Artistic reception of time and space. Artistic time and artistic space in a work

The world of heroes (the reality of a literary work through the eyes of its characters, in their horizons = a narrated event) in the theory of literature is described in a system of categories: chronotope, event, plot, motive, type of plot. Chronotope - literally "timespace" = a work of art represents a "small universe". The concept of chronotope characterizes the general features (characteristics) of the world depicted in the work. From the side of the hero (characters)- these are the inalienable conditions of his (their) existence, the action of the hero is his reaction to the state of the artistic world. By the author the chronotope is the author's value reaction to the world depicted by him, the actions and words of the hero. Spatial and temporal characteristics do not exist in isolation from each other, in the picture of the world the categories of space and time are basic, they determine other characteristics of this world = the nature of connections in the artistic world follows from the spatio-temporal organization of the work = from the chronotope. “Space is comprehended and measured time" = the reality of the artistic world looks different for the author, contemplating it from the outside and from another time, and the hero, acting and thinking inside this reality. Artistic space is not measured in universal units (meters or minutes). Artistic space and time is a symbolic reality.

Therefore, the artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: the Hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. In a fairy tale, a long time period. But despite this, the characters remain as young as they were at the beginning of the tale. Time in a work of art can be inverted - events do not occur in a "natural" sequence, but in a special space and time here, they are perceived as forms of consciousness, i.e. a form of human comprehension of being, and not its "objective" reproduction. (for example, Tolstoy's story "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" begins with the image of how the acquaintances of the hero, having learned about his death, come to say goodbye to the deceased. And only after that the whole life of the hero unfolds before the reader, starting from childhood. The space of any work of art is organized as a number of value oppositions: Opposition "closed - open".

In the novel “Crime and Punishment”, the images of a closed space are directly associated with death and crime (the closet where Raskolnikov’s “idea” matures is directly called the “coffin”, and he himself is correlated with Evangelical Lazarus, which "has been stinking for three days now").

Raskolnikov wanders around the city, moving farther and farther away from his closet-coffin = instinctively seeks to break the vicious circle of St. Petersburg, which in this regard is associated with the closet-coffin. It is no coincidence that Raskolnikov's renunciation of his "idea" takes place on the banks of the Irtysh, from where a look at the endless steppes opens. Opposite value orientation. For example, an idyll as a literary genre is organized by opposing the open, open space of the “big world”, as a world of anti-values, to the world of a closed space as a world of true values, in which they can only exist, and the hero’s exit outside this world is the beginning of his spiritual or physical death.Vertical organization of space. An example is Dante's Divine Comedy with its hierarchically ordered picture of the world.Horizontal organization of artistic space. Center to periphery ratio: landscape or portrait, with emphasis on details that come out to the center of the image. For example, the emphasis on the eyes of the hero (Pechorin), or the “red hands” of Bazarov. When the same historical event occupies a different place in the picture of the world: in Mayakovsky’s poem “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin”, Lenin’s death is the center of artistic space, and in Nabokov’s novel “The Gift”, the same event is said in passing “Lenin died somehow imperceptibly ".The opposition of "right" and "left".For example, in a fairy tale, the world of people is invariably located on the right, and on the left is the “other” world in everything, including, first of all, the value-opposite one. The same patterns can be found in the analysis of artistic time. The nature of artistic time is manifested in the fact that in a work of art the time of coverage of events and the time of events almost never coincide. Because such slowing down and speeding up of time is a form of assessment (self-assessment) of the hero's life as a whole. Events embracing a large period of time can be given in one line, or not even mentioned, but simply implied, while events that take moments can be depicted in extreme detail (Praskuhin's dying thoughts in " Sevastopol stories») . Opposition of cyclic, reversible and linear, irreversible time: Time can move in a circle, passing through the same points. For example, natural cycles (change of seasons), age cycles, sacred time, when all events occurring in time realize some kind of invariant, i.e. changing only outwardly situation = behind the variety of events taking place in it, there is one and the same recurring situation, revealing their true and unchanging, repetitive meaning "A lamb on a hot day went to the stream to drink." When did this event happen? In the world of the fable, this question does not make sense, since in the world of the fable it is repeated at any time. . While in the world of a historical or realistic novel, this question is of fundamental importance. Historical time can act as an anti-value, it can act as destructive time, then cyclic time acts as a positive value. For example, in the book of the Russian writer of the 20th century. Ivan Shmelev "Summer of the Lord": here is life organized according to church calendar, from one sacred holiday to another - a guarantee of the preservation of genuine spiritual values,

and involvement in historical time is a guarantee of spiritual catastrophe as a separate human personality and the human community as a whole. A variant is widespread in the literature, when in the value hierarchy open time is valued higher than cyclic time, for example, in Russian realistic novel the degree of involvement of the hero in the forces of historical renewal turns out to be a measure of his spiritual value. The chronotope, being unified, is nevertheless internally heterogeneous. Within the general chronotope, there are private. For example, within the general chronotope " dead souls» Gogol, individual chronotopes can be distinguished roads, estates, h we begin in the work the chronotope of a city, a country. So, in the general chronotope of Russia, given in "Eugene Onegin", the separation of the spaces of the village and the capital is significant. Chronotopes are historically changeable, the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of one historical era differs significantly from the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of another historical era. Chronotopes also have genre variability. = All the real variety of chronotopes of one and the same genre can be reduced to one model, one type.

The natural forms of existence of the depicted world (as well as the world of time and the real world) are time and space. Time and space in literature are a kind of convention, on the nature of which various forms of spatio-temporal organization depend. artistic world.

Among other arts, literature deals with time and space most freely (only the art of cinema can compete in this respect).

In particular, literature can show events taking place simultaneously in different places: for this, the narrator just needs to introduce into the narrative the formula “In the meantime, something happened there” or a similar one. Just as simply, literature passes from one temporal stratum to another (especially from the present to the past and vice versa); the earliest forms of such temporal switching were the memories and the story of a hero - we already meet them in Homer.

Another important property of literary time and space is their discreteness (discontinuity). With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature does not reproduce the entire time stream, but selects only artistically significant fragments from it, denoting “empty” intervals with formulas such as “how long, how short”, “several days have passed”, etc. Such temporal discreteness serves as a powerful means of dynamizing first the plot, and subsequently psychologism.

