "fidelity in the depiction of pictures of Russian life."

In the last pre-reform decades, the development of artistic culture was characterized by a movement from romanticism to realism. In literature, this movement is associated with the names of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol.

In the development of the Russian national literature and culture in general, the role of A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) is enormous. Gogol expressed this beautifully: “When the name of Pushkin is named, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns ... Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon, perhaps the only phenomenon of the Russian spirit: this is a Russian person in his development, in which he, perhaps, will appear in two hundred years ".

As a person and artist, Pushkin was formed at a turning point in Russian history, during the period of the formation of noble revolutionism (Pushkin's first poem "To a Poet Friend" was published in 1814). His work is a logical result in artistic comprehension life problems, “who faced Russia from the time of Peter I to the Decembrists. Pushkin began the subsequent development of Russian literature. His work is associated with the assertion of modern literary language, the beginning of realism in literature as an artistic direction. "Eugene Onegin" by Pushkin was the first Russian realistic novel, "to the highest degree folk art"(V. G. Belinsky). For the first time, the novel was published in a separate edition in 1833.

milestone on the way from romanticism to realism was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841), which reflected hard time- lost hopes and the disappointment that followed the events of December 14, 1825. The poet's rejection of the surrounding reality acquired a pronounced social character. His novel A Hero of Our Time (1841), while retaining romantic features, was one of the first literary works of critical realism.

The role of N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) in Russian literature is enormous. "Dead Souls" (volume 1 was published in 1842) is one of the brightest realistic images of Russian life of that time. VG Belinsky assessed it as "a creation purely Russian, national, snatched from the recesses of people's life."

Remaining deeply humanistic, literature is increasingly acquiring the character of teaching and compassion. The sociality of Russian literature, its involvement public life is a well-known feature and characteristic. One of the discoveries of the writers " natural school"(early works by I.A. Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky and others) was a "little man" with his difficult worldly fate.

Subject close attention Russian literature was becoming the fate of a serf (the stories of D.V. Grigorovich, essays from peasant life V.I.Dalya, cycle of stories "Notes of a hunter" by I.S.Turgenev). The new, previously unseen world of the Russian merchant class was opened to the reader and viewer by A.N. Ostrovsky.

Fiction as one of the forms public consciousness won the predominant influence in the spiritual life of society, partially replacing open journalistic speeches in the conditions of autocratic Russia. Its socially effective nature, the impact "on the concepts and customs of society" was noted by many contemporaries.

In the first half of the XIX century. collecting and research activities in the field of Russian folklore. The Slavophils did a lot of this. The Collection of Folk Songs by P.V. Kireevsky, which consists of 11 volumes, is the most complete collection of Russian folklore.

The state of theatrical and scenic art was an indicator of "public education and the spirit of the times" (V.G. Belinsky). Despite the monopoly of the imperial theaters, which began in 1803, and the dramatic censorship that influenced the repertoire, the theater played an increasingly prominent role in the public cultural life.

The Maly Theater was the center of theatrical culture in Moscow. In 1824, the troupe of the former Petrovsky Theater was finally divided into drama and ballet. Dramatic performances were moved to a building built by the architect O.I. Bove and called the Maly Theatre. Grand Theatre since 1825 it was intended only for opera and ballet performances. There were several theaters in St. Petersburg, the most famous of them was the Alexandrinsky (architect Rossi), opened in 1832 by the historical drama of M.V. Kryukovsky "Prince Pozharsky".

Unlike the Moscow Maly Theatre, where democratic traditions were strong, the theater northern capital Russian Empire was of an official character. Theaters also existed in many provincial towns. The flourishing of romanticism on the stage is associated with the work of the remarkable Russian actor P.S. Mochalov (1800-1848), who became famous for playing in the plays of Schiller and Shakespeare. The pinnacle of his work was the role of Hamlet. Mochalov's success in this area was due to the modern reading of the play. The hero of Mochalov was perceived by the audience as a Russian Hamlet of the 30-40s of the 19th century. The dramaturgy of A.S. Griboedov, N.V. Gogol, and especially A.N. Ostrovsky contributed to the establishment of realistic drama in the theatrical repertoire.

The reformer of acting art, the founder of realism on the Russian stage was great actor M.S. Shchepkin (1788-1863). "He created the truth on the Russian stage," Herzen wrote about him, "he was the first to become non-theatrical in the theatre." Shchepkin's method of playing
was the basis of the stage school of acting art for many subsequent decades.

Theater of the first half of the XIX century. brought up a galaxy of remarkable Russian actors, who are still rightfully proud of the Russian stage (E.S. Semenova, V.A. Karatygin, P.S. Mochalov, M.S. Shchepkin, A.E. Martynov). During this period, the formation of directing, the art of designing a performance, begins.

