History of the Arabs. The customs and traditions of the Arabs in the modern world

And a number of other coastal states. There is also a small Arab population in Israel. The Arab world has almost 130 million people, of which 116 million are Arabs.

Many peoples were Arabized through the perception Arabic and Arabic culture. For almost all of them, Arabization went through Islam, the main religion of the Arab world.

The Arabs are divided into three main groups: Bedouin pastoralists engaged in breeding sheep, goats or camels, peasant farmers and urban dwellers.

The Arab world also includes a number of non-Arab minorities, such as Berbers and Tuaregs, Kurds in Iraq, Jews, Armenians, and some peoples of the geographic region of Sudan. Copts - Christians of Egypt, also speak Arabic, but consider themselves primordially pre-Arab Egyptians.

Major populations

The majority of the Bedouins live in Arabia and the neighboring desert regions of Jordan, Syria and Iraq, while some Bedouins live in Egypt and the northern Sahara. Their number is from 4 to 5 million. The Bedouins lead a strictly tribal and nomadic lifestyle. The tribe and each of its parts is headed by a sheikh, who is considered senior in wisdom and experience. The Bedouin are mainly engaged in camel breeding and sheep and goat breeding.

There are both Christians and Shia Muslims among the Bedouin, but the majority belong nominally to either Wahhabi Muslims or Sunni Muslims. The Bedouins are not as religious as the Muslims of villages and cities, but at the same time they regularly perform the five daily prayers prescribed by Islam. Because most Bedouins are illiterate, they cannot read the Qur'an themselves and have to rely on oral transmission. religious ideas. Together with many residents of villages and cities, they share a belief in the evil eye and evil spirits as the cause of illness and misfortune, as well as in the healing and protective powers of the tombs of various Muslim saints.

About 70% of Arabs live in villages and are peasants. Most Arab peasants have a deeply developed sense of belonging to their village, the inhabitants of which usually help each other in case of an external threat. They are also united by religious holidays or funerals. But most of the time, the villagers are divided into separate groups.

Arab cities are commercial, industrial, administrative and religious centers. Some of them are in many ways similar to European metropolitan areas with large buildings, wide streets and busy car traffic. For a traditional Arabic city and those old districts modern cities, which still continue to exist, are characterized by narrow streets and closely built-up houses, often with shops and workshops on the ground floors.

Story

Historical evidence from Mesopotamia begins to separate the Arabs from their other Semitic neighbors no earlier than the first millennium BC. At that time, the Arabs of southern Arabia had already established flourishing cities and kingdoms, such as Saba at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. Western Arabia in the era of Christianity was inhabited by townspeople and nomads who spoke Arabic and considered their origins to go back to the biblical patriarchs (usually to Ismail, see also Hagar), and in the city of Mecca they worshiped idols in a temple, first built, presumably, by Abraham .

And a hundred years after the death of Muhammad, the territory of Islam spread already from Spain through North Africa and southwestern Asia to the borders of India. The spread of Islam provided the Arabs with a network of useful contacts for them, and together with dependent peoples - Christians, Jews, Persians, etc. - they built one of the greatest civilizations.

There are hundreds of nations all over the world. All of them are of different numbers, they all have their own special traditions, their own mentality. Many live in some separate territory of their own, as, for example, the peoples of Russia or Africa. And what is the name of the country where the Arabs live?

Arab League

This people long story, which originates tens of centuries ago. Their ancestors lived in the Middle East and North Africa. At present, nothing much has changed. Arabs still live on their territory. There is the League of Arab States, which includes not one country where the Arabs live, but several located just on this territory. The largest of them:

• Saudi Arabia.
• Egypt.
• Algeria.
• Libya.
• Sudan.
• Morocco.

This organization includes twenty-two states where Arabs live, the total population of which exceeds 425 million people! For comparison, the population of the European Union is approximately 810 million people. Not a very big gap, is it? Especially when you consider that a mixed population lives in Europe: different peoples and nationalities. Arabs are one people.

Ancient world

Arabs live not only in Africa and the Middle East. More precisely, the first ancestors of this group of peoples (and the Arabs are precisely a group of peoples) settled on

And the first Arab states began to appear in the second half of the second millennium BC. Moreover, even then it was believed that where the Arabs live, in which country it is not so important, the state will be one of the most developed. Before them, Ancient Rome and the new Europe of the dark times were still very far away.

Modernity

Now, in the twenty-first century, a huge number of representatives of this people are settled around the world. For example, in South America in total, about 15 million 100 thousand people live. And more specifically:

• in Brazil - 9 million people;
• in Argentina - 4.5 million people;
• in Venezuela - 1.5 million people.

In the aforementioned Europe, where the Arabs live, there are more than six and a half million representatives of this nation. Most of them are in France: almost six million. Even in Asia there are a huge number ethnic Arabs that are scattered throughout the region.

Islam and Arabs

And, in general, this is not surprising. After all, around the beginning of the seventh century AD, a man whom all Muslims would later call the prophet Muhammad began to preach the religion of Islam. On this basis, the state of the Caliphate was created.

100 years after its founding, it has already stretched its borders from the coast of Spain to Southwest Asia. Title, if expressed modern terminology, the nation of this state was Arab. Arabic was the state language and Islam was the predominant religion.

It was as a result of such political and religious transformations that the Arabs appeared in Asia. But what is interesting is that arab nation makes up the majority of the population Asian countries where Arabs live, like:

• Bahrain.
• Jordan and Iraq.
• Yemen.
• Qatar and
• Syria.
• Lebanon.
• Yemen.

As before, the main religion of the Arabs is Islam. There are a considerable number of supporters in Syria, Egypt and Libya Christian religion. But Islam is not a single religion. Its followers are divided into at least two areas: the followers of the Islamic religion of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion.

The culture of this group of peoples is also quite interesting to study. We can say that the Arab culture is almost one of the most ancient in the world. When the Crusades began to gather in Europe, the first thing they did was go where the Arab peoples live. They were already among the developed countries.

But the world does not stand still. Some kind of micro-migrations of small peoples and nationalities are constantly taking place. In addition, according to many reputable scientists, humanity is now experiencing almost another one. So, who knows, perhaps in a couple of centuries the main place of residence of the Arabs will not be the Middle East and as it is now, but Australia, Europe or North America. Who knows, anything can happen.

Berbers

Interestingly, the Berbers are related to the Arabs. This is a people whose representatives profess predominantly the Islamic religion. The approximate number of Berbers, if we take into account the whole world, is approximately 25 million people, most of whom live in Algeria and Morocco: in total, about 20 million people are obtained - 10.7 million in Algeria and 9.2 million in Morocco. This people can be called one of the largest in North Africa.

In the northern part of Morocco, where Arabs and Berbers live, the Amatsirgs settled, in the southern part - shillu, Algerian Berbers - Kabyles, Tuareg and Shaouya. Tuareg live in the territories of such countries as:

• Niger.
• Burkina Faso.
• Mali.

The Berbers themselves do not call themselves that. This name was given to them by the Europeans when they heard their strange language. You can immediately draw an analogy with the barbarians, who have roughly the same situation.

Where do the Berbers live?

The Berbers speak both their national language and Arabic and French. The question arises: how do Berbers know French? The answer is simple: Algeria and part of Morocco were until recently the colonial possessions of France, and more than 1.2 million representatives of the Berber people live in the country itself. And the Berber language itself is divided into many dialects that are spoken in different parts Sveta.

A considerable number of Berbers live in the Canary Islands (900 thousand) and in Libya (260 thousand). What is most surprising, representatives of this people live even in Canada. About 10 thousand Berbers live in the United Kingdom.

Despite their kinship with the Arabs, the Berbers adhere to a different culture, which in some aspects is fundamentally different from the Arab. But there are also a number of similarities. In general, hospitality is held in high esteem among the Berbers. And the law of hospitality, as you know, is the main law of the East.

This people has different ideas about material values ​​than Europeans. The Berbers consider gold to be a diabolical metal, unlike silver. Much higher than gold, camels are valued. Yes, yes, camels. They are considered a sign of wealth and prosperity in the family.

A people is a group of people united by some specific characteristics, there are more than 300 of them on Earth. There are numerous, for example, Chinese, and there are also small ones, for example, Ginukh, whose representation does not even reach 450 people.

The Arab people are the second largest group of people in the world, with about 400 million people. They inhabit the states of the Middle East and North Africa, but also recently they have been actively emigrating to Europe due to wars and political conflicts. So what kind of people are they, what is their history, and are there countries where Arabs live?

Where did the Arab people come from?

The forerunners of the Arabs are the wild tribes of Africa and the Middle East. In general, the first mention of them was found in various Babylonian writings. More specific instructions are written in the Bible. It is in it that it is said that in the 14th century BC. e. in Transjordan, and then in Palestine, the first shepherd tribes from the Arabian oases appear. Of course it's enough controversial version, but in any case, scientists agree that it was in Arabia that this people originated, and from there the history of the Arabs began.

