Introduction

The history of Kievan Rus dates back to the unification of Kyiv and Novgorod by Oleg. In general, the period of its existence is rather mysterious and not defined. We cannot know exactly what happened at that time, but numerous sources help us understand and dispel this mystery. Just this will be our goal: on the basis of sources, to draw up a picture of the state of the culture of Rus' and its development, or, to be more precise, of some of its categories. In particular, we will consider folklore, its genres. The religion of the Slavs (before and after baptism). Literature - the main genres, famous from surviving works; architecture - types of buildings, famous buildings, styles in which they were performed. Visual arts - its main types, unique monuments; language and writing - their formation, characteristic; education. We will consider all this in the period from the formation of the state to the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Kievan Rus. Ritual poetry occupied a significant place in it: incantations, spells, songs, which were an integral part of the agrarian cult.

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: “You can’t throw out a word from a song.” It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and entertainment, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great events. historical events.

Ritual folklore also included wedding songs, funeral lamentations, songs at feasts and feasts. Mythological tales were also widespread, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs.

There were also forms of folklore that were not associated with a pagan cult - proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs.

Written monuments brought to us many traditions and legends about the founders of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the struggle against foreigners. Folk tales about the events of II - VI centuries. reflected in the "Word of Igor's Campaign": its author mentions the "ages of Trojans" (II - IV centuries), about the "time of Busov" (IV century), about the movement of the Slavs to the Balkans in the VI century. Traditions about the struggle of the Slavs with the Avars in the 7th century. preserved "The Tale of Bygone Years" Folk tales about the events of the II - VI centuries. ... retained "The Tale of Bygone Years" - History of Russian Culture of the IX-XX centuries: textbook / L.V. Koshman et al. 2006 - page 22..

For many generations, the people created and kept a kind of "oral chronicle" in the form of prose legends and epic tales about the past of their native land. The Oral Chronicle preceded the written chronicle and served as one of its main sources. Among such legends are the tales of Kiy, Schek and Khoriv and the founding of Kyiv, the calling of the Varangians, the campaigns against Constantinople, Oleg and his death from a snakebite, Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, Belgorod jelly, the single combat of Mstislav and Rededi, and many others. other. Annalistic narrative about the events of the 9th - 10th centuries. almost entirely based on folklore material.

By the middle of the 10th century, a new epic genre emerged - the heroic epic epic, the pinnacle of oral folk art. Epics - oral poetic works about the past. They are based on real historical events, the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mainly warriors of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a large mighty man peasant origin, purposeful and fearless. He became the favorite folk hero. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble, generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes - Churilo Plenkovich, before whom not a single girl could resist. The people also sang the peasant plowman Mikula Selyaninovich.

The main theme of the epics is the struggle of the people against foreign conquerors, they are imbued with the spirit of patriotism. The ideas of the greatness and unity of Rus', service to the motherland were preserved in epics and in times of political fragmentation, the Golden Horde yoke. For many centuries, these ideas, images of heroic heroes inspired the people to fight the enemy, which predetermined the longevity of the epic epic.

Oral poetry also existed in the princely retinue environment. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. Echoes of these songs are heard, for example, in the annalistic characterization of Prince Svyatoslav and the description of his campaigns. The princely squads had their own "songwriters" - professionals who composed songs - "glories" in honor of the princes and their warriors.

Returning to the "steppe epics", it should be emphasized that in some of them there are parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. So, for example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in individual Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor (“prince of the holy mountains”). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant. - Georgy Vladimirovich Vernadsky, Mikhail Mikhailovich Karpovich: "Kievan Rus" p.155

Oral folk art continued to live and develop even after the appearance of written literature, remaining an important element Kyiv culture.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. The fairy tale has been extremely popular among the Russian people throughout the history of the country. How component Russian folklore is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy tale characters, such as Baba_Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kyiv period.

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. He connects a person with a social group: with the immediate environment - family or friend, and with a wider social group - clan, tribe, nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. At the stage of "literary language" it becomes an instrument of education, science, and literature.

Prior to reaching this final cultural stage, language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression of individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition preserved mainly in the peasant environment, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" has become almost synonymous with the concept of " folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In ancient period the situation was different, since the development creativity in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kyiv period, after the introduction of Christianity in Rus' and the appearance of written texts, a kind of dualism was formed in literary art. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

“For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the Old Russian literary heritage almost all consists of biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and annals in the monastic style. However the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation.The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and means of expression of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition" Rybakov B.A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From Ancient Times to the Present Day. M., 2006, v. 1, pp. 575.