The fragmentation of artistic space is partly related to the properties of artistic time, but partly it has an independent character. Thus, the instantaneous change of spatio-temporal coordinates, natural for literature (for example, the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Oblomovka in Goncharov's novel Oblomov), makes it unnecessary to describe the intermediate space (in this case, the road). The discreteness of the actual spatial images lies in the fact that in the literature a particular place can not be described in all details, but only indicated by individual signs that are most significant for the author and have a high semantic load. The rest (as a rule, a large part) of the space is "finished" in the reader's imagination. Thus, the scene of action in Lermontov's "Borodino" is indicated by only four fragmentary details: "a large field", "redoubt", "guns and forests blue tops". Just as fragmentary, for example, is the description of Onegin's village study: only a "portrait of Lord Byron", a figurine of Napoleon and - a little later - books are noted. Such discreteness of time and space leads to significant artistic savings and increases the significance of a separate figurative detail.

The nature of the conventionality of literary time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. In the lyrics, this convention is maximum; in lyrical works in particular, there may be no image of space at all - for example, in Pushkin's poem "I loved you ...". In other cases, spatial coordinates are present only formally, being conditionally allegorical: for example, it is impossible to say that the space of Pushkin's "Prophet" is the desert, and Lermontov's "Sail" is the sea. However, at the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing object world with its spatial coordinates, which have great artistic significance. So, in Lermontov's poem "How often, surrounded by a motley crowd ..." the opposition of the spatial images of the ballroom and the "wonderful kingdom" embodies the antithesis of civilization and nature, which is very important for Lermontov.

With artistic time, lyricism handles just as freely. We often observe in it a complex interaction of time layers: past and present (“When a noisy day falls silent for a mortal ...” by Pushkin), past, present and future (“I will not humble myself before you ...” Lermontov), ​​mortal human time and eternity (“rolling down from the mountain, the stone lay in the valley ...” Tyutchev). Occurs in the lyrics and the complete absence significant image time, as, for example, in Lermontov’s poems “Both Boring and Sad” or Tyutchev’s “Wave and Thought” - the time coordinate of such works can be determined by the word “always”. On the contrary, there is also a very sharp perception of time by a lyrical hero, which is typical, for example, for the poetry of I. Annensky, as even the titles of his works speak of: “A moment”, “Anguish of fleetingness”, “Minute”, not to mention deeper images. However, in all cases, lyrical time has a high degree of convention, and often abstract.

The conventions of dramatic time and space are connected mainly with the orientation of the drama towards the theatrical production. Of course, each playwright has his own construction of a spatio-temporal image, but the general character of the convention remains unchanged: “No matter how significant the role of narrative fragments in dramatic works, no matter how the depicted action is fragmented, no matter how the characters’ statements sounding aloud obey their internal logic. speech, the drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.

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* Khalizev V.E. Drama is a kind of literature. M., 1986. S. 46.

The greatest freedom in dealing with artistic time and space has epic race; it also exhibits the most complex and interesting effects in this region.

By features artistic convention literary time and space can be divided into abstract and concrete. This division is especially important for the artistic space. We will call abstract a space that has a high degree of conventionality and which, in the limit, can be perceived as a “general” space, with coordinates “everywhere” or “nowhere”. It does not have a pronounced characteristic and therefore does not have any influence on the artistic world of the work: it does not determine the character and behavior of a person, is not associated with the characteristics of the action, does not set any emotional tone, etc. Thus, in Shakespeare's plays, the place of action is either completely fictional ("Twelfth Night", "The Tempest"), or has no influence on the characters and circumstances ("Hamlet", "Coriolanus", "Othello"). As Dostoevsky rightly remarked, "his Italians, for example, are almost entirely the same Englishmen"*. In a similar way, the artistic space is built in the dramaturgy of classicism, in many romantic works (ballads by Goethe, Schiller, Zhukovsky, short stories by E. Poe, Lermontov's The Demon), in literature of decadence (plays by M. Maeterlinck, L. Andreev) and modernism (" Plague" by A. Camus, plays by J.-P. Sartre, E. Ionesco).

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* Dostoevsky F.M. Full coll. soch., V 30 t. M., 1984. T. 26. S. 145.

On the contrary, concrete space does not simply “tie” the depicted world to one or another topographical reality, but actively influences the entire structure of the work. In particular, for Russian literature of the XIX century. characteristic is the concretization of space, the creation of images of Moscow, St. Petersburg, a county town, a manor, etc., as mentioned above in connection with the category of literary landscape.

In the XX century. One more trend was clearly identified: a peculiar combination within the limits of a work of art of concrete and abstract space, their mutual "overflow" and interaction. At the same time, a specific place of action is given a symbolic meaning and high degree generalizations. The concrete space becomes a universal model of being. At the origins of this phenomenon in Russian literature were Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "History of the village of Goryukhina"), Gogol ("The Government Inspector"), then Dostoevsky ("Demons", "The Brothers Karamazov"); Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city"), Chekhov (almost all mature creativity). In the 20th century, this trend finds expression in the works of A. Bely ("Petersburg"), Bulgakov (" white guard”, “Master and Margarita”), Ven. Erofeev (“Moscow-Petushki”), and in foreign literature - by M. Proust, W. Faulkner, A. Camus (“The Outsider”) and others.

(It is interesting that a similar tendency to turn real space into a symbolic one is observed in the 20th century in some other arts, in particular, in cinema: for example, in the films of F. Coppola's "Apocalypse Now" and F. Fellini's "Orchestra Rehearsal" quite concrete at the beginning space is gradually, towards the end, transformed into something mystical and symbolic.)

The corresponding properties of artistic time are usually associated with abstract or concrete space. Thus, the abstract space of the fable is combined with abstract time: “The strong one is always to blame for the weak ...”, “And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner ...”, etc. In this case, the most universal laws of human life, timeless and spaceless, are mastered. And vice versa: spatial specifics are usually supplemented by temporal ones, as, for example, in the novels of Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy, etc.

The forms of concretization of artistic time are, firstly, the "binding" of the action to real historical landmarks and, secondly, the precise definition of "cyclic" time coordinates: the seasons and the time of day. The first form was especially developed in the aesthetic system of realism of the 19th-20th centuries. (thus, Pushkin insistently pointing out that in his "Eugene Onegin" time is "calculated according to the calendar"), although it arose, of course, much earlier, apparently already in antiquity. But the measure of specificity in each individual case will be different and accentuated to varying degrees by the author. For example, in "War and Peace" by Tolstoy, "The Life of Klim Samgin" by Gorky, "The Living and the Dead" by Simonov, etc. In artistic worlds, real historical events are directly included in the text of the work, and the time of action is determined not only to the nearest year and month, but often even one day. But in "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov or "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky, the time coordinates are quite vague and can be guessed by indirect signs, but at the same time, the link in the first case to the 30s, and in the second to the 60s, is quite obvious.