The music of this time, based on the best traditions of nationality and democracy, was strongly influenced by the era of 1812. Composers began to turn more often to heroic-patriotic, national subjects (K.A. Kavos's opera "Ivan Susanin", 1815). A prominent representative of romanticism in music was A.N. Verstovsky (1799-1862). The production of his most famous opera "Askold's Grave", created on the libretto by M.N. Zagoskin, took place in 1835.

Interest in chamber and public concerts increased in society. The attention of many composers, writers, artists attracted musical evenings at A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk were a huge success. Railway from Petersburg. The Austrian composer and conductor, the famous "king of waltzes" I. Strauss, performed repeatedly in these concerts.

In the history of Russian musical art, a special role belongs to M.I. Glinka (1804-1857). His name is associated with the emergence of Russian musical classics, a national school in music. An event in the cultural life of Russia was the staging of Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar (1836). The high-society audience met the opera rather dryly, "coachman's music" did not arouse its sympathy. But many advanced people Russia enthusiastically welcomed the performance. Among the admirers of the opera were Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky, Odoevsky, Khomyakov.

Glinka is the founder of the main genres of domestic professional music. He "created a national Russian opera, a national instrumental music... a Russian national romance," wrote VV Stasov about him. Glinka is a composer for whom the highest principles of art were ideology and nationality. "The people create music," he said to A.N. Serov (composer and musical critic), - and we, the artists, only arrange it."

For the work of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869), along with the principles of realism and nationality, great social, dramatic tension, ardent sympathy for " little man"(opera "Mermaid", 1856). Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music, introducing new techniques and means into it musical expressiveness(melodic recitative in the opera "The Stone Guest").

In the post-reform era, remarkable works of literature and art were created in Russia, which took their rightful place in the treasury of world culture. The strength of Russian art lay in its artistic merit, citizenship, high morality and democratic orientation.

The art of critical realism - the main artistic direction of that time - was closely connected with ideological searches. He was distinguished by an increased social activity. Literature and art, as never before, came close to reflecting real life (an essay and a novel about modern life, contemporary domestic drama, household genre in painting, etc.).

In the second half of the XIX century. ideological and artistic development was largely determined by revolutionary democratic aesthetics, the foundations of which were laid by Belinsky. Its further development was associated with the name of N.G. Chernyshevsky. Art, in his opinion, is a manifestation of the real human essence, therefore "beautiful is life." The social function of art should consist not only in reproducing and explaining life, but also in passing judgment on its manifestations. Such a thesis represented a new aspect in the understanding of art.

The social problems of the post-reform period were reflected in fiction. The spirit of accusation, a critical attitude to reality were characteristic of the works of Russian writers of these years. Literature not only denounced social evil, but also sought to find ways to combat it. True, these paths were understood in different ways: some saw deliverance from social injustices in the moral improvement of man, others called for an active struggle against them. But Russian literature has always been distinguished by democracy, love for the common man, the desire to help him free himself from centuries of oppression.

The literature of the post-reform period was a "bright constellation of great names." During these years, works were created by the largest Russian writers, whose creative path began in the previous era. The new generation of realist writers that entered literature in the 1960s and 1970s brought new themes, genres, and ideological and aesthetic principles. IN literary process those years, the leading place belonged to the essay, which raised acute social problems, indirect questions of the life and way of life of the peasantry (essays by V.A. Sleptsov, G.I. Uspensky and others).

The emergence of the democratic novel, in which actor became a raznochinets (N.G. Pomyalovsky's story "Petty Bourgeois Happiness"). program work In the 60s there was a novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?", published in Sovremennik in 1863. It was a story about "new people", their morality and moral values.

A reflection of the acute ideological and artistic struggle in the literature of the 1960s and 1970s was the appearance of the so-called anti-Nigili novel ("Demons" by F.M. Dostoevsky and others).

The 70s - the time of the greatest achievements of the Russian classic novel and story. Huge contribution to national culture were introduced by I.S. Turgenev (1818-1883) and F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). In Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", published in 1862, and in his other works, images of new heroes of the era are created.

The work of F.M. Dostoevsky, ideologically complex, sometimes tragic, is always deeply moral. Pain for the humiliated and offended, faith in man were main theme writer. He opposed turmoil and bloodshed as a means of renewing the world. N.A. Nekrasov (1821-1877 / 78) considered the raznochinskaya youth as an ideological leader. The theme of the people, their searches and hopes occupied a central place in Nekrasov's poetry. It expresses not only the dream of the happiness of the people, but also faith in their strength, capable of throwing off the shackles of slavery (the poem "To whom in Rus' to live well"). pinnacle of Russian literature XIX V. was the work of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). He posed "great questions" in his novels, short stories, journalism. The writer was always worried about the fate of the people and the Motherland (historical epic "War and Peace"). One of the acute social literary works modernity was Tolstoy's novel "Anna Karenina", in which, depicting the life of Russian society in the 70s, it makes an indisputable verdict on morality, mores, and the foundations of this society.