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: "You can't throw out a word from a song." It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and only at the very recent times the sources of folklore began to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still held in high esteem.

Apart from the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator belonging to the aristocracy class, the first written text of a Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known Russian manuscript folk ballads, apparently created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as a chaplain for English merchants in Russia. The Englishman, therefore, has the honor of a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of the works of Russian folklore known to us, including folk prose, such as fairy tales, are recorded in writing or, more recently, in audio form during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. Thus, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, trying to select from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is indeed an extremely difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much further Kyiv period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Traces pagan beliefs, worship of the Sun and the Earth, are seen in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Christianity in Rus', the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, the evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the opponent of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the discrepancies of the surviving texts is the Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly warriors of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big, powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble and generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes is Churilo Plenkovich, whom no girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with the Byzantine Empire. The famous poem "Sadko", an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different kind. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free-thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream or in a choh."

Returning to the "steppe epics", it should be emphasized that in some of them there are parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. So, for example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in individual Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor ("prince of the holy mountains"). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. The fairy tale has been extremely popular among the Russian people throughout the history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy-tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Kievan Rus.

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Ritual folklore included incantations, spells, wedding songs, funeral lamentations, songs at feasts and feasts. Mythological tales were also widespread, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs. Such are the songs and dances associated with Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala's day, Christmas carols.

There were also forms of folklore that were not associated with a pagan cult - proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs.

Written monuments brought to us many traditions and legends about the founders of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the struggle against foreigners. Folk tales about the events of II - VI centuries. reflected in the "Word of Igor's Campaign. Traditions about the struggle of the Slavs with the Avars in the 7th century. saved "The Tale of Bygone Years".

For many generations, the people created and kept a kind of "oral chronicle" in the form of prose legends and epic tales about the past of their native land. It preceded the written chronicle and served as one of its main sources. Such legends include stories about the founding of Kyiv, about calling the Varangians, about campaigns against Constantinople, about Oleg and his death from a snakebite, about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, and many others. Annalistic narrative about the events of the 9th - 10th centuries. almost entirely based on folklore material.

By the middle of the X century. refers to the emergence of a new epic genre - the heroic epic epic, the pinnacle of oral folk art. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. They are based on real historical events, the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. The bogatyrs are always ready to protect the prince and his state, there is no subservience in them, each of them is portrayed as a person with his own character. The eldest is Ilya Muromets, a big, powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless. Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble and generous person.

The main theme of the epics is the struggle of the people against foreign conquerors, they are imbued with the spirit of patriotism. The ideas of the greatness and unity of Rus', service to the motherland were preserved in epics and in times of political fragmentation, the Golden Horde yoke. For many centuries, these ideas, images of heroes - heroes inspired the people to fight the enemy, which predetermined the longevity of the epic epic.

Oral folk art continued to live and develop even after the appearance of written literature, remaining an important element of Kievan culture, and it is often difficult to separate the early basis folklore work from later deposits.

“For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the ancient Russian literary heritage almost all consists of biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and chronicles in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition. Rybakov B.A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From ancient times to the present day. 2006

The culture of Kievan Rus is the totality of all material and spiritual values ​​accumulated in the process of development of the Russian principalities from the moment the state was born in the 10th century to the 13th century inclusive.

The culture and life of Kievan Rus are made up of pre-Christian traditions and paganism, which were transformed after the baptism of Rus.

Writing

One of the main indicators of the presence of one's own culture is writing. In Rus', writing in its modern understanding appeared in the 10th century, but back in the 9th century, the monks Cyril and Mifodiy created an alphabet, which was then transformed into Cyrillic (which is still used today). The active development of the culture of Kievan Rus, including writing, began after the adoption of Christianity.

The first evidence of the presence of writing was birch bark letters - pieces of birch bark with squeezed out or inscribed notes about everyday life. The first books were the annals of the state, as well as the Bible. Before the advent of printing technology, books were copied by hand by monks, who often added their own comments and remarks to the text, as a result of which the copied books could differ greatly from the original.

The development of writing led to the emergence of the first educational institutions, as well as the birth of literature. An important milestone in the formation of the culture of Kievan Rus was the writing and adoption of the first set of laws - "Russian Truth".