The image of the time of day has long had a certain emotional meaning in literature and culture. So, in the mythology of many countries, the night is the time of the undivided dominance of secret and most often evil forces, and the approach of dawn, heralded by the crow of a rooster, brought deliverance from evil spirits. Clear traces of these beliefs can be easily found in literature up to the present day (Bulgakov's Master and Margarita, for example).

These emotional and semantic meanings were preserved to a certain extent in the literature of the 19th–20th centuries. and even became enduring metaphors like "the dawn of a new life." However, for the literature of this period, a different tendency is more characteristic - to individualize the emotional and psychological meaning of the time of day in relation to a specific character or lyrical hero. So, the night can become a time of intense reflection (“Poems composed at night during insomnia” by Pushkin), anxiety (“The pillow is already hot ...” by Akhmatova), longing (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov). Morning can also change its emotional coloring to the exact opposite, becoming a time of sadness (“Foggy Morning, Gray Morning...” by Turgenev, “A Pair of Bays” by A.N. Apukhtin, “Gloomy Morning” by A.N. Tolstoy). In general, there are a great many individual shades in the emotional coloring of time in the latest literature.

The season has been mastered in the culture of mankind since the most ancient times and was associated mainly with the agricultural cycle. In almost all mythologies, autumn is the time of death, and spring is the time of rebirth. This mythological scheme has passed into literature, and traces of it can be found in a wide variety of works. However, more interesting and artistically significant are individual images time of the year for each writer, filled, as a rule, with psychological meaning. There are already complex and implicit relationships between the time of year and the state of mind, giving a very wide emotional spread (“I don’t like spring ...” by Pushkin - “I love spring more than anything ...” Yesenin). Correlation psychological state character and lyrical hero with a particular season becomes in some cases a relatively independent object of reflection - here we can recall Pushkin's sensitive feeling of the seasons ("Autumn"), Blok's "Snow Masks", a lyrical digression in Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin": "A at what time of the year // Is it easier to die in a war? The same time of the year is individualized by different writers, carries a different psychological and emotional burden: let's compare, for example, Turgenev's summer in nature and St. Petersburg's summer in Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment"; or almost always a joyful Chekhovian spring (“I felt May, dear May!” - “The Bride”) with spring in Bulgakov’s Yershalaim (“Oh, what a terrible month of Nisan this year!”).

Like local space, concrete time can reveal in itself the beginnings of absolute, infinite time, as, for example, in Dostoevsky's "Demons" and "The Brothers Karamazov", in Chekhov's late prose ("Student", "On Affairs of Service", etc.) , in "The Master and Margarita" by Bulgakov, the novels of M. Proust, "Magic Mountain" by T. Mann, etc.

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes taking place in it. For a practical analysis of a work of art, it is important to at least qualitatively (“more - less”) determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator often characterizes the style of the work. For example, Gogol's style is characterized mainly by the most filled space, as we talked about above. A somewhat smaller, but still significant, saturation of space with objects and things is found in Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Count Nulin"), Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorky, Bulgakov. But in the style system, for example, Lermontov's space is practically not filled. Even in A Hero of Our Time, not to mention such works as Demon, Mtsyri, Boyar Orsha, we cannot imagine a single specific interior, and the landscape is most often abstract and fragmentary. There is no subject saturation of space and such writers as L.N. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. Nabokov, A. Platonov, F. Iskander and others.

The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events (in this case, by “events” we mean not only external, but also internal, psychological ones). Three options are possible here: average, “normal” time occupancy with events; increased intensity of time (the number of events per unit of time increases); reduced intensity (saturation with events is minimal). The first type of organization of artistic time is presented, for example, in Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, the novels of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Gorky.

The second type - in the works of Lermontov, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov. The third - in Gogol, Goncharov, Leskov, Chekhov.

The increased saturation of artistic space is combined, as a rule, with a reduced intensity of artistic time, and vice versa: a reduced saturation of space is combined with an increased saturation of time.

For literature as a temporary (dynamic) art form, the organization of artistic time is, in principle, more important than the organization of space. The most important problem here is the relationship between the time depicted and the time of the image. Literary reproduction of any process or event requires a certain time, which, of course, varies depending on the individual pace of reading, but still has some certainty and somehow correlates with the time of the depicted process. Thus, Gorky's "Life of Klim Samghin", which covers forty years of "real" time, requires, of course, a much shorter time period for reading.

The depicted time and the time of the image, or, in other words, real and artistic time, as a rule, do not coincide, which often creates significant artistic effects. For example, in Gogol's "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" between the main events of the plot and the narrator's last visit to Mirgorod, about a decade and a half pass, which are extremely sparingly noted in the text (of the events of this period, only the deaths of judge Demyan Demyanovich and crooked Ivan Ivanovich). But these years were not completely empty either: all this time the lawsuit continued, the main characters grew old and approached inevitable death, still busy with the same “business”, in comparison with which even eating a melon or drinking tea in a pond seem to be activities full of meaning. The time interval prepares and enhances the sad mood of the finale: what at first was only funny, then becomes sad and almost tragic after a decade and a half.

In the literature, there are often quite complicated relationship between real and artistic time. So, in some cases, real time can generally be equal to zero: this is observed, for example, in various kinds of descriptions. Such time is called eventless. But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, we have events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationship of people, or the situation as a whole - such time is called plot time. In another case, a picture of sustainable existence is drawn, i.e. actions and deeds that are repeated from day to day, from year to year. In the System of such artistic time, which is often called "chronicle-everyday", practically nothing changes. The dynamics of such time is maximally conditional, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. A good example of such a temporary organization is the depiction of the cultural and everyday life of the Larin family in Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" ("They kept in a peaceful life // Habits of dear old times ..."). Here, as in some other places in the novel (the depiction of Onegin's daily activities in the city and in the countryside, for example), it is not dynamics that is reproduced, but static, which has not happened once, but always happens.