The state of the theater in the post-reform era was determined by the success of domestic drama. The public, in particular the theatrical, drew attention to the burning issues of theater development: improving professional acting education, expanding the network of theaters through the creation of private enterprises. In 1882 the monopoly of state theaters was abolished. However, even earlier, private performances arose under the guise of "home performances", "family evenings", etc. Thus, the Artistic Circle appeared in Moscow - a social and artistic organization (1865-1883), created on the initiative of A.N. Ostrovsky, N.G. Rubinshtein, V.F. Odoevsky; the first folk theater at the Polytechnic Exhibition (1872).

The Maly and Alexandrinsky theaters continued to be the main centers of theatrical culture. However, the number of theaters and theater troupes has increased significantly in provincial towns Russia. In the 1960s they operated in more than 100 cities. At this time, theaters were opened in Orel, Ryazan, Kostroma, Smolensk, Saratov, Penza, and others. A new spectator appeared from among the Raznochinsk intelligentsia. The theater became the cultural center of the province.

With the intensification of acute problems in public life in the theater, interest in modern everyday drama grew.

The development of the Russian theater in the second half of the XIX century. is inextricably linked with the name of A.N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886), who considered the theater "a sign of the maturity of the nation, as well as academies, universities and museums." Ostrovsky's dramaturgy is a remarkable phenomenon of national artistic culture. From the staging of the play "Do not get into your sleigh" in 1852 on the stage of the Maly Theater, Ostrovsky's works took a leading place in his repertoire. Many talented Russian actors (P.M. Sadovsky, N.Kh. Rybakov, P.A. Strepetova, A.E. Martynov, N.A. Nikulina and others) were brought up on the dramaturgy of Ostrovsky.

The musical culture of this time was also distinguished by some new features. In 1859, on the initiative of A.G. Rubinshtein (1829-1894), the Russian Musical Society was organized "to develop musical education, taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talents." The Society organized symphony and chamber concerts. In St. Petersburg, A.G. Rubinshtein (1862), and then in Moscow, N.G. Rubinshtein (1866) opened conservatories that laid the foundation for professional music education in Russia. In St. Petersburg in the 60s, the composer M.A. Balakirev and the teacher of singing G.Ya. Lomakin opened a free music school that existed until 1917. It set the task of spreading musical knowledge, promoting the works of Glinka, Dargomyzhsky, composers " mighty handful", works of foreign composers (L. Beethoven, Liszt, G. Berlioz, etc.).

In the second half of the XIX century. huge role in the development musical culture played creative association composer "a mighty handful" [M.A. Balakirev (1836/37-1910), M.P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), Ts.A. Cui (1835-1918), A.P. Borodin (1833-87 ), N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908)]. This name was given to him by the music critic and his ideological leader V.V. Stasov (1824-1906). The ideological and moral views of this community were formed under the influence of the ideas of the 60-70s. One of the main features of the aesthetics and musical creativity of the composers of the "powerful handful" was the desire to convey in music the "truth of life", the national character. They widely used musical folklore, gravitated towards historical and epic plots and contributed to the establishment of a folk musical theme on the stage ("Boris Godunov", "Khovanshchina" by M.P. Mussorgsky).

Outstanding achievements of Russian music are associated with the name of P.I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). He is one of the greatest composers of our era, leaving a vast creative heritage in the field of ballet, opera, symphony, chamber musical art (ballets " Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty"; operas "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"; symphonies, romances, symphonic poems, music cycle"Seasons", etc.). The national and deeply folk music of Tchaikovsky has a rare power of emotional impact. Along with the lyrical life-affirming beginning, Tchaikovsky's music has features of tragedy, which are especially strong in his last works.

Real life and its problems posed new challenges for the visual arts, in particular for painting. One of the articles in Sovremennik (1859) called on artists to "be inspired by the history and movement of modern society."

The 1880s did not leave anything significant in the history of the Russian classical novel. Bright, unsurpassed works were created in the previous period ("Fathers and Sons" by Turgenev; "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina" by Tolstoy; "Crime and Punishment", "The Brothers Karamazov" by Dostoevsky; "Lord Golovlev" by Saltykov-Shchedrin; " Cliff" Goncharova and others). But the largest Russian writers - Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Ostrovsky - have passed away. The ideological crisis of L. Tolstoy was reflected in his work, the conditions of social life changed. A period has come when the "ground of reality" turned out to be unfavorable for the creation of great works. Writers who came to literature in the late 70s - early 80s (V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko and others) were the authors of works of small forms (story, short story, short story).

In 1880, A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) came to literature. His first story, Letter to a Learned Neighbor, was published in the Dragonfly magazine. In the work of Chekhov, especially in the early period, the ideological atmosphere generated by the era of the 80s was reflected. He wrote about the "gloomy point" of life, vulgarity and philistinism that swept the layman, painted a broad picture of the life of various strata of Russian society at the turn of the century, which was sharply critical in its essence.

The writer rebelled against the world of vulgarity, dreamed of a bright life and a beautiful human personality. L. Tolstoy said about Chekhov: "He was an incomparable artist ... an artist of life ... and the dignity of his work is that it is understandable not only to every Russian, but to every person in general."