Architecture

A feature of the culture of Kievan Rus was its religious orientation. For changing wooden architecture came the stone building. Stone temples began to be actively erected instead of wooden churches. The architectural traditions of stone construction in Rus' were formed under the influence of Byzantine architecture, because it was on the basis of the projects of Byzantine architects that the first stone churches were built.

989 - the first stone church was built in Kyiv.

1037 - foundation Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of the brightest representatives of the stone architecture of Kievan Rus.

Painting

The development of painting was greatly influenced by the Baptism of Rus, which gave impetus to the development of the spiritual and material culture of Kievan Rus. There were such types of fine arts as fresco and mosaic, which began to decorate churches. Also in Rus', iconography appeared, which began to occupy one of the most prominent places in culture.

The standard of icon painting came from Byzantium, and the first icon painters in Rus' were visiting Greeks, from whom the Russian masters adopted their skills. The Greeks also brought with them the art of painting, which decorated the walls of temples. Frescoes, and depending on their location, depicted biblical stories or scenes from everyday life.

By the end of the 12th century, painting had developed so much that several picturesque centers in Rus' began to be distinguished, each of which had its own own traditions and features.

Arts and Crafts

In addition to painting, arts and crafts were highly developed in Rus' - unique things were created from enamel, clay toys with a special painting, jewelry and much more. Many of the styles of painting and handicraft that existed then have remained to this day. The main subjects for painting DPI were epics, legends and stories from folklore.

Folklore

Folklore in Rus' was very developed and was of great importance for the culture of Kievan Rus. Since ancient times, various stories and legends have been passed from mouth to mouth. A special place was occupied by ritual poetry - incantations, songs, spells. Ditties, proverbs, pestles and much more were actively developing.

In the middle of the ninth century, a new genre appeared - the epic, which told about the adventures of great heroes, about battles and conquests. Much later, folk oral epos and epics formed the basis of the first literary works, including the famous Tale of Igor's Campaign.

With the development of writing and literature, folklore not only did not disappear, but continued to develop actively.

In general, the following events had a huge impact on the culture of Kievan Rus:

• The emergence of writing
• The birth of statehood;
• The formation of Christianity.

Introduction

Folklore of Kievan Rus

Theater of Russian civilization in the Kievan period

Literature of ancient Rus'

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (X - XVII centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted the traditions of ancient, primarily Greek, culture.

It is important to note that the Russian art of the Middle Ages was formed in the struggle between two ways - patriarchal and feudal, and two religions - paganism and Christianity. And just as traces of the patriarchal way of life can be traced for a long time in the art of feudal Rus', so paganism reminded of itself in almost all its forms. The process of eradicating paganism was spontaneous, but nevertheless attempts were made to strengthen new religion to make it close, accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; elements of folk deification of nature penetrated into it, and some saints began to be attributed the role of old gods.

Having adopted Christianity from Byzantium, Rus' naturally adopted certain foundations of the language of culture. But these foundations were reworked and acquired in Rus' their specific, deeply national forms. “We took the Byzantine Gospel and tradition from Byzantium,” wrote A.S. Pushkin. Of course, like any art of the Middle Ages, the art of Ancient Rus' follows a certain canon, traceable in architectural forms, and in iconography - in painting. Even samples were created - "cuts," "originals," facial and sensible (in the first it was shown how to write, in the second it was "interpreted," it was told), but following the canon, and contrary to them, the rich creative person artist. Based on the age-old traditions of Eastern European art, Russian masters managed to create their own national art, enrich European culture new, inherent only in Rus' forms of temples, original wall paintings and iconography, which cannot be confused with Byzantine, despite the commonality of iconography and the apparent closeness of the pictorial language.

In pre-Mongolian times, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities," as its contemporaries called it in antiquity, comparing its beauty and significance with Constantinople. The growth of the power of Kiev was facilitated by his geographical position at the crossroads of trade routes from the Scandinavian countries to the south, to Tsar-grad, from the west, from Germany, to Khorezm. Under Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, Kievan Rus became a strong state, previously unknown Eastern Slavs. The Russian army kept both the Byzantines and the Khazars in fear. Western Slavs sought friendship with Russia, the German emperors entered into alliances. Russian princes gave their daughters in marriage to foreign sovereigns. Thus, the international position of Kievan Rus was strengthened.

This work reflects the main areas of art of Kievan Rus: folklore, music, theater, architecture, fine arts (icon painting), literature.

For this, the literature of such authors as Barskaya N.A., Lebedeva Yu.L., Muravyov A.V. was used. and others.