The vast majority of Arabs profess Islam (90%), and the rest are Christians. In the 7th century, a previously unknown merchant Mohammed began to preach a new religion. After several years, the prophet created a community, and later a state - the Caliphate. This country began to rapidly expand its borders, and literally a hundred years later it stretched from Spain through North Africa and southwestern Asia to the borders of India. Due to the fact that the Caliphate had a vast territory, the state language was actively spreading on the lands subject to it, due to which the local population was transferred to the culture and customs of the Arabs.

The spread of Islam allowed the caliphates to establish close contact with Christians, Jews, etc., which contributed to the formation of one of the greatest civilizations in the world. During its existence, many great works of art were created, there was a rapid rise in science, including astronomy, medicine, geography and mathematics. But in the 10th century, the fall of the Caliphate (the state of the Arabs) began due to wars with the Mongols and Turks.

By the 16th century, Turkish subjects conquered the entire Arab world, and this continued until the 19th century, when the British and French already dominated North Africa. Only after the Second World War, all the people, except for the Palestinians, gained independence. They received freedom only by the end of the 20th century.

We will consider later where the Arabs live today, but for now it is worth dwelling on the linguistic and cultural characteristics of this people.

Language and culture

The Arabic language, the official language of all countries in which this group of people lives, belongs to the Afroasian family. About 250 million people speak it, and another 50 million people use it as a second language. The writing is based on the Arabic alphabet, which has changed slightly over its long history. The language is constantly changing. Arabic is now written from right to left and has no capital letters.

Along with the development of the people, culture also developed. It acquired its dawn during the period of the Caliphate. It is noteworthy that the Arabs based their culture on the basis of Roman, Egyptian, Chinese and others, and in general, this people made a big step in the development of human civilization. Studying the language and heritage will help to understand who the Arabs are, what are their values.

Science and literature

Arabic science developed on the basis of ancient Greek, for the most part on military affairs, since vast territories could not be captured and defended only with the help of human resources. At the same time, various schools open. Scientific centers are also emerging due to the development natural sciences. Great strides have been made in the historical and geographical areas of research. Mathematics, medicine and astronomy received a great leap in development in the Caliphate.

The main literary work of the Arab world is the Koran. It is written in the form of prose and serves as the basis of the religion of Islam. However, even before the appearance of this religious book, great written masterpieces were created. Mostly Arabs composed poetry. The themes varied, such as self-praise, love, and depictions of nature. In the Caliphate, such world works were written that are popular to this day, these are: "A Thousand and One Nights", "Maqamat", "Messages of Forgiveness" and "The Book of the Miser".

Arabic architecture

Many art objects were created by the Arabs. On initial stage the influence of Roman and Byzantine traditions affected, but over time, their architecture acquires its own unique look. By the 10th century created peculiar type a column of a mosque with a rectangular courtyard in the center, surrounded by numerous halls, galleries with graceful arcades. This type includes the Amir Mosque in Cairo, where Arabs have lived for many hundreds of years.

From the 12th century, various letter and floral patterns began to gain popularity, with which buildings were decorated both outside and inside. Domes appear from the 13th century. In the 15th century, the decoration of buildings was based on the Moorish style, an example of this trend is the Alhambra castle in Granada. After the conquest of the Arab Caliphate by the Turks, the architecture acquires Byzantine features, which affected the Mohammed Mosque in Cairo.

The Status of Women and Religion in the Arab World

It is impossible to answer the question: who are the Arabs, if you do not study the position of women in their world. Until the middle of the 20th century, girls were at their most lowest level in society. They did not have the right to vote, one might say, they were not considered people, but interestingly, the attitude towards mothers was always respectful. Now, especially in large cities, the attitude towards women has changed. Now they can attend schools, higher educational institutions and even hold high political and government positions. Polygamy, which is allowed in Islam, is slowly disappearing. You rarely see a man with more than two wives these days.

With regards to religion, then, of course, mostly Arabs profess Islam, about 90 percent. Also not most of- adherents of Christianity, mostly Protestants and a small part of the Orthodox. In ancient times, this people, like most ancient tribes, worshiped the stars, the sun and the sky. They honored and paid tribute to the most famous and influential ancestors. Only in the 7th century, when Muhammad began to preach, did the Arabs actively begin to convert to Islam, and now they are commonly considered Muslims.

Arab countries

There are a fairly large number of states in the world where the Arab people live. Countries in which the vast majority of the population is precisely this nationality can be considered their original ones. For them, the place of residence is mostly in Asian countries. The largest representation of Arabs in following countries: Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Sudan and Tunisia. Of course, Arabs still live in Africa and European countries.

Arab emigration

Throughout history, this nationality has moved around the world, for the most part this is due to great civilization Caliphate. Now there is a much more active emigration of Arabs from Africa and the Middle East to Europe and America due to the unstable and threatening situation that has developed as a result of military and political conflicts. Currently, Arab immigrants are distributed in such territories: France, USA, Germany, Italy, Austria, etc. In Russia, this moment About 10 thousand immigrants live, this is one of the smallest representations.

United Arab Emirates

The UAE is a well-known, influential and successful Arab state. This is a country in the Middle East, which is divided, in turn, into 7 emirates. The UAE is one of the most modern, advanced and wealthy countries in the world and is considered a leading oil exporter. It is thanks to this natural reserve that the Emirates are developing so quickly. Only in the 1970s, the country gained independence, and in such a short time it reached great heights. The most famous cities in the UAE are Abu Dhabi, the capital of the country, and Dubai.

Dubai Tourism

Now the United Arab Emirates attracts tourists from all over the world, but, of course, the center of attraction is Dubai.

This city has everything: any vacationer will be able to satisfy their desires, even lovers skiing there is a place here. The best beaches, shops and entertainment centers. The most famous object not only in Dubai, but throughout the UAE, is the Burj Khalifa. It is the tallest building in the world, reaching 830 meters in height. Inside this massive structure are retail space, offices, apartments, hotels and much more.

The largest water park in the world is also in Dubai. Thousands of different specimens of animals and fish live here. Entering the aquarium, you plunge into the world of a fairy tale, you feel like an inhabitant of the marine world.

In this city, everything is always the largest and largest. The largest and most beautiful artificial archipelago "Mir" is located here. The outlines of the island copy the contours of our planet. The view from the top is magnificent, so it's worth taking a helicopter tour.

Thus, the Arab world is a fascinating history, culture and modern way of life. Everyone should get acquainted with the peculiarities of this people, go to the states where the Arabs live, for recreation and entertainment, because this is an amazing and unique phenomenon on planet Earth.

What is the Arab world and how did it develop? This article will focus on its culture and the development of science, history and features of the worldview. What was it like several centuries ago and what does the Arab world look like today? What modern states are attributed to it today?

The essence of the concept of "Arab world"

This concept means a certain geographical region, consisting of the countries of northern and eastern Africa, the Middle East, inhabited by Arabs (a group of peoples). In each of them, Arabic is the official language (or one of the official ones, as in Somalia).

The total area of ​​the Arab world is approximately 13 million km2, which makes it the second largest geolinguistic unit on the planet (after Russia).

The Arab world should not be confused with the concept of " Muslim world", used exclusively in a religious context, as well as with an international organization called the League of Arab States, created in 1945.

Geography of the Arab world

What states of the planet are usually included in the Arab world? The photo below gives a general idea of ​​its geography and structure.

So, the Arab world includes 23 states. Moreover, two of them are partially not recognized by the world community (they are marked with asterisks in the list below). About 345 million people live in these states, which is no more than 5% of total population peace.

All countries of the Arab world are listed below, in decreasing order of their population. This:

1. Egypt.
2. Morocco.
3. Algeria.
4. Sudan.
5. Saudi Arabia.
6. Iraq.
7. Yemen.
8. Syria.
9. Tunisia.
10. Somalia.
11. Jordan.
12. Libya.
13. Lebanon.
14. Palestine*.
15. Mauritania.
16. Oman.
17. Kuwait.
18. Qatar.
19. Comoros.
20. Bahrain.
21. Djibouti.
22. West Sahara*.

The largest cities in the Arab world are Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca, Rabat, Algiers, Riyadh, Khartoum, Alexandria.

Essay on the ancient history of the Arab world

The history of the development of the Arab world began long before the rise of Islam. In those ancient times, the peoples that today are an integral part of this world still communicated in their own languages ​​(although they were related to Arabic). Information about what was the history of the Arab world in antiquity, we can draw from Byzantine or ancient Roman sources. Of course, looking through the prism of time can be quite distorted.

The ancient Arab world was perceived by highly developed states (Iran, the Roman and Byzantine Empires) as poor and semi-savage. In their view, it was a desert land with a small and nomadic population. In fact, the nomads were an overwhelming minority, and most of the Arabs led a settled way of life, gravitating towards the valleys of small rivers and oases. After the domestication of the camel, caravan trade began to develop here, which for many inhabitants of the planet became the reference (template) image of the Arab world.

The first beginnings of statehood arose in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Even earlier, according to historians, originated ancient state Yemen, in the south of the peninsula. However, the contacts of other powers with this formation were minimal due to the presence vast desert several thousand kilometers.