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3. Artistic culture of the 19th century

Introduction

1. General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th - 19th centuries.

the first quarter of a century associated with the reforms of Peter;
the era of the 30-60s, marked by further growth national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;
the last third of the century (starting from the mid-1960s), marked by great social shifts, an aggravation social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

2. Culture of the nobility.

Russian culture of the second half of the XVIII century. reflects the features of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is growing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Leading writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; the first literary journals appeared.
The main content of the cultural process of the middle of the XVIII century. - the formation of Russian classicism, the ideological basis of which was the struggle for a powerful national statehood under the auspices of autocratic power, the assertion of the power of absolute monarchy in artistic images.
Although Russian writers and artists turned to the experience of Western European classicism, which was ahead of them in development, they sought to give this trend the features of national identity. Lomonosov said well about this: “In order not to introduce anything objectionable, but not leave anything good, one must look at who and in what it is better to follow.”
Unlike Western European classicism, in Russian classicism, full of the pathos of citizenship, enlightening tendencies and a sharp accusatory satirical stream were strong.
In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Tredyakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov. A.D.
The traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in a different way in the works of A. P. Sumarokov and his school (M. M. Kheraskov, V. I. Maikov, Ya. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism.
Since the 70s of the XVIII century. Russian classicism in literature is in crisis; the aggravation of social contradictions and class struggle leads to the penetration of new themes and moods into literature. Thus, republican motifs appeared in Ya. B. Knyazhnin's tragedy Vadim Novgorodsky. But at the same time, the civil theme is pushed aside by love lyrics. From the leading literary trend, classicism becomes the literature of narrow reactionary feudal circles.
A characteristic feature of Russian classicism in sculpture was warmth and humanity. It is enough to look at the tombstone of N. M. Golitsyna in the Donskoy Monastery by F. G. Gordeev to feel the sublime sadness and wise restraint of quiet sorrow, expressed with the greatest sincerity. Russian masters created samples of monumental sculpture, distinguished by their majestic character, humanism of images, conciseness and generalization. One of the most remarkable monuments of this era is the monument to Peter I by E.-M. Falcone. He was a foreigner, but the monument he created should be considered within the framework of Russian culture, which predetermined the assessment of Peter I and the interpretation of his sculptural image.
Classicism was also reflected in historical painting. The paintings by A. P. Losenko “Vladimir and Rogneda” and “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”, the painting by G. I. Ugryumov “Testing the Strength of Jan Usmar” draw attention to themselves. However, in painting, the limitations of classicism affected more - the abstract ideal nature of the images, the conventionality of color, the imitation of the postures and gestures of ancient samples.
Russian theatrical classicism, which has developed to mid-eighteenth century, was laid down by the dramaturgy of Lomonosov and Sumarokov, who approved the national-patriotic theme and educational direction in the theater. The spread of classicism in theatrical art is associated with the emergence in St. Petersburg in 1756 of the state public professional theater headed by the Russian actor F. G. Volkov. The largest actors of Russian theatrical classicism were also I. A. Dmitrevsky, P. A. Plavilshchikov, T. M. Troepolskaya. Their playing was distinguished by subtle mastery in revealing passions and thoughts, expressiveness of recitation. A master of great stage temperament, F. G. Volkov left behind the memory of an inspired artist in the heroic images of the freedom-loving characters of the Sumarokov tragedy, who did not leave the stage at that time.

Sentimentalism

Classicism was not the only current of noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to feelings and interests common man predominantly from the "middle" class. The tragedy was replaced by a "tearful philistine drama" and a comic opera. The sublime language of the tragic heroes ceases to excite the listeners, who enthusiastically meet the “mixture of fun with sorrow in the actions” and shed tears over sensitive stories. The creator of the genre of a sentimental story and a sentimental journey in Russian literature, N. M. Karamzin sought to convey subtle and deep feelings ordinary people. However, in his works, in a conservative spirit, he painted the idyllic relationship between landowners and peasants. N. M. Karamzin was afraid of the performance of the peasants, the ghost of the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. and therefore reconciled with feudal reality.
The influence of sentimentalism was also reflected in architecture, especially park architecture, with various "grottoes of solitude", mysterious pavilions hidden in the twilight, in the stylization of "wild" nature. One of the works of the agronomist and noble memoirist A. T. Bolotov is called “Some General Notes on Gentle Melancholy Gardens”. Most of the estates of the XVIII century. was created with the participation or projects of serf architects and gardeners.
In painting, sentimentalism was reflected in "sensitive" subjects, in a sugary-sweet interpretation peasant images, in a pastoral depiction of nature. In M. M. Ivanov’s painting “Milking a Cow”, all the artist’s attention is focused not on peasants (his images do not look like them!), but on meek lambs, on an idyllic picture of peaceful rural life. Looking at this canvas, one cannot think that it was written in 1772 - on the eve of the Peasants' War. Sentimental themes are also strong in the work of the landscape painter S. F. Shchedrin, who painted traditional “landscapes with cattle”, peasant huts of fantastic architecture and idyllic “rural amusements” of shepherds and shepherdesses.
One of the prominent sentimentalists in portraiture was V. L. Borovikovsky. The female images he created (for example, the portrait of M. I. Lopukhina) are full of tender elegiac feelings and idyllic moods.
The founder of sentimentalism in the Russian theater is the actor V. II. Pomerantsev. Theater of the 70-80s of the XVIII century. often turned to pastoral operas and comedies. Such is Maykov's "Village Holiday", at which the tender peasants sing in chorus: "We have a lot in the field and live according to our will, you are our master and father! »
Sentimental-idyllic "sensibility" penetrated into the music. The romance “The Dove Dove is Moaning” (words by I. I. Dmitriev, music by F. M. Dubyansky) outlived its creators for a long time, continuing into the 19th century. disturb the hearts of merchants and petty bourgeoises.
Sentimentalism in Russian culture arose during the period of the formation of new, bourgeois relations in the depths of the feudal-serf system, and its struggle with classicism was a reflection of deep socio-economic processes. Therefore, for all the political limitations of sentimentalism, it was a progressive trend for its time.