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. It connects a person with a social group: and with the immediate environment - a family or a friend, and a wider social group - a clan, a tribe, a nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. At the stage of "literary language" it becomes an instrument of education, science, and literature.

Before reaching this final cultural stage, the language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression of individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition were preserved mainly among the peasantry, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" became almost synonymous with the concept of "folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In the ancient period, the situation was different, since the development of creative abilities in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kyiv period, after the introduction of Christianity in Russia and the appearance of written texts, a kind of dualism was formed in literary art. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

“For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the ancient Russian literary heritage almost all consists of the biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and chronicles in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition.

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: “You can’t throw out a word from a song.” It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore has accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and it is only very recently that the sources of folklore have begun to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still in high esteem.

Apart from The Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator belonging to the aristocracy class, the first written text of a Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known manuscript of Russian folk ballads appears to have been created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as chaplain to English merchants in Russia. The Englishman, therefore, has the honor of being a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of the known works of Russian folklore, including folk prose such as fairy tales, were recorded in writing or, more recently, in sound form during the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials, other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. So, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, to try to select from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is indeed an extremely difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much beyond the Kyiv period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Traces of pagan beliefs, worship of the Sun and Earth, are visible in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Russian Christianity, the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the enemy of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the variant readings of the surviving texts is a Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly combatants of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble, generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes is Churilo Plenkovic, whom no girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with the Byzantine Empire. The famous poem "Sadko" , an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different city. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream, not in a choh."

Returning to the “steppe epics”, it should be emphasized that some of them have parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. For example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in separate Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor (“prince of the holy mountains”). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. /> The fairy tale has been unusually popular among the Russian people throughout the entire history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy-tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.

Music

The study old Russian folklore just as important for understanding the historical basis of Russian music as for an adequate approach to Russian poetry.

Russian song has its own melodic, harmonic and rhythmic features. Some ancient Russian songs are composed in the so-called pentatonic scale, for the shortest interval in which a “tone” or “full interval” is adopted. As Prince N.S. Trubetskoy, a similar sound range is found in folk music Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins - Bashkirs, Siberian Tatars, Turks of Central Asia, as well as among the natives of Siam, Burma and Indochina.

In this sense, the music of at least one group of ancient Russian folk songs can be called Eurasian rather than European. In Ukraine, the pentatonic scale is found only in a small number of very ancient songs, among other Slavs its use is even more rare. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that the pentatonic scale was also preserved in the Celtic folk song, among the Scots, the Irish and in Britain. Other Russian songs seem to follow the traditions of ancient Greek music.

It can be added that the Russian folk song is predominantly diatonic, elements of chromaticism are very rare. Most Russian songs are polyphonic. Each party is independent and beautiful in its own way, but all serve the whole. The song begins with a singer who sings the theme. Other singers modulate and embellish it, creating an original counterpoint. In this respect, Russian folk song differs markedly from the folk songs of the Eastern peoples, most of which sing in unison.

The rhythm of a Russian song is partly determined by the nature of the living language, but also largely depends on the artistic intuition of the creator and performer. Typical time signatures are 5/4 and 7/4.

In addition to choral singing, Kievan Rus also loved solo singing, especially at princely feasts, where they performed heroic ballads, such as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In most cases, the singer himself accompanied himself on the harp. The Word has poetic description such an idea: “It was not Boyan who sent ten falcons to a flock of swans, then he laid his skillful fingers on live strings. And those strings, as if themselves, sang glory to the princes.

Apparently there were many professional singers. They moved from one national holiday to another, performing not only in the prince's mansions, but also at city market squares and rural fairs. They were mostly known as buffoons. The buffoons worked in groups, and, as a class, they must be given credit for preserving the traditions of ancient folk art in Russia through the centuries.

In addition to the harp, in ancient Rus' they used other different musical instruments: snuffles, tambourines. The latter were also an indispensable part of military bands, along with boar and trumpets. Undoubtedly, some oriental instruments were well known, such as the marmot (zurna) and domra. In addition to military bands, the princes kept special ensembles for palace feasts and festivities.

Concerning religious music, then we know little about pagan rites. Masudi mentions musical melodies that the traveler could hear when approaching certain pagan temples in the land of the Slavs. It is known that the pagan priests of the Baltic Slavs used pipes. Perhaps the pagan ritual also included some kind of singing and music.