The Arab-Muslim world and its history are well described in Gustave Le Bon's book "History of the Arab Civilization". It was published in 1884, it was translated into many languages ​​of the world, including Russian. The book is based on the author's independent travels in the Middle East and North Africa.

Arab World in the Middle Ages

In the VI century, the Arabs already made up the majority of the population of the Arabian Peninsula. Soon the Islamic religion is born here, after which the Arab conquests begin. In the 7th century, a new state formation began to form - the Arab Caliphate, which spread over vast expanses from Hindustan to the Atlantic, from the Sahara to the Caspian Sea.

Numerous tribes and peoples of northern Africa very quickly assimilated into Arab culture, easily adopting their language and religion. In turn, the Arabs absorbed some elements of their culture.

If in Europe the era of the Middle Ages was marked by the decline of science, then in the Arab world it was actively developing at that time. This applied to many of its industries. Algebra, psychology, astronomy, chemistry, geography and medicine reached their maximum development in the medieval Arab world.

The Arab caliphate existed for a relatively long time. In the 10th century, the processes of feudal fragmentation of a great power began. Ultimately, the once unified Arab Caliphate disintegrated into many separate countries. Most of them in the XVI century became part of another empire - the Ottoman Empire. IN XIX century the lands of the Arab world become colonies of European states - Britain, France, Spain and Italy. To date, they have all become independent and sovereign countries again.

Features of the culture of the Arab world

The culture of the Arab world cannot be imagined without the Islamic religion, which has become its integral part. So, unshakable faith in Allah, veneration of the Prophet Muhammad, fasting and daily prayers, as well as pilgrimage to Mecca (the main shrine for every Muslim) are the main "pillars" of the religious life of all the inhabitants of the Arab world. Mecca, by the way, was a holy place for the Arabs in pre-Islamic times.

Islam, according to researchers, is in many ways similar to Protestantism. In particular, he also does not condemn wealth, and the commercial activity of a person is evaluated from the point of view of morality.

In the Middle Ages, it was in Arabic that a huge number of works on history were written: chronicles, chronicles, biographical dictionaries etc. With special trepidation in Muslim culture, they treated (and still treat) the image of the word. So-called Arabic script It's not just calligraphy. The beauty of the written letters among the Arabs is equated with the ideal beauty of the human body.

No less interesting and noteworthy are the traditions of Arabic architecture. The classical type of Muslim temple with mosques was formed in the 7th century. It is a closed (deaf) rectangular courtyard, inside of which a gallery of arches is attached. In that part of the courtyard that faces Mecca, a luxuriously decorated and spacious prayer hall was built, topped with a spherical dome. Above the temple, as a rule, rises one or more sharp towers (minarets), which are designed to call Muslims to prayer.

Among the most famous monuments of Arab architecture can be called in Syrian Damascus (VIII century), as well as the mosque of Ibn Tulun in Egyptian Cairo, the architectural elements of which are generously decorated with beautiful floral ornaments.

In Muslim temples there are no gilded icons or any images or paintings. But the walls and arches of the mosques are decorated with elegant arabesques. This is a traditional Arabic pattern, consisting of geometric patterns and floral ornaments (it should be noted that artistic image animals and humans is considered blasphemous in Muslim culture). Arabesques, according to European culturologists, are "afraid of the void." They completely cover the surface and exclude the presence of any colored background.

Philosophy and literature

Very closely related to the Islamic religion. One of the most famous Muslim philosophers is the thinker and physician Ibn Sina (980 - 1037). He is considered the author of at least 450 works on medicine, philosophy, logic, arithmetic and other fields of knowledge.

The most famous work of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is "The Canon of Medicine". Texts from this book have been used for many centuries in various universities in Europe. Another of his works, The Book of Healing, also significantly influenced the development of Arabic philosophical thought.

The most famous literary monument of the medieval Arab world is a collection of fairy tales and stories "A Thousand and One Nights". In this book, researchers have found elements of pre-Islamic Indian and Persian stories. Over the centuries, the composition of this collection has changed; it acquired its final form only in the 14th century.

The development of science in the modern Arab world

In the Middle Ages, the Arab world occupied a leading position on the planet in the field of scientific achievements and discoveries. It was Muslim scientists who "gave" the world algebra, made a huge leap in the development of biology, medicine, astronomy and physics.

However, today the countries of the Arab world pay disastrously little attention to science and education. Today, there are just over a thousand universities in these states, and only 312 of them employ scientists who publish their articles in scientific journals. In all of history, only two Muslims have been honored with Nobel Prize in the scientific field.

What is the reason for such a striking contrast between "then" and "now"?

Historians do not have a single answer to this question. Most of them explain this decline in science by the feudal fragmentation of the once unified Arab state (the Caliphate), as well as the emergence of various Islamic schools, which provoked more and more disagreements and conflicts. Another reason may be that the Arabs know their own history quite poorly and are not proud of the great successes of their ancestors.

Wars and Terrorism in the Modern Arab World

Why are the Arabs fighting? The Islamists themselves claim that in this way they are trying to restore the former power of the Arab world and gain independence from Western countries.

It is important to note that the main holy book of Muslims, the Koran, does not deny the possibility of capturing foreign territories and taxing the occupied lands with tribute (this is indicated by the eighth sura "Production"). Besides, with the help of weapons it has always been much easier to spread one's religion.

Arabs from the most ancient times became famous as brave and rather cruel warriors. Neither the Persians nor the Romans dared to fight with them. And the desert Arabia did not attract the attention of large empires too much. However, Arab warriors were gladly accepted into the service of the Roman troops.

After the end of the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Arab-Muslim civilization plunged into a deep crisis, which historians compare with the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century in Europe. It is obvious that any such crisis sooner or later ends with a surge of radical sentiments and active impulses to revive, return the "golden age" in its history. The same processes are taking place in the Arab world today. So, in Africa, a terrorist organization is rampant in Syria and Iraq - ISIS. Aggressive activity last education already goes far beyond the Muslim states.

The modern Arab world is tired of wars, conflicts and clashes. But no one knows for sure how to extinguish this "fire".

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is often called the heart of the Arab-Muslim world today. Here are the main shrines of Islam - the cities of Mecca and Medina. The main (and, in fact, the only) religion in this state is Islam. Representatives of other faiths are allowed to enter Saudi Arabia, but they may not be allowed to enter Mecca or Medina. Also, "tourists" are strictly forbidden to demonstrate any symbols of a different faith in the country (for example, wear crosses, etc.).

In Saudi Arabia, there is even a special "religious" police, the purpose of which is to suppress possible violations of the laws of Islam. Religious criminals will face appropriate punishment - from a fine to execution.

Despite all of the above, Saudi Arabian diplomats are actively working on the world stage in the interests of protecting Islam, maintaining partnerships with Western countries. The state has difficult relations with Iran, which also claims leadership in the region.

Syrian Arab Republic

Syria is another important center of the Arab world. At one time (under the Umayyads), it was in the city of Damascus that the capital of the Arab Caliphate was located. Today, a bloody civil war continues in the country (since 2011). Western human rights organizations Syria is often criticized, accusing its leadership of violating human rights, using torture and significantly restricting freedom of speech.

About 85% are Muslims. However, "non-believers" have always felt free and quite comfortable here. The laws of the Koran on the territory of the country are perceived by its inhabitants, rather, as traditions.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The largest (by population) country in the Arab world is Egypt. 98% of its inhabitants are Arabs, 90% profess Islam (Sunni). Egypt has a huge number of tombs with Muslim saints, which attract thousands of pilgrims during religious holidays.

Islam in modern Egypt has a significant impact on society. However, Muslim laws here are significantly relaxed and adjusted to the realities of the 21st century. It is interesting to note that most of the ideologists of the so-called "radical Islam" were educated at Cairo University.

Finally...

The Arab world refers to a special historical region, roughly covering the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. It geographically includes 23 modern states.

The culture of the Arab world is specific and very closely connected with the traditions and canons of Islam. The modern realities of this region are conservatism, the weak development of science and education, the spread of radical ideas and terrorism.

The Arabs call Arabia their homeland - Jazirat al-Arab, that is, the “Island of the Arabs”.

Indeed, from the west, the Arabian Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, from the south - by the Gulf of Aden, from the east - by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The rugged Syrian Desert stretches to the north. Naturally, with such a geographical position, the ancient Arabs felt isolated, that is, "living on an island."

Speaking about the origin of the Arabs, they usually single out historical and ethnographic areas that have their own characteristics. The allocation of these areas is based on the specifics of the socio-economic, cultural and ethnic development. The Arabian historical and ethnographic region is considered the cradle of the Arab world, the boundaries of which do not coincide with modern states Arabian Peninsula. This includes, for example, the eastern regions of Syria and Jordan. The second historical and ethnographic zone (or region) includes the rest of Syria, Jordan, as well as Lebanon and Palestine. Iraq is considered a separate historical and ethnographic zone. Egypt, Northern Sudan and Libya are united into one zone. And finally, the Maghrebino-Mauritanian zone, which includes the countries of the Maghreb - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, as well as Mauritania and Western Sahara. This division is by no means universally recognized, since the border regions, as a rule, have features characteristic of both neighboring zones.