3. Artistic culture of the 19th century

Conclusion
The eighteenth century in the field of culture and life of Russia is a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.
The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, means of artistic expression have changed. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. Back in the depths of the 17th century, in the time of Peter the Great, there was a process of "secularization" of Russian culture. In the formation and development of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom the new tasks turned out to be beyond their capacity. Foreign masters invited to the Russian service not only helped to create new art, but also were teachers of the Russian people. Another no less important way of obtaining professional training was sending Russian masters to study in Western Europe. So many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, Germany.
In the culture of Russia in the 19th century, changes of great significance took place. They constituted the cultural heritage of the country. Cultural heritage is the most important form in which continuity is expressed in the historical development of society. Even in the conditions of a socialist revolution, which resolutely denies many of the socio-historical institutions of the old society, the creation of a qualitatively new culture is impossible without the creative development of cultural heritage, without a careful attitude to the culture of past eras, without preserving the wealth that was created in various areas of culture. Today we are especially aware of this.

List of used literature

Anisimov E.V. The birth of an empire // book. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. Moscow: Politizdat. 1991.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia, - M.: 1975. Volumes 18,19,20,21.

Zezina M. R. Koshman L. V. Shulgin V. S. History of Russian culture. - M., 1990

V.V. Mavrodin "Birth new Russia.", - M., 1998.

Art culture XIX century

Romanticism in painting

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The art of romanticism

in painting

Romanticism

Romanticism (fr. romanticism ) - a phenomenon of European culture in the XVIII-XIX centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture late 18th century - first half of the 19th century.

It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.

In the 18th century, the favorite motifs of artists were mountain scenery and picturesque ruins. Its main features are the dynamism of the composition, volumetric spatiality, rich color, chiaroscuro.

Romanticism in painting

In the visual arts, Romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, and less so in architecture. In their canvases, the artists obeyed only the call of their own souls, paid great attention expressive display of feelings and experiences of a person. The painting of romanticism was inherent in " horrible power create all possible ways". Favorite expressive means color, lighting, attention to detail, emotionality of manner, stroke, texture become romantic painting.

Caspar David Friedrich

German artist.

Born September 5, 1774 in Greifswald in the family of a soap maker. In 1790 he received his first drawing lessons. From 1794-1798 Friedrich studied fine arts at the Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen. In 1794-1798 he studied at the Copenhagen Academy of Arts. Until 1807 he worked exclusively in the technique of drawing, then he turned to oil painting. The main expression of David's emotional load is light. It does not create the illusion of light, but makes objects and figures cast bizarre and mysterious shadows. In 1835, the artist was paralyzed, and since then he no longer worked with oil paints, limiting himself to small sepia drawings. The artist died in poverty on May 7, 1840 in Dresden.

“The picture should be perceived as a picture, as the creation of human hands, and not deceive us with a perfect likeness from nature” (K.D. Friedrich)

Works by David Friedrich:

"Landscape with a Rainbow", 1809, State Art Collection, Weimar

"Wanderer over the Sea of ​​Fog" (1817-1818)

His regular art education began only in 1822 at the Berlin Academy, with the landscape painter P. L. Lutke. However, due to unsettled relations with the teacher, K. Blechen broke with academic school and leaves for Saxon Switzerland. From 1824 to 1827 he worked as a theater designer in Berlin. Blechen is a landscape painter by his subject. His compositions after a trip to the south become freer and stylistically more real. He is known as one of the first German "industrial" artists who sang the nascent industrial power of modern times. Carl Blechen died at the age of 42 mentally ill.