The ability to determine the type of artistic time in specific work- very important thing. The ratio of time of eventless ("zero"), chronicle-everyday and event-plot largely determines the tempo organization of the work, which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception, forms the reader's subjective time. So, Gogol's "Dead Souls", in which eventless and chronicle everyday time predominates, gives the impression of a slow pace and requires an appropriate "reading mode" and a certain emotional mood: Artistic time is unhurried, the same should be the time of perception. For example, Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment has a completely opposite tempo organization, in which event time predominates (recall that we include not only plot twists and turns, but also internal, psychological events as “events”). Accordingly, both the mode of its perception and the subjective pace of reading will be different: often the novel is read simply “excitedly”, in one breath, especially for the first time.

The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a definite tendency towards complication. in the 19th and especially in the 20th century. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic technique; begins a kind of "game" with time and space. Her idea, as a rule, is to compare different times and spaces, to reveal both the characteristic properties of "here" and "now" and the general, universal laws of human existence, independent of time and space; it is the understanding of the world in its unity. This artistic idea was very accurately and deeply expressed by Chekhov in the story “Student”: “The past,” he thought, “is connected with the present by an uninterrupted chain of events that followed one from the other. And it seemed to him that he had just seen both ends of this chain: he touched one end, as the other trembled.<...>truth and beauty, which directed human life there, in the garden and in the courtyard of the high priest, have continued uninterruptedly to this day and, apparently, have always been the main thing in human life and in general on earth.

In the XX century. comparison, or, in the apt word of Tolstoy, "conjugation" of spatio-temporal coordinates has become characteristic of very many writers - T. Mann, Faulkner, Bulgakov, Simonov, Aitmatov, and others. One of the most striking and artistically significant examples of this trend is Tvardovsky's poem "Beyond the distance - the distance." The space-time composition creates in it an image of the epic unity of the world, in which there is a rightful place for the past, the present, and the future; and a small forge in Zagorye, and a great forge in the Urals, and Moscow, and Vladivostok, and the front, and the rear, and much more. In the same poem, Tvardovsky figuratively and very clearly formulated the principle of space-time composition:

There are two types of travel:

One - to start off from a place into the distance,

The other is to sit in your place,

Scroll back the calendar.

This time the reason is special

Let me combine them.

Both that and that - by the way, both of me,

And my path is doubly beneficial.

These are the main elements and properties of that side art form, which we called the depicted world. It should be emphasized that the depicted world is an extremely important aspect of the entire work of art: the stylistic, artistic originality works; without understanding the features of the depicted world, it is difficult to go to the analysis artistic content. We recall this because in the practice of school teaching the depicted world is not singled out at all as a structural element of the form, and, consequently, its analysis is often neglected. Meanwhile, as one of the leading writers of our time, W. Eco, said, “for storytelling, first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking it through in detail”*.

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* Eco W. The name of the rose. M., 1989. S. 438.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant in literary criticism by the term "depicted world"? In what way is its non-identity of primary reality manifested?

2. What is an art piece? What are the groups of artistic details?

3. What is the difference between detail-detail and detail-symbol?

4. What it serves literary portrait? What types of portraiture do you know? What is the difference between them?

5. What functions do images of nature perform in literature? What is a "cityscape" and why is it needed in a work?

6. What is the purpose of describing things in a work of art?

7. What is psychologism? Why is it used in fiction? What forms and techniques of psychologism do you know?

8. What is fantasy and lifelike as a form of artistic convention?

9. What functions, forms and techniques of science fiction do you know?

10. What is plot and descriptiveness?

11. What types of spatio-temporal organization of the depicted world do you know? What artistic effects does the writer extract from images of space and time? What is the relationship between real time and artistic time?

Exercises

1. Determine what type of artistic details (detail-detail or detail-symbol) is typical for "Belkin's Tales" by A.S. Pushkin, "Notes of a hunter" I.S. Turgenev, "White Guard" M.A. Bulgakov.

2. What type of portrait (portrait-description, portrait-comparison, portrait-impression) belong to:

a) a portrait of Pugachev ("The Captain's Daughter" by A.S. Pushkin),

b) a portrait of Sobakevich (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol),

c) a portrait of Svidrigailov (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky),

d) portraits of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov),

e) a portrait of Lenin (“V.I. Lenin” by M. Gorky),

f) a portrait of Biche Seniel (“Running on the Waves” by A. Green).

3. In the examples from the previous exercise, set the type of connection between the portrait and character traits:

- direct match

- contrast inconsistency,

is a complex relationship.

4. Determine what functions the landscape performs in the following works:

N.M. Karamzin. Poor Lisa

A. S. Pushkin. gypsies,

I.S. Turgenev. Forest and steppe,

A. P. Chekhov. Lady with a dog,

M. Gorky. Okurov town,

V.M. Shukshin. The desire to live.

5. In which of the following works does the image of things play a significant role? Determine the function of the world of things in these works.

A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from the mind

N.V. Gogol. old world landowners,

L.N. Tolstoy. Sunday,

A.A. Block. Twelve,

A.I. Solzhenitsyn. One day Ivan Denisovich

A. and B. Strugatsky. Predatory things of the century.

6. Determine the prevailing forms and techniques of psychologism in the following works:

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

N.V. Gogol. Portrait,

I.S. Turgenev. Asya,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Teenager,

A. P. Chekhov. new cottage,

M. Gorky. At the bottom,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart.

7. Determine in which of the following works fantasy is an essential characteristic of the depicted world. In each case, analyze the predominant functions and devices of fiction.

N.V. Gogol. The missing letter

M.Yu. Lermontov. Masquerade,

I.S. Turgenev. Knocking!,

N.S. Leskov. The Enchanted Wanderer,

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Chizhikovo grief, lost conscience,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Bobok,

S.A. Yesenin. Black man,

M.A. Bulgakov. Rock eggs.

8. Determine in which of the following works the essential characteristic of the depicted world is plot, descriptiveness and psychologism:

N.V. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled, Marriage,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

A.N. Ostrovsky. Wolves and sheep

L.N. Tolstoy. After the ball,

A P. Chekhov. Gooseberry,

M. Gorky. Life of Klim Samgin.

9. How and why space-time effects are used in the following works:

A.S. Pushkin. Boris Godunov,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Demon,

N.V. Gogol. haunted place,

A.P. Chekhov. Gull,

M.A. Bulgakov. diaboliad,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Ant Country,

A. and B. Strugatsky. Noon. XXII century.

Final task

Analyze the structure of the depicted world in two or three of the following works according to the following algorithm:

1. For the depicted world are essential:

1.1. plot,

1.2. descriptiveness

1.2.1. analyze:

a) portraits

b) landscapes,

c) the world of things.