Economic activity

The agricultural culture of Arabia developed quite early, although only some parts of the peninsula were suitable for land use. These are, first of all, those territories on which the state of Yemen is now located, as well as some parts of the coast and oases. St. Petersburg orientalist O. Bolshakov believes that "in terms of the intensity of agriculture, Yemen can be put on a par with such ancient civilizations as Mesopotamia and Egypt." The physical and geographical conditions of Arabia predetermined the division of the population into two groups - settled farmers and nomadic pastoralists. There was no clear division of the inhabitants of Arabia into settled and nomads, because there were various types of mixed economy, relations between which were maintained not only through the exchange of goods, but also through family ties.

In the last quarter of the II millennium BC. the cattle breeders of the Syrian desert had a domesticated dromedary camel (dromedary). The number of camels was still small, but this already allowed part of the tribes to move on to a truly nomadic way of life. This circumstance forced pastoralists to lead a more mobile lifestyle and carry out many kilometers of transitions to remote areas, for example, from Syria to Mesopotamia, directly through the desert.

First state formations

On the territory of modern Yemen, several states arose, which in the 4th century AD. were united by one of them - the Himyarite kingdom. The South Arabian society of antiquity is characterized by the same features that are inherent in other societies. ancient east: the slave-owning system was born here, on which the wealth of the ruling class was based. The state carried out the construction and repair of large irrigation systems, without which it was impossible to develop agriculture. The population of the cities was mainly represented by artisans who skillfully made high-quality products, including agricultural implements, weapons, household utensils, leather goods, fabrics, and decorations from sea shells. Gold was mined in Yemen, and fragrant resins were also collected, including frankincense, myrrh. Later, the interest of Christians in this product constantly stimulated transit trade, due to which the interchange of goods between the Arabian Arabs and the population of the Christian regions of the Middle East expanded.

With the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom at the end of the 6th century by Sasanian Iran, horses appeared in Arabia. It was during this period that the state fell into decline, which affected primarily the urban population.

As for the nomads, such collisions affected them to a lesser extent. The life of the nomads was determined by the tribal structure, where there were dominant and subordinate tribes. Within the tribe, relations were regulated depending on the degree of kinship. The material existence of the tribe depended solely on the harvest in the oases, where there were cultivated plots of land and wells, as well as on the offspring of the herds. The main factor influencing the patriarchal life of the nomads, in addition to the attacks of unfriendly tribes, were natural disasters - drought, epidemics and earthquakes, which are mentioned by Arab legends.

The nomads of central and northern Arabia have long been raising sheep, cattle, and camels. Characteristically, the nomadic world of Arabia was surrounded by economically more developed regions, so there is no need to talk about the cultural isolation of Arabia. In particular, this is evidenced by the excavation data. For example, in the construction of dams and reservoirs, the inhabitants of southern Arabia used cement mortar, which was invented in Syria around 1200 BC. The presence of links that existed between the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast and southern Arabia as early as the 10th century BC confirms the story of the trip of the ruler of Saba (“Queen of Sheba”) to King Solomon.

Advance of Semites from Arabia

Approximately in the III millennium BC. Arabian Semites began to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. began an intensive movement of Arabs outside the "Jazirat al-Arab". However, those Arabian tribes that appeared in Mesopotamia in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC were soon assimilated by the Akkadians living there. Later, in the XIII century BC, a new advancement of the Semitic tribes began, who spoke Aramaic dialects. Already in the 7th-6th centuries BC. Aramaic becomes the spoken language of Syria, replacing Akkadian.

ancient Arabians

Back to top new era significant masses of Arabs moved to Mesopotamia, settled in southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula. Some tribes even managed to create state formations. So, the Nabataeans founded their kingdom on the border of Arabia and Palestine, which lasted until the 2nd century AD. Along the lower reaches of the Euphrates, the Lakhmid state arose, but its rulers were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Persian Sassanids. The Arabs who settled in Syria, Transjordan and southern Palestine united in the 6th century under the rule of representatives of the Ghassanid tribe. They also had to recognize themselves as vassals of the stronger Byzantium. It is characteristic that both the Lakhmid state (in 602) and the Ghassanid state (in 582) were destroyed by their own overlords, who feared the strengthening and growing independence of their vassals. Nevertheless, the presence of Arab tribes in the Syrian-Palestinian region was a factor that subsequently contributed to softening the new, more massive invasion of the Arabs. Then they began to penetrate into Egypt. Thus, the city of Koptos in Upper Egypt, even before the Muslim conquest, was half inhabited by Arabs.

Naturally, the newcomers quickly joined the local customs. Caravan trade allowed them to maintain ties with kindred tribes and clans within the Arabian Peninsula, which gradually contributed to the convergence of urban and nomadic cultures.

Prerequisites for the unification of the Arabs

In the tribes living near the borders of Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations developed faster than among the population of the interior regions of Arabia. IN V-VII centuries underdevelopment was observed internal organization tribes, which, in combination with the remnants of the maternal account and polyandry, testified that, due to the specifics of the nomadic economy, the decomposition of the tribal system in Central and Northern Arabia developed more slowly than in neighboring regions of Western Asia.

Periodically, kindred tribes united in unions. Sometimes there was a fragmentation of tribes or their absorption by strong tribes. Over time, it became obvious that large formations are more viable. It was in tribal unions or confederations of tribes that the preconditions for the emergence of a class society began to take shape. The process of its formation was accompanied by the creation of primitive state formations. As early as the 2nd-6th centuries, large tribal unions began to take shape (Mazhidj, Kinda, Maad, etc.), but none of them could become the core of a single pan-Arab state. The prerequisite for the political unification of Arabia was the desire of the tribal elite to secure the right to land, livestock and income from caravan trade. An additional factor was the need to join forces to resist external expansion. As we have already pointed out, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, the Persians captured Yemen and liquidated the Lakhmid state, which was in vassal dependence. As a result, in the south and north, Arabia was under the threat of absorption by the Persian state. Naturally, the situation had a negative impact on Arabian trade. The merchants of a number of Arabian cities suffered significant material damage. The only way out of this situation could be the unification of kindred tribes.

The Hejaz region, located in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, became the center of the unification of the Arabs. This area has long been famous for its relatively developed agriculture, handicrafts, but most importantly - trade. The local cities - Mecca, Yasrib (later Medina), Taif - had strong contacts with the surrounding tribes of nomads who visited them, exchanging their goods for the products of urban artisans.

However, the religious situation prevented the unification of the Arabian tribes. The ancient Arabs were pagans. Each tribe revered its patron god, although some of them can be considered pan-Arab - Allah, al-Uzza, al-Lat. Even in the first centuries in Arabia it was known about Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, in Yemen, these two religions have practically supplanted pagan cults. On the eve of the Persian conquest, Yemenite-Jews fought with Yemenite-Christians, while the Jews focused on Sasanian Persia (which subsequently facilitated the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom by the Persians), and Christians - on Byzantium. Under these conditions arose its own form of Arabian monotheism, which (especially in early stage) to a large extent, but in a peculiar way, reflected some postulates of Judaism and Christianity. Its adherents - hanifs - became carriers of the idea of ​​a single god. In turn, this form of monotheism set the stage for the emergence of Islam.

The religious beliefs of the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period are a conglomeration of various beliefs, among which were female and male deities, the veneration of stones, springs, trees, various spirits, genies and shaitans, who were intermediaries between people and gods, was also widespread. Naturally, the absence of clear dogmatic ideas opened up wide opportunities for the ideas of more developed religions to penetrate into this amorphous worldview and contributed to religious and philosophical reflections.

By that time, writing began to become more and more widespread, which subsequently played a huge role in the formation of medieval Arab culture, and at the stage of the birth of Islam contributed to the accumulation and transmission of information. The need for this was colossal, as evidenced by the practice of oral memorization and reproduction of ancient genealogies, historical chronicles, poetic narratives, common among the Arabs.

As noted by the St. Petersburg scholar A. Khalidov, "most likely, the language was formed as a result of a long development based on the selection of different dialectal forms and their artistic comprehension" . In the end, it was the use of the same language of poetry that became one of the most important factors that contributed to the formation of the Arab community. Naturally, the process of mastering the Arabic language did not occur at the same time. This process took place most quickly in those areas where residents spoke related languages Semitic group. In other areas, this process took several centuries, but a number of peoples, once under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, managed to maintain their linguistic independence.

Arab caliphs

Abu Bakr and Omar

Omar Ibn Khattab

Caliph Ali

Harun ar Rashid

Abd ar Rahman I

Arab Caliphate

The Arab caliphate is a theocratic state headed by a caliph. The core of the Caliphate arose on the Arabian Peninsula after the advent of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. It was formed as a result of military campaigns in the middle of the 7th - beginning of the 9th century. and the conquest (with subsequent Islamization) of the peoples of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Southwestern Europe.