Blechen's works:

In the Berlin Tiergarten, 1825

In the park of Villa d'Este, 1830

Exploded tower of Heidelberg Castle,

OK. 1830

building Devil's bridge,

Ferdinand Victor Eugene Delacroix

French painter and graphic artist, leader of the romantic trend in European painting. His parents died when he was very young. In 1815, the young man was left to himself. And he made a choice by entering the workshop of the famous classicist Pierre, Narcissus Guerin (1774-1833). In 1816, Delacroix became a student of the School of Fine Arts, where Guerin taught. In the 1850s, his recognition became undeniable. In 1851, the artist was elected to the city council of Paris. In 1855 he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor. In the same year, Delacroix's personal exhibition was organized as part of the World Exhibition in Paris. Delacroix died quietly and imperceptibly from a recurrence of a sore throat in his Parisian home on August 13, 1863, at the age of 65.

“My heart,” he wrote, “always begins to beat faster when I am left face to face with a huge wall waiting for the touch of my brush”

Works Delacroix:

"A mortally wounded robber who quenches his thirst." 1825

"Algerian women in their rooms". 1834 Canvas, oil. 180x229 cm. Louvre, Paris.

Liberty Leading the People, 1830, Louvre

“... If I didn’t fight for my homeland, then at least I’ll write for it”

( Eugene Delacroix)

Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes

Spanish painter, engraver.

The freedom-loving art of Goya is distinguished by bold innovation, passionate emotionality, fantasy, sharp characterization, socially oriented grotesque:

- cardboards for the royal tapestry workshop ("The Game of Blind Man's Buff", 1791),

- portraits ("Family of King Charles IV", 1800),

- murals (in the chapel of the Church of San Antonio de la Florida, 1798, Madrid, in the "House of the Deaf", 1820-23), graphics (series "Caprichos", 1797-98, "Disasters of War", 1810-20),

- paintings ("The uprising on May 2, 1808 in Madrid" and "The execution of the rebels on the night of May 3, 1808" - both c. 1814).

Works Goya:

Portrait of the Marchioness of Santa Cruz

"Maja dressed" ca.1803, Prado, Madrid

"Nude Maja" 1800, Prado, Madrid

"Water Carrier" 1810

"Antonia Zarate" 1811, Hermitage, St. Petersburg

Conclusion :

Romantics open up the world human soul, individual, unlike anyone else, but sincere and therefore close to all sensual vision of the world. The instantaneity of the image in painting, as Delacroix said, and not its consistency in literary performance, determined the focus of artists on the most complex transmission of movement, for the sake of which new formal and coloristic solutions were found.

Romanticism left a legacy of the second half of the XIX century. all these problems and artistic individuality liberated from the rules of academism.

The symbol, which among the Romantics was supposed to express the essential combination of idea and life, in the art of the second half of the 19th century. dissolves into polyphony artistic image, capturing the diversity of ideas and the world around.

Lecture 9 (13.05.11)

20 numbers on the second pair - report-presentation.

Major reforms in education and culture.

Peter the Great, embarking on fundamental changes in the life of Russia, was well aware that no reforms would be effective without restructuring the education system: the developing state apparatus needed experienced officials, the army and navy needed competent officers, the industry needed knowledgeable engineers. That is why the process of secularization, which began in the 17th century, becomes dominant in the first quarter of the 18th century.

In the period from 1701 to 1725, the Engineering School, the Artillery School, the Navigator School, the Medical School, the Pasteur Gluck Academic Gymnasium, as well as 42 schools in the province were opened in Russia.

Peter made a lot of efforts to popularize scientific knowledge. For this purpose, even during his first trip abroad in 1696-97, he began to buy collections of minerals, flora and fauna from around the world. It was these collections that formed the basis of the future Kunstkamera in St. Petersburg, a visit to which Peter made mandatory for all nobles.

The final formalization of Russian science and education takes place in 1724. When, by decree of Peter, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was created, the activity of which begins in 1725. The first Russian academicians were foreigners invited from Europe. Such as Eimler, Pallas, Bernoulli and others. But by the 1940s, Russia also had its own Russian academicians, such as Lepekhin, Zuev, Rumovsky, Lomonosov.

The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, in turn, tried to popularize scientific knowledge, but this was hindered by the fact that all education was conducted in Latin. Only in 1746 did Lomonosov give the first public lecture in Russian.

The development of domestic science continued after the death of Peter. An important milestone on this path was the opening in 1755 of the first Russian university in Moscow. The final consolidation of Russian science as an institution took place in 1783. When, by decree of Catherine II, the Russian Academy of Sciences was created. The first president was Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.

Artistic culture of the 18th century.

The 18th century in the history of Russian culture is the time of the formation of its secular character, this is the time when Western European styles, directions, types and genres came into it. The first great artistic style of the 18th century in Russia was the Baroque, which penetrated here through Eastern Europe And Western Ukraine and Belarus, which left certain imprints on him. It should be immediately noted that not one of the styles that came to Rus' from Europe did not exist here in its original form and received a national refraction. Russian Baroque had a number of specific traits, among which should be noted the combination of Baroque unrestraint and pretentiousness with the severity of Russian Orthodoxy, as well as the absence of the grotesque that was inherent in Western Europe.