1.3. psychologism

1.3.1. analyze:

a) forms and techniques of psychologism,

b) the functions of psychologism.

2. For the depicted world, it is essential

2.1. lifelikeness

2.1.1. determine lifelike functions,

2.2. fiction

2.2.1. analyze:

a) the type of fantastic imagery,

b) forms and techniques of fantasy,

c) fantasy functions.

3. What type of artistic details prevails

3.1. details-details

3.1.1. to analyze, using one or two examples, the artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of the details,

3.2. details-symbols

3.2.1. to analyze on one or two examples the artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of the details-symbols.

4. Time and space in the work are characterized

4.1. concreteness

4.1.1. analyze the artistic impact and function of a particular space and time,

4.2. abstractness

4.2.1. analyze the artistic impact and function of abstract space and time,

4.3. abstractness and concreteness of time and space are combined in an artistic image

4.3.1. to analyze the artistic impact and functions of such a combination.

Make a summary of the previous analysis about artistic features and functions of the depicted world in this work.

Texts for analysis

A.S. Pushkin. Captain's daughter, Queen of Spades,

N.V. Gogol. May Night, or Drowned Woman, Nose, Dead Souls,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Demon, Hero of our time,

I.S. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons,

N.S. Leskov. Old years in the village of Plodomasovo, Enchanted Wanderer,

I.A. Goncharov. Oblomov,

ON THE. Nekrasov. Who lives well in Russia,

L.N. Tolstoy. Childhood, Death of Ivan Ilyich,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Crime and Punishment,

A.P. Chekhov. On business, Bishop,

E. Zamyatin. We,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Terkin in the other world

A. I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich.

Artistic space and time (chronotope)- space and time depicted by the writer in a work of art; reality in its space-time coordinates.

Artistic time is an order, a sequence of actions in the worst. work.

Space is a collection of little things in which an artistic hero lives.

Logically connecting time and space create a chronotope. Every writer and poet has his favorite chronotopes. Everything obeys this time and heroes and objects and verbal actions. And yet, the main character is always in the foreground in the work. The larger the writer or poet, the more interesting they describe both space and time, each with their own specific artistic techniques.

The main features of space in a literary work:

1. It does not have direct sensual authenticity, material density, visibility.
2. Perceived by the reader associatively.

The main signs of time in a literary work:

1. Greater concreteness, immediate certainty.
2. The desire of the writer to converge artistic and real time.
3. Concepts of motion and immobility.
4. Relationship between past, present and future.

Category of artistic time in literature

In various systems of knowledge, there are various ideas about time: scientific-philosophical, scientific-physical, theological, everyday, etc. The plurality of approaches to identifying the phenomenon of time has given rise to the ambiguity of its interpretation. Matter exists only in motion, and motion is the essence of time, the comprehension of which is largely determined by the cultural makeup of the era. So, historically, in the cultural consciousness of mankind, two ideas about time have developed: cyclic and linear. The concept of cyclic time goes back to antiquity. It was perceived as a sequence of events of the same type, the source of which were seasonal cycles. Characteristic features completeness, the repetition of events, the idea of ​​return, the indistinguishability of beginning and end were considered. With the advent of Christianity, time began to appear to human consciousness as a straight line, the vector of movement of which is directed (through relation to the present) from the past to the future. The linear type of time is characterized by one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness, its movement is perceived as a duration and sequence of processes and states of the surrounding world.

However, along with the objective, there is also a subjective perception of time, as a rule, depending on the rhythm of the events taking place and on the characteristics emotional state. In this regard, they single out objective time, which refers to the sphere of the objectively existing external world, and perceptual time, to the sphere of perception of reality by an individual. So, the past seems to be longer if it is rich in events, while in the present it is the other way around: the more meaningful its filling, the less noticeable the flow. The waiting time for the desired event is painfully lengthened, for the undesirable - painfully shortened. Thus, time, influencing the mental state of a person, determines his course of life. This happens indirectly, through experience, thanks to which a system of units for measuring time intervals (second, minute, hour, day, day, week, month, year, century) is established in the human mind. In this case, the present acts as a constant reference point that divides the course of life into past and future. Literature, compared with other forms of art, is most freely able to deal with real time. Thus, at the will of the author, a shift in time perspective is possible: the past appears as the present, the future as the past, and so on. Thus, obeying the creative intent of the artist, the chronological sequence of events can reveal itself not only in typical manifestations, but also, in conflict with the real flow of time, in individual authorial manifestations. Thus, the modeling of artistic time may depend on genre-specific features and trends in literature. For example, in prose works, the present tense of the narrator is usually set conditionally, which correlates with the narrative about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. Multidirectionality, reversibility of artistic time is characteristic of modernism, in the depths of which the novel of the “stream of consciousness” is born, the novel of “one day”, where time becomes only a component of the psychological existence of a person.

In individual artistic manifestations, the passage of time can be deliberately slowed down by the author compressed, curtailed (actualization of instantaneity) or completely stopped (in the depiction of a portrait, landscape, in the author's philosophical reflections). It can be multidimensional in works with intersecting or parallel storylines. Fiction, belonging to the group of dynamic arts, is characterized by temporal discreteness, i.e. the ability to reproduce the most significant fragments, filling in the resulting “voids” with formulas such as: “several days have passed”, “a year has passed”, etc. However, the idea of ​​time is determined not only by the author's artistic intention, but also by the picture of the world in which he creates. For example, in ancient Russian literature, as noted by D.S. Likhachev, there is a not so egocentric perception of time as in literature XVIII- XIX centuries. “The past was somewhere ahead, at the beginning of events, a number of which did not correlate with the subject perceiving it. The "rear" events were the events of the present or the future. Time was characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict observance of the real sequence of events, constant appeal to the eternal: "Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in depicting the highest manifestations of being - the divine establishment of the universe." Along with the event time, which is an immanent property of the work, there is the author's time. “The author-creator moves freely in his time: he can start his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time.”

The author's time varies depending on whether he takes part in the events depicted or not. In the first case, the author's time moves independently, having its own storyline. In the second - it is motionless, as if concentrated at one point. The event time and the author's time can differ significantly. This happens when the author either overtakes the course of the narrative, or lags behind, i.e. follows the events "on the heels". There can be a significant time gap between the time of the narration and the time of the author. In this case, the author writes either from memories - his own or someone else's.