Abbasids, the second great dynasty of Arab caliphs

Caliphate conquests

Trade in the Caliphate

Arabic dirhams

• In c.6 c. Arabia lost a number of territories - trade was disrupted.

• Unification became necessary.

• The unification of the Arabs was helped by the new religion of Islam.

• Its founder, Mohammed, was born around 570 in a poor family. He married his former mistress and became a merchant.

Islam

The science

Arab army

applied arts

Bedouins

Bedouin tribes: At the head - the leader The custom of blood feuds Military clashes over pastures At the end of the VI century. - Arab trade disrupted.

The conquests of the Arabs - VII - n. 8th century A huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the capital of Damascus.

The heyday of the Baghdad caliphate - the years of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809).

In 732, as the chroniclers testified, the 400,000-strong army of the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Later studies lead to the conclusion that the Arabs could have from 30 to 50 thousand warriors.

Not without the help of the Aquitaine and Burgundian nobility, who opposed the process of centralization in the kingdom of the Franks, the Arab army of Abd el-Rahman moved across Western Gaul, reached the center of Aquitaine, occupied Poitiers and headed for Tours. Here, on the old Roman road, at the crossing of the Vienne River, the Arabs were met by a 30,000-strong army of Franks, led by the mayor of the Carolingian family Pepin Karl, who had been the de facto ruler of the Frankish state since 715.

Even at the beginning of his reign, the Frankish state consisted of three long-separated parts: Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy. Royal power was purely nominal. This was not slow to take advantage of the enemies of the Franks. The Saxons invaded the Rhine regions, the Avars invaded Bavaria, and the Arab conquerors moved across the Pyrenees to the Laura River.

Karl had to pave his way to power with weapons in his hands. After the death of his father in 714, he was thrown into prison along with his stepmother Plektruda, from where he was able to escape the following year. By that time, he was already a fairly well-known military leader of the Franks of Austrasia, where he was popular among free peasants and medium landowners. They became his main support in the internecine struggle for power in the Frankish state.

Having established himself in Austrasia, Karl Pepin began to strengthen his position on the lands of the Franks by force of arms and diplomacy. After a bitter confrontation with his opponents, in 715 he became the major of the Frankish state and ruled it on behalf of the infant king Theodoric IV. Having established itself in royal throne, Charles began a series of military campaigns outside of Austrasia.

Charles, having gained the upper hand in battles over the feudal lords who tried to challenge his supreme power, in 719 won a brilliant victory over the Neustrians, led by one of his opponents, Major Ragenfrid, whose ally was the ruler of Aquitaine, Count Ed. At the Battle of Sausson, the Frankish ruler put the enemy army to flight. Having extradited Ragenfried, Count Ed managed to conclude a temporary peace with Charles. Soon the Franks occupied the cities of Paris and Orleans.

Then Karl remembered his sworn enemy - his stepmother Plectrude, who had her own large army. Starting a war with her, Karl forced his stepmother to surrender to him the rich and well-fortified city of Cologne on the banks of the Rhine.

In 725 and 728, Major Karl Pepin made two large military campaigns against the Bavarians and eventually subjugated them. This was followed by campaigns in Alemannia and Aquitaine, in Thuringia and Frisia ...

The basis of the combat power of the Frankish army until the battle of Poitiers was the infantry, which consisted of free peasants. At that time, all the men of the kingdom who were able to bear arms were liable for military service.

Organizationally, the Frankish army was divided into hundreds, or, in other words, into such a number of peasant households that could war time field a hundred foot soldiers in the militia. Peasant communities themselves regulated military service. Each Frankish warrior was armed and equipped at his own expense. The quality of weapons was checked at the reviews, which were conducted by the king or, on his behalf, military leaders-counts. If the warrior's weapon was in an unsatisfactory condition, then he was punished. There is a known case when the king killed a warrior during one of these reviews for the poor maintenance of personal weapons.

The national weapon of the Franks was the "francisca" - an ax with one or two blades, to which a rope was tied. The Franks deftly threw axes at the enemy at close range. For close hand-to-hand combat, they used swords. In addition to Francis and swords, the Franks were also armed with short spears - angons with teeth on a long and sharp tip. The teeth of the angon had the opposite direction and therefore it was very difficult to remove it from the wound. In battle, the warrior first threw angon, which pierced the enemy's shield, and then stepped on the shaft of the spear, thereby pulling back the shield and hitting the enemy with a heavy sword. Many warriors had bows and arrows, which were sometimes saturated with poison.

The only defensive armament of the Frankish warrior in the time of Karl Pepin was a shield of a round or oval shape. Only rich warriors had helmets and chain mail, since metal products cost a lot of money. Part of the armament of the Frankish army was military booty.

In European history, the Frankish commander Karl Pepin became famous primarily for his successful wars against the Arab conquerors, for which he received the nickname "Martell", which means "hammer".

In 720, the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded what is now France. The Arab army took the well-fortified Narbonne by storm and besieged Big city Toulouse. Count Ed was defeated, and he had to seek refuge in Austrasia with the remnants of his army.

Very soon, the Arab cavalry appeared on the fields of Septimania and Burgundy and even reached the left bank of the Rhone River, entering the lands of the Franks. Thus, for the first time, a major clash between the Muslim and Christian worlds matured on the fields of Western Europe. The Arab commanders, having crossed the Pyrenees, had big conquest plans in Europe.

We must pay tribute to Karl - he immediately understood the danger of the Arab invasion. After all, the Moorish Arabs by that time had managed to conquer almost all the Spanish regions. Their troops were constantly replenished with new forces that came through the Strait of Gibraltar from the Maghreb - North Africa, from the territory of modern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Arab commanders were famous for their martial arts, and their warriors were excellent riders and archers. The Arab army was partially staffed by North African Berber nomads, for which in Spain the Arabs were called Moors.

Karl Pepin, having interrupted the military campaign in the upper reaches of the Danube, in 732 gathered a large militia of Austrasians, Neustrians and Rhine tribes. By that time, the Arabs had already plundered the city of Bordeaux, captured the fortress city of Poitiers and moved towards Tours.

The Frankish commander resolutely moved towards the Arab army, trying to prevent its appearance in front of the fortress walls of Tours. He already knew that the Arabs were commanded by the experienced Abd el-Rahman and that his army was much superior to the militia of the Franks, which, according to the same European chroniclers, numbered only 30 thousand soldiers.

At the point where the old Roman road crossed the river Vienne, across which a bridge had been built, the Franks and their allies barred the Arab army from reaching Tours. Nearby was the city of Poitiers, after which the battle was named, which took place on October 4, 732 and lasted several days: according to Arabic chronicles - two, according to Christian ones - seven days.

Knowing that the enemy army was dominated by light cavalry and many archers, Major Karl Pepin decided to give the Arabs, who adhered to active offensive tactics on the fields of Europe, a defensive battle. Moreover, the hilly terrain made it difficult for large masses of cavalry to operate. The Frankish army was built for the battle between the rivers Clen and Vienne, which, with their banks, well covered his flanks. The basis of the battle formation was the infantry, built in a dense phalanx. The cavalry, heavily armed in a knightly manner, was stationed on the flanks. The right flank was commanded by Count Ed.

Usually, the Franks lined up for battle in dense battle formations, a kind of phalanx, but without proper support for the flanks and rear, trying to solve everything with one blow, a general breakthrough or a swift attack. They, like the Arabs, had a well-developed mutual assistance based on family ties.

Approaching the river Vienne, the Arab army, not immediately getting involved in the battle, spread their camp not far from the Franks. Abd el-Rahman immediately realized that the enemy was in a very strong position and it was impossible to cover him with light cavalry from the flanks. The Arabs did not dare to attack the enemy for several days, waiting for an opportunity to strike. Karl Pepin did not move, patiently waiting for an enemy attack.

In the end, the Arab leader decided to start the battle and built his army in a fighting, dissected order. It consisted of battle lines familiar to Arabs: horse archers made up the “Morning of the Barking Dog”, then came the “Day of Help”, “Evening of Shock”, “Al-Ansari” and “Al-Mugadzheri”. The reserve of the Arabs, intended for the development of victory, was under the personal command of Abd el-Rahman and was called the "Banner of the Prophet."

The battle of Poitiers began with the shelling of the Frankish phalanx by Arab horse archers, to which the enemy responded with crossbows and longbows. After that, the Arab cavalry attacked the positions of the Franks. The Frankish infantry successfully repulsed attack after attack, the enemy's light cavalry could not break through their dense formation.

A Spanish chronicler contemporary with the Battle of Poitiers wrote that the Franks "stood close together, as far as the eye could see, like an immovable and icy wall, and fought fiercely, hitting the Arabs with swords."

After the Frankish infantry repulsed all the attacks of the Arabs, which line by line, in some disorder, rolled back to their original positions, Karl Pepin immediately ordered the knightly cavalry, which was still inactive, to launch a counterattack in the direction of the enemy camp located behind the right flank of the battle formation of the Arab army .