Baroque in Russia finds expression in the city and estate ensembles of St. Petersburg, Tsarskoe Selo, Peterhof, in the poems of Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Trediakovsky, in the sculptural works of Carlo Rastrelli.

Classicism in Russia also had a number of specific features, first of all, it comes here with a delay of at least a hundred years, and secondly, in different types art, he entered not simultaneously, but gradually. For example, in literature in the 40s and 50s, in architecture in the 60s and 70s, in painting only at the end of the century. At the same time, in Europe, classicism was the official style of the aristocracy.

In Russia, it reflects purely Russian problems: the fate of the peasantry, the ignorance and cruelty of the nobility, the peculiarities of Orthodoxy, etc., while Russian classicism was characterized by the idealization of reality and understanding of the purpose of creativity, as a re-creation of the proper, and not a reflection of the real .

Classical ideas find their expression in the architecture of Vasily Bazhenov, the sculpture of Fedot Shubin, this is the literary heritage of Fonvizin, this is the work of A.N. Radishchev, painting work

In the field of painting, the 18th century is a time of receding into the background religious painting and the time of the formation of Russian secular portraiture, almost all artists worked in this genre: Matveev, Nikitin, Antropov, Argunov, Vishnyakov, Lasenko. The second half of the 18th century - artists: Rokotov, Borovikovsky, Levitsky.

Also, the 18th century is the time of the formation and development of the Russian theater. In 1703, the first public, public theater was opened in Moscow on Red Square, in which German actors played on German. Then the period of so-called domestic theaters begins in the Russian theater, the most notable of which was the theater of Count Sheremetyev.

Also in various cities of Russia, small troupes were created, which, at their own peril and risk, composed plays and staged performances. Governor Sumarokov drew attention to one of these troupes that arose in Yaroslavl in the late 40s under the leadership of the actor, director, poet and artist Fyodor Volkov. Which in 1755 took this troupe to St. Petersburg and Elizabeth Petrovna liked her performances so much that the first Russian theater was created by her decree. Theatre of Drama(1756)

The film "How I Spent This Summer"

Russian culture of the 19th century.

The 19th century in the history of Russian culture is the time of the highest rise and final completion of all cultural forms, while it was the century of the greatest cataclysms, wars, contradictions and unrest, thanks to which Russia achieved a colossal rise.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia, this vast continental country, with a pronounced agrarian mode of production, with a population of about 90 million people, of which less than 12% were literate. By the end of the 19th century, the population of Russia had increased to 120 million people, of which about 25% were literate and the country was a fairly industrialized power. The factors that significantly influenced the development of the country and its culture were the ITV of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the Decembrist uprising of 1825, the cruel policy of Nicholas I of 1825-55, Crimean War 1853-56 and the defeat of Russia in it, the abolition of serfdom in 1860 and the emergence and formation of the people's revolutionary movement in the last quarter of the 19th century.

The main factor that influenced the cultural upsurge was the War of 1812. The national-patriotic upsurge led to the intensive development of the education system, science, art, literature, music and theater.

A serious brake on the development of its culture was the preservation of the system of class inequality. There were 6 estates in Russia:

1. Nobility

2. Clergy

3. Merchants and honorary citizens

4. Cossacks

5. Philistinism

6. Peasantry.

Artistic culture of the 19th century.

In the first half of the 19th century, 3 artistic movements coexisted simultaneously in Russia:

1. Classicism - which by the beginning of the 19th century had become the dominant style of the ruling nobility, which aspired to be seen as the mainstay of the existing system. Russian classicism, referring to the ancient heritage, exalted the themes of courage, personal responsibility for everything that happens, i.e. those ideas that were not relevant in the new conditions. Therefore, already in the first quarter of the 19th century, classicism was fading away.

2. Sentimentalism - this is a direction that appeared in Russian culture at the end of the 18th century, and reflected the illusory confidence of the nobles in the original simplicity and purity of the Russian peasantry. In the 19th century, in new political and historical conditions remained relevant only for supporters of the preservation of the culture of Catherine's times, such as Derzhavin and Karamzin, therefore, in the 20s of the 19th century, sentimentalism disappears.

3. The most influential direction was romanticism . Having penetrated here from Europe, primarily in the works of Byron and Goethe, romanticism with its ideas of freedom, love of freedom, rebelliousness, rebellious love, turned out to be unusually popular and in demand. Romantic style was honed in the works of such poets as Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Chaadaev. Later in the works of Ryleev, Kuchelbeker, Odoevsky, Griboyedov. The heyday of Russian romanticism is the work of Pushkin and Lermontov. And its completion is the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Alexei Tolstoy.

In the middle of the 19th century, Russian literature experienced a new upsurge associated with the ideas of naturalism and realism, at the origins of which stood Gogol. Russian naturalistic literature is the work of such writers as Turgenev and Goncharov.