AT artistic text Both the time of writing and the time of perception are taken into account. Therefore, the author's time is inseparable from the reader's time. Literature as a form of verbal-figurative art presupposes the presence of an addressee. Usually, reading time is an actual (“natural”) duration. But sometimes the reader can be directly included in the artistic fabric of the work, for example, acting as the "narrator's interlocutor". In this case, the reading time is displayed. “Depicted reading time can be long and short, sequential and inconsistent, fast and slow, intermittent and continuous. It is mostly depicted as the future, but it can be present and even past.

The nature of performing time is rather peculiar. It, as Likhachev notes, merges with the time of the author and the time of the reader. In essence, this is the present, i.e. time of performance of a piece. Thus, in literature, one of the manifestations of artistic time is grammatical time. It can be represented with the help of tense forms of the verb, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological markings, syntactic constructions that create a specific time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent the plan of the present in the text).

Bakhtin M.M.: “The signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.” The scientist identifies two types of biographical time. The first one, influenced by the Aristotelian doctrine of entelechy (from the Greek “completion”, “fulfillment”), calls “characterological inversion”, based on which the completed maturity of character is the true beginning of development. The image of human life is given not within the framework of an analytical enumeration of certain traits and characteristics (virtues and vices), but through the disclosure of character (actions, deeds, speech and other manifestations). The second type is analytical, in which all biographical material is divided into: public and family life, behavior in war, attitude towards friends, virtues and vices, appearance, etc. The biography of the hero according to this scheme is made up of events and cases at different times, since a certain trait or property of character is confirmed by the most striking examples from life, which do not necessarily have a chronological sequence. However, the fragmentation of the temporary biographical series does not exclude the integrity of the character.

MM. Bakhtin also singles out folk-mythological time, which is a cyclic structure that goes back to the idea of ​​eternal repetition. Time is deeply localized, completely inseparable “from the signs of the native Greek nature and will take on the“ second nature ”, i.e. will accept native regions, cities, states. Folk-mythological time in its main manifestations is characteristic of an idyllic chronotope with a strictly limited and enclosed space.

Artistic time is determined by the genre specificity of the work, the artistic method, the author's ideas, as well as the way in which literary movement or directions this piece created. Therefore, the forms of artistic time are distinguished by variability and diversity. “All changes in artistic time add up to a certain general line of its development, connected with the general line of development verbal art in general” The perception of time and space in a certain way is comprehended by a person precisely with the help of language.

Artistic image

Artistic image

Artistic image

Creation techniques artistic image human

The image of space

"House" / image of a closed space

"Space" / image of open space "world"

"Threshold" / border between "home" and "space"

Space. The constructive category in the literary reflection of reality serves to depict the background of events. May manifest different ways, whether or not indicated, whether or not specified or implied, limited to the only place or presented in a wide range of coverage and relationships between the selected parts, which is also associated with literary type or variety, as with the postulates of poetics.

Artistic space:

· Real

Conditional

Volumetric

· Limited

· Limitless

· Closed

· Open circuit

artistic time

Correlated with historical

Not related to historical

· Mythological

Utopian

· Historical

"Idyllic" (time in the father's house, "good" times, time "before" (events) and, sometimes, "after")

· “Adventurous” (trials outside the father's house and in a foreign land, the time of active actions and fateful events, tense and eventful / N. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”)

“Mystery” (the time of dramatic experiences and major decisions in human life / the time spent by the Master in the hospital - Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”)

CONTENT AND FORM. Content is what the work of art is about, and form is how the content is presented. The form of a work of art has two main functions: the first is carried out within the artistic whole, so it can be called internal - this is the function of expressing content. The second function is found in the impact of the work on the reader.

Plot - the chain of events that reveal the characters and relationships of the characters. With the help of the plot, the essence of characters, circumstances, and their inherent contradictions are revealed. The plot is connections, sympathies, antipathies, the history of the growth of one or another character, type. When examining the plot, it is necessary to remember about its elements such as exposition, plot of action, development of action, climax, denouement, epilogue.

Plot - (French sujet, lit. - subject), in an epic, drama, poem, script, film - a way to unfold the plot, the sequence and motivation for presenting the events depicted. Sometimes concepts plot and plots define the opposite; sometimes they are identified. In traditional usage - the course of events in a literary work, the spatio-temporal dynamics of the depicted.

At first glance, it seems that the content of all books is built according to the same scheme. They tell about the hero, his environment, where he lives, what
what happens to him and how his adventures end.
But this scheme is something of a framework that not every author follows: sometimes the story begins with the death of the hero or the author abruptly cuts it off without telling what happened to the hero next. This kind of ending is called open final. In this case, the end of the story must come up with the reader himself.
However, in any work you can always find the main points around which, as it were, is tied plot. They are called - nodal points. There are few of them - the plot, the climax and the denouement.
plot - the main conflict that unfolds in events; specific developments.

Poetics is an essential part of literature. This is the study of the structure of a work of art. Not only individual work, but also the entire work of the writer (for example, the poetics of Dostoevsky), or the literary movement (the poetics of romanticism), or even the entire literary era(poetics ancient Russian literature). Poetics is closely connected with theory, and with the history of literature, and with criticism. In line with the theory of literature, there is a GENERAL POETICS - the science of the structure of any work. In the history of literature - HISTORICAL POETICS, which studies the development of artistic phenomena: genres (say, a novel), motives (for example, the motive of loneliness), plot, etc. Poetics has to do with literary criticism, which is also built according to certain principles and rules. This is the POETICS OF LITERARY CRITICISM.

Composition.

Conflict - (lat. conflictus - clash, disagreement, dispute) - a clash of characters and circumstances, views and principles of life, which is the basis of action.

Narrator - a conditional image of a person on whose behalf the narration is conducted in a literary work. He is, for example, in "The Captain's Daughter" by A.S. Pushkin, in "The Enchanted Wanderer" by N.S. Leskov. Often (but not necessarily) acts as a participant in the plot action.

Narrator - a conditional carrier of the author's (that is, not related to the speech of any character) speech in a prose work, on behalf of which the narration is being conducted; the subject of speech (narrator). It manifests itself only in speech and cannot be identified with the writer, as it is the product of the latter's creative imagination. In different works of the same writer, different narrators may appear. In the drama, the author's speech is kept to a minimum (remarks) and does not sound on stage.

Narrator - one who tells a story, orally or in writing. In fiction, it can mean the imaginary author of the story. Whether the story is told in the first or third person, the narrator in fiction is always assumed to be either someone involved in the action or the author himself.