Meanwhile, the Frankish knights, led by Ed of Aquitaine, launched two ram attacks from the flanks, overturning the light cavalry opposing them, rushed to the Arab camp and captured it. The Arabs, demoralized by the news of the death of their leader, could not hold back the onslaught of the enemy and fled from the battlefield. The Franks pursued them and inflicted considerable damage. This ended the battle near Poitiers.

This battle had extremely important consequences. The victory of Majordom Karl Pepin put an end to the further advancement of the Arabs in Europe. After the defeat at Poitiers, the Arab army, hiding behind detachments of light cavalry, left French territory and, without further combat losses, went through the mountains to Spain.

But before the Arabs finally left the south of modern France, Karl Pepin inflicted another defeat on the Berre River south of the city of Narbonne. True, this battle was not among the decisive ones.

The victory over the Arabs glorified the commander of the Franks. Since then, they began to call him Karl Martell (i.e., war hammer).

Usually little is said about this, but the battle of Poitiers is also known for being one of the first battles when numerous heavy knightly cavalry entered the battlefield. It was she who, with her blow, provided the Franks with a complete victory over the Arabs. Now not only riders, but also horses were covered with metal armor.

After the battle of Poitiers, Charles Martel won several more great victories, conquering Burgundy and regions in southern France, up to Marseilles.

Charles Martell significantly strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. However, he stood only at the origins of the true historical greatness of the state of the Franks, which will be created by his grandson Charlemagne, who reached the highest power and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

Arab army

Hamdanid army X - XI centuries.

Late Fatimid army (11th century)

Ghaznavid army (late 10th - early 11th centuries): Ghaznavid palace guard. Karakhanid equestrian warrior in full dress. Indian mounted mercenary.

ancient arabia

City of Petra

The cistern of the Genies in Petra, with a hole at the bottom

Monument of the Serpent in Petra

Obelisk (top) next to the altar (bottom), Petra

Nabataean sundial from Hegra (Museum of the Ancient East, Archaeological Museum of Istanbul

Literature during the Caliphate

Thousand and One Nights

Islamic script

Applied art of the Arabs

Bronze candlestick with silver inlay. 1238. Master Daoud ibn Salam from Mosul. Museum of Decorative Arts. Paris.

Glass vessel with enamel painting. Syria. 1300. British museum. London.

Dish with luster painting. Egypt. 11th c. Museum of Islamic Art. Cairo.

Sculptural ceiling in the Khirbet al-Mafjar castle. 8th c. jordan

Jug with the name of Caliph al-Aziz Billah. Rhinestone. 10th c. Treasury of San Marco. Venice.

Arabic architecture

Architecture at Almoravids and Almohads

The Almohad tower and the Renaissance bell section merge into one harmonious whole at La Giralda Campanile, Seville

Almoravides invaded al-Andalus from North Africa in 1086 and united the taifas under their rule. They developed their own architecture, but very few examples of it survived, due to the next invasion, by the now Almohads, who imposed Islamic ultra-orthodoxy and destroyed almost every significant Almoravid building, including Madina al-Zahra and other caliphate structures. Their art was extremely strict and simple, they used brick as their main building material. In a literal sense, their only external decoration, the "sebka", is based on a grid of rhombuses. The Almohads also used palm-pattern ornaments, but these were little more than a simplification of the much more luxuriant Almoravid palms. As time went on, the art became a little more decorative. by the most famous example Almohad architecture is the Giralda, the former minaret of the mosque of Seville. Considered a Mudejar style, but this style is absorbed into the Almohad aesthetic here, the Santa Maria la Blanca synagogue in Toledo is a rare example of the architectural collaboration of the three cultures of medieval Spain.

Umayyad dynasty

dome of the rock

Umayyad Grand Mosque, Syria, Damascus (705-712)

Mosque Tunisia XIII century.

Arab invasion of Byzantium

Arab-Byzantine Wars

the entire period of the Arab-Byzantine wars can be divided (roughly) into 3 parts:
I. Weakening of Byzantium, offensive of the Arabs (634-717)
II. Period of relative calm (718 - middle of the 9th century)
III. Counteroffensive of Byzantium (late 9th century - 1069)

Main events:

634-639 - Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine with Jerusalem;
639-642 - campaign of Amr ibn al-As to Egypt. The Arabs conquered this populous and fertile country;
647-648 - Construction of the Arab fleet. Capture of Tripolitania and Cyprus by the Arabs;
684-678 - First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. Ended unsuccessfully;
698 - the capture of the African Exarchate (belonging to Byzantium) by the Arabs;
717-718 - Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. It ended unsuccessfully. Arab expansion in Asia Minor was halted;
IX-X centuries - Arabs capture the southern Italian territories of Byzantium (the island of Sicily);
X century - Byzantium goes on a counteroffensive and conquers part of Syria from the Arabs, and in particular such an important outpost as Antioch. The Byzantine army at that time even put Jerusalem in immediate danger. The Arab Sultanate of Aleppo recognized itself as a Byzantine vassal. At that time, Crete and Cyprus were also reconquered.

Rise of the Caliphate of Baghdad under Haroun-ar-Rashid

Arabic culture

Caliphate of Baghdad

Architecture of Baghdad

In Baghdad, there was a kind of intellectual center of the Islamic Golden Age - the House of Wisdom. It included a huge library, a huge number of translators and scribes worked in it. The best scientists of their time gathered in the House. thanks to the accumulated works of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, Galen, research was carried out in the field of humanities, Islam, astronomy and mathematics, medicine and chemistry, alchemy, zoology and geography.
This greatest treasure the best works antiquity and modernity was destroyed in 1258. It, along with other libraries in Baghdad, was destroyed by the Mongol troops after the capture of the city. Books were thrown into the river, and the water remained colored with their ink for many months ...
Almost everyone has heard of the burned Library of Alexandria, but for some reason, few people remember the lost House of Wisdom...

Fortress Tower Talisman in Baghdad.

Necropolis Shakhi Zinda

The emergence of the Shakhi-Zindan memorial on the slope of the Afrasiab hill is associated with the name of Kusam ibn Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he participated in the first campaigns of the Arabs in Maverannahr. According to legend, Kusam was mortally wounded near the walls of Samarkand and took refuge underground, where he continues to live. Hence the name of the memorial Shakhi-Zindan, which means "The Living King". By the X-XI centuries. the martyr of the faith Kusam ibn Abbas acquired the status of an Islamic saint, the patron saint of Samarkand, and in the XII-XV centuries. Along the path leading to his mausoleums and funeral mosques, their exquisite beauty, as it were, denies death.

On the northern outskirts of Samarkand, on the edge of the Afrasiab hill, among the vast ancient cemetery, there are groups of mausoleums, among which most famous in use is a tomb attributed to Kussam, son of Abbas, cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. According to Arabic sources, Kussam came to Samarkand in 676. According to some sources, he was killed, according to others, he died of natural causes; according to some reports, he died not even in Samarkand, but in Merv. The imaginary or real grave of Kussam under his Abbasid relatives (VIII century), perhaps not without their participation, became the object of the Muslim cult. Among the people, Kussam became known as Shah-i Zinda - "The Living King". According to legend, Kussam left the earthly world alive and continues to live in the “other world”. Hence the nickname "The Living King".

Mausoleum of Zimurrud Khatun in Baghdad

Conquest of Spain

At the end of the 7th century AD. Arabs after long wars expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. Once the land of Africa was a battlefield between Rome and Carthage, it gave the world such great generals as Jugurtha and Masinissa, and now it has passed into the hands of Muslims, albeit with difficulty. After this conquest, the Arabs set out to conquer Spain.

They were driven to this not only by the love of conquest and the dream of expanding the Islamic State. The locals of North Africa - the Berber tribes - were very brave, warlike, violent and temperamental. The Arabs feared that after some time of calm, the Berbers would set out to avenge the defeats, raise an uprising and then the Arabs would miss the victory. Therefore, the Arabs, having aroused interest among the Berbers in the conquest of Spain, wanted to distract them from this and extinguish their thirst for bloodshed and revenge by war. As Ibn Khaldun notes, it is not surprising that the Muslim army, which was the first to cross the Jabalitarik Strait and entered Spanish soil, could be said to have consisted entirely of Berbers.

From ancient history it is known that the main inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, Iberians and Ligors. The peninsula was divided into territories that once belonged to Phoenicia, Carthage and Rome. After the conquest of Spain, the Carthaginians built the majestic city of Carthage here. Around 200 BC. in the Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage, took possession of these fertile lands, and up to the B century AD. dominated these lands. At this time, from Spain, which was considered the most important and flourishing place of the empire, came such great thinkers as Seneca, Lucan, Marsial and such famous emperors as Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius.

Just as the prosperity of Rome created the conditions for the progress of Spain, so the fall of this city led to the decline of Spain. The peninsula once again became the scene of battles. At the beginning of the B century, the tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, who destroyed Rome and France, also devastated Spain. However, soon the tribes of the Goths expelled them from the peninsula and took possession of Spain. From the YOU century until the attack of the Arabs, the Goths were the dominant force in Spain.