After the baptism of Rus', church singing became an essential element of Russian musical culture. In accordance with the Byzantine tradition, the Russian Church avoided instrumental music, except for such church bells. On the other hand, vocal music - specifically, choral singing- reached a high level early. The Byzantine system of chants served as the basis for Orthodox church singing. This system contains eight tones, four main (“authentic”) and four additional (“plagal”). The system was built for church music by St. John of Damascus (d. 760) on the basis of ancient Greek harmony.

At first, Russian church singing was in unison. His notations have been preserved in a small number of manuscripts, the oldest of which is the Novgorod church book of the eleventh century. It contains the famous notation. In addition to it, in the Rusiv period from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, there was another notation system known as kondakar. Unfortunately, it has not yet been fully deciphered, but from what has already been read, it is clear that this is a recording of polyphonic singing.

/>Theater of Russian civilization in the Kievan period

Theater is one of the most important types of modern Russian art, and they even say that Russians have an innate talent for the stage. However theatre, modern sense, appeared in Russia only at the end of the seventeenth century. In the Moscow period - the era of Shakespeare - there was no theater in Russia.

The situation of the Kyiv period is not entirely clear. First of all, we must consider folklore foundations. The ritual of folk holidays, with its dances, rhythmic dialogue, etc., contained a significant element of theatrical art. The same can be said about wedding ceremony and funeral rites.

The complex cycle of the ancient Russian wedding ceremony was an action in which not only the bride and groom, but also their relatives and friends - all had their own role. The performance consisted of several acts and began with the arrival of the groom's relatives at the house of the bride's father, usually at night, as required by the ancient ritual. The performance took place for several days in the homes of relatives of each side in turn. As already noted, various songs were an essential part of the ceremonies, each day and each scene had its own song.

It is noteworthy that Russian peasants even now, when talking about a wedding, use the verb “play” (play a wedding). The funeral was also performed according to the established ritual, an important role in which belonged to professional mourners. In The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the mourner Karna mourns the fate of all of Rus', tormented by the steppe nomads.

It is against this folklore background that the activities of wandering artists - buffoons should be considered. It is assumed that most of the buffoons were public actors and musicians, such as jugglers and jesters. However, it should be borne in mind that information about them comes mainly from church sources.

The Russian clergy considered the performances of buffoons to be a manifestation of paganism and unsuccessfully tried to prevent them. In this, the clergy were guided by the decision of the Church Council of Constantinople in 692, which condemned all types of theatrical performances. But herself Byzantine Church abandoned her rigorism during the iconoclasm (eighth century) and went even further in this during the period of the Macedonian dynasty (ninth to eleventh centuries). Byzantine theater, which grew out of Roman pantomime, lasted until the last day of the Empire. By the way, Byzantine pantomime gave birth to Turkish folk theater orta oyunu, Karagyoz and Meddakhov.

Taking into account the close cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium, it can be assumed that Byzantine artists visited Rus' and introduced the local buffoons to the beginnings of theatrical art. As we shall see, on the frescoes of the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, Byzantine actors are depicted against the background of the hippodrome, but the pantomimes were different in content and, in addition to the square performances, more serious performances were played in Constantinople.

Byzantine artists, in some cases, wore masks />, buffoons also had masks. It is with the performances of buffoons that one must associate the appearance of a puppet theater in medieval Rus'. The first known mention of it is in a fifteenth-century manuscript.

In addition to the secular theater in Byzantium, as in Western Europe of the Middle Ages, a religious drama (mystery) developed. In a certain sense, the Byzantine service is itself a spiritual drama, and the complex ceremony in St. Sophia Cathedral was carried out with theatrical effects. It was the theatrical moment of the Byzantine rite that attracted Vladimir's ambassadors to Christianity more than anything else. According to the chronicle, during the service in the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople, they did not know where they were, on earth or in heaven. Later, a similar feeling must have been experienced by the rural inhabitants of Rus', attending services in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and other large churches in Russian cities. The wall paintings, mosaics and icons placed throughout the church created the necessary setting for the spiritual drama of the church service, the deep symbolism of which would otherwise not be perceived by the parishioners.

In Byzantium, from the earliest period of its history, special solemn services with complex rituals were developed to celebrate the main church events: Palm Sunday, Easter, the Nativity of the Virgin. Gradually, church processions and mysteries were built around each of these services, and, in the end, the Byzantine religious drama grew out of them. It is significant that on receiving the honor of the Russian princess Olga (957), a religious play was played in the imperial palace.