The second half of the 19th century is the era of the dominance of critical realism. Presented mostly novels. Representatives of this trend in their works strove to depict life with all the contradictions and shortcomings, therefore, in the works of Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nekrasov, Leskov and others, the widest panorama of the social life of Russian society at the end of the 19th century appears.

Russian theater.

At the beginning of the 19th century, works written in the classicist manner prevailed on the Russian stage, as a rule, these were tragedies written on ancient heroic plots.

Comedies were also staged with great success, among which the comedy by I.A. Krylov, such as "Fashion Shop", "Lesson to Daughters".

In the 1920s and 1930s the Russian stage was dominated by vaudeville, a synthetic genre that combined dramatic action with music, singing and dancing. Most of the audience were merchants and philistines. A significant event in the theatrical life of the 1930s was the staging in St. Petersburg on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater - Gogol's comedy "The Government Inspector".

In the second half of the 19th century, the Maly Theater in Moscow became the center of the theatrical life in Russia, for more than 30 years associated with the name of the playwright A.N. Ostrovsky. During his life, he wrote over 80 plays, among which the most notable are: the dramas "Dowry", "Thunderstorm", the comedies "Wolves and Sheep", "Enough Simplicity for Every Wise Man", the fairy tale "Snow Maiden" and others. At the same time, Ostrovsky acted not only as an author, but also as a teacher and mentor for actors and directors of the Maly Theater. In the 1980s, the staging of dramas by L.N. Tolstoy, such as the Living Corpse and the Prince of the Crowd.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the work of A.P. Chekhov, whose drama for the entire 20th century is a kind of school. The largest Russian actors of the 19th century were: Mikhail Shchepkin, Pyotr Sadovsky, Asenkova, Yermolova, Strepetov and others.

Everyone knows that at the beginning of the 19th century Russia began to lag behind Europe in economic terms. But these lags were compensated by a sharp rise in the cultural sphere. expressed She was greatly influenced by the Patriotic War with France in 1812.

The Russian state was in dire need of educated, comprehensively developed people. With the advent of capitalism in Russia, this problem became the most urgent, and it served as an impetus for the development of culture. Very often the government went against the developing industry. The advanced ideas of writers, publicists, and artists were not taken seriously by conservative emperors. The situation was changing rapidly, and very soon the 19th century began to be called the "Golden Age". And the theater, literature and music of Russia became widely known to the Western public.

The 19th century, influenced by the ideas of classicism, left a huge number of masterpieces. The paintings were painted by artists in most cases on biblical themes. It was also common to see mythological subjects or portraits. Our culture of the 19th century gave the history of two outstanding portrait painters - Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin. By the way, it was they who left us some amazingly accurate lifetime portraits A.S. Pushkin. Another famous artist 19th century - Karl Bryullov. In 1803, he visited the excavations of the ancient city of Pompeii, which was destroyed. Bryullov painted a picture called "The Last Day of Pompeii", which glorified him throughout Europe. A little later, the painter Alexander Ivanov also became famous. He devoted about 20 years of his life to work on the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People."

The theater was also transformed at the very beginning of the 19th century. On the stage one could see both performances foreign authors, such as Schiller or Shakespeare, and domestic. N.V. was especially popular with the public. Puppeteer. He was engaged in writing various historical plays. Following them, the audience fell in love satirical comedies Krylov and Fonvizin. Closer to the middle of the 19th century, literature had a great influence on the theater. After permission, the big premiere of The Inspector General (author N.V. Gogol) took place on the stage. Glinka's opera "The Life of the Tsar" can be called a real breakthrough.

Russian culture of the 19th century is especially significant in literature. Classicism is gradually replaced by sentimentalism, and then by romanticism. Romanticism began to be divided into progressive and conservative. The main figures of this current of literature: Kuchelbeker, Ryleev, Davydov, Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, Baratynsky, Zhukovsky. Also, the great Russian writers Lermontov, Pushkin, Gogol sometimes wrote their works in the tradition of romanticism. Then comes a new stage of literature - realism. The founder is considered to be Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. With the publication of his "Eugene Onegin", this trend of literature is considered dominant. "The Captain's Daughter", "Boris Godunov", "The Bronze Horseman" - the most popular realistic works Pushkin. Griboedov's Woe from Wit, Gogol's Dead Souls and Lermontov's Hero of Our Time can be called real treasures of the Golden Age. The work of great writers and poets, such as Nekrasov N. A. Turgenev I. S., Dostoevsky F. M., Tolstoy L. N. falls on the second part of the 19th century, since that time the development of symbolism, one of the brightest trends in literature, begins.

European culture The 19th century also experienced changes at this time. Politics played a major role here. But the culture of the 19th century in Europe differed sharply from the domestic one. Imperialism dictated its demands to Europe. At this time, the development of theater and literature slowed down somewhat, but began new era European philosophy.