Soon the Goths mixed with the local population - the Latin peoples, and adopted Latin language and Christianity. It is known that before the XNUMXth century, the Goths prevailed among the Christian population of Spain. When the Arabs expelled them towards the Asturian mountains, the Goths, thanks to mixing with the local population, were again able to maintain their superiority. For example, among the Christian population of Spain, it was considered pride to be a descendant of the Goths and to bear the nickname "son of the Goths."

A little earlier, before the conquest of the Arabs, the nobility of the Goths and the Latin peoples united and created an aristocratic government. This association, engaged in the oppression of the oppressed masses, has gained the hatred of the people. And it is natural that this state, built on money and wealth, could not be strong and could not adequately defend itself from the enemy.

Also, the appointment of the ruler by election led to eternal strife and enmity for power between the nobility. This enmity and wars eventually hastened the weakening of the Gothic state.

General strife, internal wars, people's dissatisfaction with the local government and for this reason a weak rebuff to the Arabs, the lack of loyalty and the spirit of self-sacrifice in the army, and other reasons ensured an easy victory for the Muslims. It even came to the point that because of the above reasons, the Andalusian ruler Julian and the Bishop of Seville were not afraid to help the Arabs.

In 711, Musa ibn Nasir, who was the governor of North Africa under the rule of the Umayyad caliph Walid ibn Abdulmelik, sent a 12,000-strong army formed from Berbers to conquer Spain. The army was led by a Berber Muslim Tarig ibn Ziyad. The Muslims crossed the Jabalut-tarig strait, which got its name from the name of this famous commander Tariq, and entered the Iberian Peninsula. The wealth of this land, its fresh air, the delightful nature and its mysterious cities so impressed the army of the conquerors that in a letter to the Caliph, Tarig wrote: “These places are similar to Syria in terms of air purity, similar to Yemen in temperate climate, similar to India in vegetation and incense, in terms of fertility and abundance of crops similar to China, in terms of accessibility of ports similar to Adena.
The Arabs, who spent half a century conquering the coastline of North Africa and met with fierce resistance from the Berbers, expected to face a similar situation when they conquered Spain. However, contrary to expectations, Spain was conquered in a short time, in just a few months. The Muslims defeated the Goths in the first battle. In this battle they were assisted by the Bishop of Seville. As a result, having broken the resistance of the Goths, the coastal zone passed into the hands of the Muslims.

Seeing the success of Tarig ibn Ziyad, Mussa ibn Nasir gathered an army consisting of 12 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Berbers and moved to Spain in order to be a partner in success.

Throughout its journey, the Muslim army can be said not to have met a single serious resistance. The people dissatisfied with the government and the nobility, torn by strife, voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and even sometimes joined them. Such major cities in Spain as Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Toledo surrendered without resistance. In the city of Toledo, which was the capital, 25 valuable crowns of Gothic rulers, decorated with various precious stones, fell into the hands of Muslims. The wife of the Gothic king Rodrigue was captured and the son of Musa ibn Nasir married her.

In the eyes of the Arabs, the Spaniards were on a par with the populations of Syria and Egypt. The laws observed in the conquered countries were also enforced here. The conquerors did not touch the property and temples of the local population, local customs and orders remained the same as before. The Spaniards were allowed to contact contentious issues to their judges, to obey the judgments of their own courts. In return for all this, the population was obliged to pay a meager tax (jizya) for those times. The amount of tax for the nobility and the rich was set at the limit of one dinar (15 francs), and for the poor half a dinar. That is why the poor, driven to despair by the oppression of local rulers and countless dues, voluntarily surrendered to Muslims, and even by converting to Islam, were exempted from taxes. Despite the fact that in some places there were isolated cases of resistance, they were quickly suppressed.

As historians write, after the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nasir intended to reach Constantinople (present-day Istanbul; at that time, Constantinople was the capital of the great Byzantine Empire), passing through France and Germany. However, the caliph called him to Damascus and the plan remained unfinished. If Moussa could carry out his intention, could conquer Europe, then at present the divided peoples would be under the flag of a single religion. Along with this, Europe would be able to avoid medieval darkness and medieval, terrible tragedies.

Everyone knows that when Europe groaned in the clutches of ignorance, fratricide, epidemics, senseless crusades, the Inquisition, Spain under the rule of the Arabs flourished, lived a comfortable life and was at the peak of its development. Spain shone in the darkness. In Spain, excellent conditions were created for the development of science and culture, and it owes this to Islam.

In order to determine the role of the Arabs in the political, economic and cultural life of Spain, it would be more appropriate to consider the ratio of their total number.

As mentioned above, the first Muslim army that entered the Iberian Peninsula consisted of Arabs and
Berbers. Subsequent military units consisted of representatives of the population of Syria. It is known from history that early middle ages in Spain, the leadership of science and culture belonged to the Arabs, and the Berbers were subordinate to them. The Arabs were considered the highest stratum of the population (ashraf), and the Berbers and the local population were considered a secondary and tertiary stratum of the population. Interestingly, even when the Berber dynasties were able to gain power in Spain, the Arabs managed to maintain their dominance.

As for the total number of Arabs, there is no exact data on this matter. One can only assume that after the Emirate of Cordoba separated from the Arab Emirate, the Arabs became isolated from the rest of the countries. However, due to the rapid growth and emigration from North Africa, the Berbers increased in number and gained supremacy in power.
Muslims mixed with the local Christian population of Spain. According to historians, in the very first years of the conquest of Spain, the Arabs married 30,000 Christian women and brought them into their harem (the harem in the Sibyl fortress, nicknamed the "girls' room", is a historical monument). In addition, at the beginning of the conquest, some of the nobility, in order to show their devotion to the Arabs, annually sent 100 Christian girls to the Caliph's palace. Among the women with whom the Arabs entered into marriage were girls from Latin, Iberian, Greek, Gothic and other tribes. It is clear that as a result of such mass mixing, a new generation arose in a few decades, radically different from the conquerors of the 700s.

From 711 (the date of the conquest of Spain) to 756, this area was subject to the Umayyad Caliphate. An emir appointed by the Umayyad caliph ruled over this territory. In 756, Spain seceded from the Caliphate and became independent. It became known as the Caliphate of Cordoba, whose capital was the city of Cordoba.

After 300 years had elapsed since the reign of the Arabs in Spain, their magnificent and glorious star began to fade. The strife that engulfed the Cordoba caliphate shook the power of the state. At this time, Christians living in the north took advantage of this chance and began to attack in order to take revenge.

The struggle of Christians for the return of the lands conquered by the Arabs (in Spanish: reconquista) intensified in the 10th century. In the Asturian region, where the Christians expelled from the Spanish lands concentrated, the Kingdom of Lyon and Castile arose. In the middle of the 11th century, both these kingdoms united. At the same time, the Navarrese, Catalan and Aragonese states, having united, created a new Aragonese kingdom. At the end of the 11th century, a Portuguese county arose in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. Soon this county also turned into a kingdom. Thus, at the end of the XNUMXth century, serious Christian rivals of the Caliphate of Cordoba began to appear on the Spanish map.

In 1085, as a result of a powerful attack, the northerners captured the city of Toledo. The leader of the northerners was the king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VI. The Spanish Muslims, seeing that they could not resist on their own, asked the Berbers of North Africa for help. The al-Murabit dynasty, having established itself in Tunisia and Morocco, entered Spain and tried to resurrect the Caliphate of Cordoba. Al-Murabits in 1086 defeated Alphonse VI, and were temporarily able to stop the movement of the reconquista. In just half a century, they lost to a new dynasty that entered the political arena - al-Muwahhids. Having seized power in North Africa, the al-Muwahhids attacked Spain and subjugated the Muslim regions. However, this state was unable to properly resist the Christians. Despite the fact that they decorated their palaces with such prominent personalities as Ibn Tufeil, Ibn Rushd, the al-Muwahhids became helpless before the reconquista. In 1212, near the town of Las Navas de Tolosa, the united Christian army defeated them, and the al-Muwahhid dynasty was forced to leave Spain.

The Spanish kings, who did not get along with each other, put aside the enmity, and united against the Arabs. The reconquista movement directed against the Muslims involved the combined forces of the Castilian, Aragonese, Navarre and Portuguese kingdoms. In 1236, the Muslims lost Cordoba, in 1248 Seville, in 1229-35 the Balearic Islands, in 1238 Valencia. Capturing the city of Cadiz in 1262, the Spaniards reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.

Only the Emirate of Grenada remained in the hands of the Muslims. At the end of the 13th century, Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed Muhammad al-Ghalib, who was from the Nasrid dynasty, retreated to the city of Granada, and fortified the fortress of Alhambra (al-Hamra) here. He was able to maintain his relative independence, subject to the payment of tribute to the King of Castile. In the palace of the Grenada emirs, who were able to defend their independence for two centuries, such thinkers as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib served.
In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile. The Aragonese-Castilian kingdom united all of Spain. The Grenada emirs refused to pay tribute to them. In 1492, Grenada fell to a powerful onslaught of the Spaniards. The last Muslim fort in the Iberian Peninsula was captured. And with this, all of Spain was conquered from the Arabs and the reconquista movement ended with the victory of the Christians.