Paphos - emotional and evaluative attitude of the writer to the narrated, characterized by great power of feelings.

Types of pathos:

Heroic (the desire to show the greatness of a person who performs a feat; affirmation of the greatness of a feat)

Dramatic (feeling of fear and suffering, generated by understanding the inconsistency of a person's public and private life; compassion for characters whose lives are under threat of defeat and death)

Tragic (the highest manifestation of inconsistency and struggle that arises in the mind of a person and his life; the conflict leads to the death of the hero and evokes in readers an acute sense of compassion and catharsis)

Satirical (indignantly mocking denial of certain aspects of social and privacy person)

Comic (humor (a mocking attitude towards harmless comic contradictions; laughter combined with pity)

Sentimental (increased sensitivity, tenderness, ability to heart reflection)

Romantic (an enthusiastic state of mind caused by the desire for a lofty ideal)

skaz- a special type of narration, conducted on behalf of the narrator in a peculiar, inherent in him, speech manner (everyday, colloquial); imitation of the "live voice" of the narrator with original vocabulary and phraseology. Bazhov " Malachite Box”, Leskov “Lefty”

Detail. Symbol. Subtext.

Word " symbol " comes from the Greek word symbolon, which means "conditional language." AT Ancient Greece so called halves of a stick cut in two, which helped their owners to recognize each other, wherever they were. Symbol- an object or word conditionally expressing the essence of a phenomenon.

Symbol contains figurative meaning, in this he is close to metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Metaphor is a more direct assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another. Symbol much more complex in structure and meaning. The meaning of the symbol is ambiguous and it is difficult, often impossible to fully reveal. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint, allowing only to guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much with reason as with intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plan - inner world lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination. An explicit, objective plan and a hidden, deep meaning coexist in the symbolist image. The symbolists are especially fond of the spiritual spheres. They seek to penetrate them.

subtext- implicit meaning, which may not coincide with the direct meaning of the text; hidden associations based on the repetition, similarity or contrast of individual elements of the text; emerges from the context.

Detail- an expressive detail in a work that carries a significant semantic and emotional load. Artistic details: furnishing, exterior, landscape, portrait, interior.

1.10. Psychologism. Nationality. Historicism.

In any work of art, the writer one way or another tells the reader about the feelings, experiences of a person. But the degree of penetration into the inner world of the individual is different. The writer can only record some feeling of the character (“he got scared”), without showing the depth, shades of this feeling, the reasons that caused it. This depiction of a character's feelings cannot be considered psychological analysis. Deep penetration into the inner world of the hero, a detailed description, analysis of various states of his soul, attention to the shades of experiences is called psychological analysis in literature(often called simply psychologism ). Psychological analysis appears in Western European literature in the second half of the 18th century (the era of sentimentalism, when epistolary and diary forms are especially popular. At the beginning of the 20th century, the foundations of the depth psychology of the personality were developed in the works of Z. Freud and C. Jung, a conscious and unconscious beginning was discovered. These discoveries could not but affect literature , in particular on the work of D. Joyce and M. Proust.

First of all, they talk about psychologism when analyzing an epic work, since it is here that the writer has the most means of depicting the inner world of the hero. Along with the direct statements of the characters, there is the speech of the narrator, and you can comment on this or that remark of the hero, his act, reveal the true motives of his behavior. This form of psychology is called summarily denoting .

In cases where the writer depicts only the features of the behavior, speech, facial expressions, appearance of the hero. it indirect psychologism, since the inner world of the hero is shown not directly, but through external symptoms, which may not always be unambiguously interpreted. The methods of indirect psychologism include various details of a portrait (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), a landscape (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), an interior (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), etc. Psychological methods also include default. Analyzing in detail the behavior of the character, the writer at some point does not say anything at all about the experiences of the hero and thereby forces the reader to spend psychological analysis. For example, Turgenev's novel " Noble Nest” ends like this: “They say that Lavretsky visited that remote monastery where Lisa hid - he saw her. Moving from choir to choir, she walked close past him, walked with the even, hastily-submissive gait of a nun - and did not look at him; only the eyelashes of the eye turned to him quivered a little, only she tilted her emaciated face even lower - and the fingers of her clenched hands, intertwined with a rosary, pressed even more tightly to each other. What did they both think they felt? Who will know? Who will say? There are such moments in life, such feelings ... You can only point at them - and pass by. Liza's gestures make it difficult to judge her feelings, it is only obvious that she has not forgotten Lavretsky. How Lavretsky looked at her remains unknown to the reader.

When the writer shows the hero "from the inside", as if penetrating into the consciousness, the soul, directly showing what happens to him at one time or another. This type of psychology is called direct . The forms of direct psychologism can include the speech of the hero (direct: oral and written; indirect; internal monologue), his dreams. Let's consider each in more detail.

In a work of art, the speeches of the characters are usually given a significant place, but psychologism arises only when the character detail talks about his experiences, expresses his views on the world. For example, in the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky's heroes begin to speak extremely frankly with each other, as if confessing everything. It is important to remember that characters can communicate not only verbally, but also in writing. Written speech is more thoughtful, there are much less violations of syntax, grammar, logic. All the more they are significant, if appear. For example, a letter from Anna Snegina (the heroine of the poem of the same name by S.A. Yesenin) to Sergei is outwardly calm, but at the same time unmotivated transitions from one thought to another are striking. Anna actually confesses her love to him, because she writes only about him. She does not speak directly about her feelings, but transparently hints at it: "But you are still dear to me, / Like a homeland and like spring." But the hero does not understand the meaning of this letter, therefore he considers it "unreasonable", but intuitively understands that Anna, perhaps, has been in love with him for a long time. It is no coincidence that after reading the letter, the refrain changes: at first, “We all loved in these years, // But we were little loved”; then “We all loved during these years, // But, it means, // They loved us too.”

When a hero communicates with someone, questions often arise: to what extent is he frank, does he pursue some goal, does he want to make the right impression, or vice versa (like Anna Snegina) hide his feelings. When Pechorin tells Princess Mary that he was originally good, but he was spoiled by society, and as a result, two people began to live in him, he tells the truth, although at the same time, perhaps, he thinks about the impression that his words will make on Mary.