The Muslims gave up Grenada on the condition that their religion, language and property be inviolable. However,
soon Ferdinand II broke his promise, and a wave of mass persecution and oppression began against the Muslims. At first they were forced to accept Christianity. Those who did not want to accept Christianity were brought to the terrible court of the Inquisition. Those who changed religion in order to escape torture soon realized that they had been deceived. The Inquisition declared the new Christians to be insincere and dubious, and began to burn them at the stake. At the instigation of the church leadership, hundreds of thousands of Muslims were killed: old people, young people, women, men. A monk of the Dominican order Belida offered to destroy all Muslims, young and old. He said that one should not show mercy even to those who converted to Christianity, because their sincerity is in question: “If we do not know what is in their hearts, then we must kill them so that the Lord God will draw them to his own judgment” . The priests liked the proposal of this monk, but the Spanish government, fearing the Muslim states, did not approve this proposal.

In 1610, the Spanish government demanded that all Muslims leave the country. The Arabs, who remained in a hopeless situation, began to move. Within a few months, more than a million Muslims left Spain. From 1492 to 1610, as a result of massacres directed against Muslims and their emigration, the population of Spain decreased to three million people. Worst of all, Muslims fleeing the country were attacked local residents as a result of which many Muslims were killed. The monk of Belida happily reported that three-quarters of the Muslims who migrated died on the way. The mentioned monk himself personally participated in the murder of one hundred thousand people who were part of the 140 thousandth caravan of Muslims heading towards Africa. Truly, the bloody crimes committed in Spain against the Muslims leave the night of St. Bartholomew in the shade.

The Arabs, having entered Spain, which was very far from culture, raised it to the highest point of civilization, and ruled here for eight centuries. With the departure of the Arabs, Spain underwent a terrible decline and long time could not remedy this decline. Having expelled the Arabs, Spain lost highly developed agriculture, trade and art, science and literature, as well as three million people of science and culture. Once the population of Cordoba was one million people, and now only 300 thousand people live here. Under Muslim rule, the population of the city of Toledo was 200 thousand people, and now less than 50 thousand people live here. Thus, it is safe to say that despite the fact that the Spaniards defeated the Arabs in the war, abandoning the great Islamic civilization, they plunged themselves into the abyss of ignorance and backwardness.

(The article used the book of Gustave le Bon "Islam and Arab Civilization")

Arab capture of Khorezm

The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who inflicted cruel reprisals on the Khorezmian aristocracy. Kuteiba brought down especially cruel repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As al-Biruni writes in the “Chronicles of Past Generations”, “and by all means scattered and destroyed Kuteyba all who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their traditions, all the scientists that were among them, so that all this was covered with darkness and there is no true knowledge about what was known of their history before the establishment of Islam by the Arabs.

Arab sources say almost nothing about Khorezm in the following decades. On the other hand, it is known from Chinese sources that Khorezmshah Shaushafar in 751 sent an embassy to China, which at that time was at war with the Arabs. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria took place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the VIII century. Shaushafar's grandson accepts Arabic name Abdallah and minted the names of Arab governors on his coins.

In the 10th century, a new flowering of urban life in Khorezm began. Arab sources paint a picture of the exceptional economic activity of Khorezm in the 10th century, and the surrounding steppes of Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan, as well as the Volga region - Khazaria and Bulgaria, and the vast Slavic world Of Eastern Europe. The growing role of trade with Eastern Europe put forward the city of Urgench (now Kunya-Urgench) [specify], which became the natural center of this trade, to the first place in Khorezm. In 995, the last Afrigid, Abu-Abdallah Muhammad, was captured and killed by the emir of Urgench, Mamun ibn-Muhammad. Khorezm was united under the rule of Urgench.

Khorezm in this era was a city of high learning. Natives of Khorezm were such outstanding scientists as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Iraq, Abu Reihan al-Biruni, al-Chagmini.

In 1017, Khorezm was subordinated to Sultan Mahmud Gaznevi, and in 1043 it was conquered by the Seljuk Turks.

Arabshahid dynasty

The real name of this country since ancient times was Khorezm. The khanate was founded by nomadic Uzbek tribes who captured Khorezm in 1511, under the leadership of the sultans Ilbars and Balbars, descendants of Yadigar Khan. They belonged to the Genghisid branch, descended from Arab-shah-ibn-Pilade, a descendant of Shiban in the 9th generation, so the dynasty is usually called Arabshahids. Shiban in turn was the fifth son of Jochi.

The Arabshahids, as a rule, were at enmity with another branch of the Shibanids, which settled at the same time in Maverannahr after the captures of Shaibani Khan; the Uzbeks, who occupied Khorezm in 1511, did not participate in the campaigns of Shaibani Khan.

The Arabshahids adhered to steppe traditions, dividing the khanate into estates according to the number of men (sultans) in the dynasty. The supreme ruler, the Khan, was the eldest in the family and chosen by the council of sultans. During almost the entire 16th century, Urgench was the capital. Khiva became the residence of the khan for the first time in 1557-58. (for one year) and only during the reign of Arab-Mohammed-Khan (1603-1622) Khiva became the capital. In the 16th century, the khanate included, in addition to Khorezm, oases in the north of Khorasan and Turkmen tribes in the sands of Kara-Kum. The possessions of the sultans often included areas in both Khorezm and Khorasan. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the khanate was a loose confederation of virtually independent sultanates, under the nominal authority of the khan.

Already before the arrival of the Uzbeks, Khorezm lost its cultural significance due to the destruction caused by Timur in the 1380s. A significant settled population survived only in the southern part of the country. Much of the formerly irrigated land, especially in the north, was abandoned and urban culture was in decline. The economic weakness of the khanate was reflected by the fact that it did not have its own money until late XVIII Bukhara coins were used for centuries. Under such conditions, the Uzbeks were able to maintain their nomadic way of life longer than their southern neighbors. They were the military class in the khanate, and the settled Sarts (descendants of the local Tajik population) were taxpayers. The authority of the khan and the sultans depended on the military support of the Uzbek tribes; to reduce this dependence, the khans often hired Turkmens, as a result of which the role of Turkmens in the political life of the khanate grew and they began to settle in Khorezm. Relations between the khanate and the Sheibanids in Bukhara were generally hostile, the Arabshahids often allied with Safavid Iran against their Uzbek neighbors and on three occasions; in 1538, 1593 and 1595-1598. The khanate was occupied by the Sheibanids. TO late XVI century, after a series of internal wars in which most of the Arabshahids were killed, the system of dividing the khanate between the sultans was abolished. Shortly thereafter, at the beginning of the 17th century, Iran occupied the lands of the Khanate in Khorasan.

The reigns of the famous historian khan Abu-l-Ghazi (1643-1663) and his son and successor Anush Khan were periods of relative political stability and economic progress. Large-scale irrigation works were undertaken, and new irrigated lands were divided among the Uzbek tribes; who became more and more sedentary. However, the country was still poor, and the khans filled their empty treasury with booty from predatory raids against their neighbors. From that time until the middle of the 19th century, the country was, in the words of historians, a "predatory state."

Culture in Spain during the Caliphate

Alhambra - the pearl of Arabic art

Tiles from the Alhambra. 14th century National Archaeological Museum, Madrid.

Arab harems

The Eastern harem is the secret dream of men and the personified curse of women, the focus of sensual pleasures and the exquisite boredom of beautiful concubines languishing in it. All this is nothing more than a myth created by the talent of novelists. A real harem is more pragmatic and sophisticated, like everything that was an integral part of the life and life of the Arab people.

The traditional harem (from the Arabic "haram" - forbidden) is, first of all, female half Muslim home. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem." Harem - the realm of luxury and lost hopes ...

Haram - Forbidden Territory
During early Islamic times traditional residents harem were the wives and daughters of the head of the family and his sons. Depending on the wealth of the Arab, slaves could live in the harem, whose main task was the harem economy and all the hard work associated with it.

The institution of concubines appeared much later, during the time of the Caliphates and their conquests, when the number of beautiful women became an indicator of wealth and power, and the law introduced by the Prophet Muhammad, which did not allow having more than four wives, significantly limited the possibilities of polygamy.

In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, the slave went through a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to checking for innocence, the girl had to convert to Islam without fail.

Entering the harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured as a nun, where instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Candidates for concubines, like God's brides, were forced to break all ties with the outside world, received new names and learned to live in humility. In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of a privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbearing. Showing attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem elevated her to the rank of a temporary wife. This situation was most often shaky and could change at any moment depending on the mood of the master. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. A concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.

Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem."

In addition to the old proven slaves, eunuchs followed the concubines. Translated from Greek, "eunuch" means "guardian of the bed." They got into the harem exclusively in the form of guards, so to speak, to maintain order.