In many works of the 19th century, individual thoughts of the hero are found, but this does not mean that the writer deeply and fully reveals his inner world. For example, Bazarov, during a conversation with Odintsova, thinks: “You are flirting<...>, you miss me and tease me for having nothing to do, but to me ... "The hero's thought breaks off" in fact interesting place”, what exactly he experiences remains unknown. When the detailed reflection of the hero is shown, natural, sincere, spontaneous, internal monologue , which preserves the character's speech style. The hero thinks about what worries him especially, is interested in when he needs to take some important decision. are revealed main topics, problems internal monologues of a character. For example, in Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" Prince Andrei often thinks about his place in the world, about great people, about social problems, and Pierre - about the structure of the world as a whole, about what truth is. Thoughts are subject to the internal logic of the character, so you can trace how he came to a particular decision, conclusion. This technique was called N.G. Chernyshevsky the dialectic of the soul : “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts spill out of others, it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arises from this provision or impressions, subject to the influence of memories and the power of the combinations represented by the imagination, pass into other senses, return again to the same point, and again and again wander, changing, along the whole chain of memories; like a thought born first sensation, leads to other thoughts, gets carried away further and further, merges dreams with real sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.

From internal monologue should be distinguished mindflow , when the thoughts and experiences of the hero are chaotic, not ordered in any way, there is absolutely no logical connection, the connection here is associative. This term was introduced by W. James, the most striking examples of its use can be seen in the novel by D. Joyce "Ulysses", M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time". It is believed that this technique was discovered by Tolstoy, using it in special occasions when the hero is half asleep, half delirious. For example, through a dream, Pierre hears the word “harness”, which he turns into “conjugate”: “The most difficult thing (Pierre continued to think or hear in a dream) is to be able to combine the meaning of everything in his soul. Connect everything? Pierre said to himself. No, don't connect. You can't combine thoughts, but match all these thoughts - that's what you need! Yes, need to match, need to match! Pierre repeated to himself with inner delight, feeling that with these, and only with these words, what he wants to express is expressed, and the whole question that torments him is resolved.

- Yes, you need to pair, it's time to pair.

- It is necessary to harness, it is time to harness, Your Excellency! Your Excellency, - repeated a voice, - it is necessary to harness, it's time to harness ... ”(Vol. 3. Part 3, Ch. IX.)

In "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky dreams Raskolnikov help to understand the change in his psychological state throughout the novel. First, he has a dream about a horse, which is a warning: Raskolnikov is not a superman, he is able to show sympathy.

In the lyrics, the hero directly expresses his feelings and experiences. But the lyrics are subjective, we see only one point of view, one look, but the hero can tell in great detail and sincerely about his experiences. But in the lyrics, the feelings of the hero are often indicated metaphorically.

In a dramatic work, the state of the character is revealed primarily in his monologues, which resemble lyrical statements. However, in the drama of the XIX-XX centuries. the writer pays attention to the facial expressions, gestures of the character, captures the shades of intonation of the characters.

HISTORICISM OF LITERATURE- the ability of fiction to convey the living image of the historical era in specific human images and events. In a narrower sense, the historicism of a work is related to how faithfully and subtly the artist understands and depicts the meaning of historical events. “Historicism is inherent in all truly artistic works, regardless of whether they depict the present or the distant past. An example is the "Song of prophetic Oleg"and" Eugene Onegin "by A.S. Pushkin" (A.S. Suleimanov). "The lyric is historical, its quality is determined by the specific content of the era, it draws the experiences of a person of a certain time and environment" ( L. Todorov).

NATIONALITY of literature - the conditionality of literary works by the life, ideas, feelings and aspirations of the masses, the expression in literature of their interests and psychology. Picture of N.l. largely determined by what content is invested in the concept of "people". “The popular nature of literature is associated with the reflection of essential folk traits, the spirit of the people, its main national features ”(L.I. Trofimov). “The idea of ​​nationality opposes the isolation, the elitism of art and orients it towards the priority of universal human values” ( Yu.B.Borev).

Style.

The property of an artistic form, the totality of its elements, which gives a work of art a certain aesthetic appearance, a stable unity of the figurative system.

Literary criticism.

LITERARY AND ARTISTIC criticism - comprehension, explanation and evaluation of a work of art from the point of view of its modern significance.

Getting ready for the exam in literature.

1.1. Fiction as the art of the word.

Literature (from the Latin litera - letter, writing) is an art form in which the main means of figurative reflection of life is the word.

Fiction is a kind of art capable of revealing the phenomena of life in the most multifaceted and broad way, showing them in motion and development.

As the art of the word, fiction originated in oral folk art. Songs, folk epic tales became its sources. The word is an inexhaustible source of knowledge and an amazing means for creating artistic images. In the words, in the language of any people, its history, its character, the nature of the Motherland are imprinted, the wisdom of centuries is concentrated. The living word is rich and generous. It has many shades. It can be formidable and affectionate, inspire horror and give hope. No wonder the poet Vadim Shefner said this about the word:

Words can kill, words can save
In a word, you can lead the shelves behind you.
In a word, you can sell and betray and buy,
The word can be poured into smashing lead.

1.2. Oral folk art and literature. Genres UNT.

Artistic image. Artistic time and space.

Artistic image represents not only the image of a person (the image of Tatyana Larina, Andrei Bolkonsky, Raskolnikov, etc.) - it is a picture of human life, in the center of which stands special person, but which includes everything that surrounds him in life. So, in a work of art, a person is depicted in relationships with other people. Therefore, here we can talk not about one image, but about many images.

Any image is an inner world that has fallen into the focus of consciousness. Outside images there is no reflection of reality, no imagination, no cognition, no creativity. The image can take sensual and rational forms. The image can be based on a person's fiction, it can be factual. Artistic image objectified in the form of both the whole and its individual parts.

Artistic image can expressively affect the senses and the mind.

It gives the maximum capacity of content, is able to express the infinite through the finite, it is reproduced and evaluated as a kind of integrity, even if created with the help of several details. The image can be sketchy, unfinished.

As an example of an artistic image, one can cite the image of the landowner Korobochka from Gogol's novel Dead Souls. She was an older woman, thrifty, collecting rubbish. The box is extremely stupid and slow to think. However, she knows how to trade and is afraid to sell too cheap. This petty frugality, commercial efficiency puts Nastasya Petrovna above Manilov, who has no enthusiasm and knows neither good nor evil. The lady is very kind and caring. When Chichikov visited her, she treated him to pancakes, an unleavened egg pie, mushrooms, and cakes. She even offered to scratch the guest's heels for the night.