Thus, we can be sure that even before the official introduction of Christianity in Rus', the Russians were familiar with the theatrical parts of the Byzantine church service. There is no evidence that the religious drama as such existed in Russia before the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, but special services on solemn days and on Holy Week were already carried out in the Kyiv period, although, perhaps, not as magnificently as later.

Architecture and fine arts

Most of the monuments of ancient Russian architecture and painting known to us represent church art. Since the Russian Church was part of the Byzantine one, Russian church art, of course, had to follow the Byzantine canons, at least in initial period spread of Christianity in Rus'. Therefore, it is often said that from the point of view of art history, Kievan Rus was part of Byzantium.

It is impossible to deny the strong Byzantine influence in ancient Russian architecture and painting. But, however, the real process of Russian artistic development was too complex to be described within the framework of the theory of "Byzantinization" of Rus' or any other strict doctrine of this kind. First, our knowledge of ancient Russian art is incomplete. If some church buildings have been preserved, then the monuments secular architecture- no, since most of the dwellings were built of wood and therefore were less durable than church buildings. Moreover, with the exception of a few foundations, buildings from the pre-Christian period have not come down to us, and thus we have no way to trace the connection between pagan and Christian architecture. In addition, the very concept of “Byzantine art” requires interpretation. There were several schools in it and it is necessary to divide, for example, between the architectural style of Constantinople and the Byzantine provinces, such as Thrace and Macedonia, on the one hand, and Anatolia, on the other.

Let's start with the problem of pre-Christian architecture in Rus'. Approximately 1908 in Kyiv, archaeologists discovered an oval foundation of a building, which they considered to be the remains of a pagan temple, although there is no direct evidence for this. On this basis, it was suggested that the pagan temples in Rus' had an oval shape. There is no specific evidence for such a general conclusion. If we consider the parallels of other Slavic countries, we will see that, for example, the temple of Svyatovit on the island of Rugen is square.

Obviously the first christian churches were built for the Russians not by themselves, shortly after their first baptism in 866. Probably one was in Tmutarakan. In 1022, Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky erected another church there, which served as a model for the cathedral in Chernigov, founded by the same prince. By the time of his death, in 1036, the cathedral was not yet completed, but later it was completed.

Although the Chernihiv Cathedral was rebuilt several times, its original architectural features were preserved. It is organized according to the Byzantine plan - a basilica with five naves; it also shows a certain influence of the architectural style of the Transcaucasian temples.

The first of the luxurious Kyiv churches was the so-called “Tithing” church, founded by St. Vladimir and completed in 1039. According to K.J. five separate volumes intended for the construction of a vault, but not twenty-five domes, as some believe.

Even earlier, around 989, Vladimir ordered the construction of a cathedral in Novgorod. From the annals we learn that the first St. Sophia of Novgorod, built of wood, was about thirteen tops. Some archaeologists are ready to see in this term domes, but it seems more plausible that the "tops" can be explained simply as elements of the roof.

According to Conant, one of the architects of this cathedral was apparently from Asia. This style undoubtedly influenced the style of other early Russian churches, in Novgorod and Kyiv.

The two most impressive monuments of Russian architecture of the eleventh century are the St. Sophia Cathedral, built in Kyiv in 1037-1100, and the second Novgorod cathedral of the same name, founded in 1045. The Kyiv Cathedral has come down to us in poor condition, distorted by fires and rebuilding. Novgorodsky was somewhat better preserved before the German invasion, but was terribly damaged by the Germans before the retreat in 1944.

Apparently, St. Sophia of Kyiv in its original form was a majestic cathedral. In plan, it was a square, the inner volume was divided by columns into naves. The cathedral had five apses - all on the east side - and thirteen domes; a huge one in the center and twelve smaller ones around it. The cathedral was magnificently decorated inside with wall paintings, mosaics and icons.

As a whole, St. Sophia of Kyiv is an outstanding work of Byzantine style, but it was not a simple copy of any temple that existed then in Byzantium. It is believed that the so-called "New Church" (Nea Ecclesia) in Constantinople, completed in 881, served as the initial model for the creators of Sophia and some other Kyiv churches built under Yaroslav the Wise. However, Kiev St. Sophia is much more complex in its architecture than its prototype. The artistic motifs of the Byzantine provinces (in this case, Anatolia) are also noticeable in it. In addition, the possibility of a certain influence of Novgorod wooden architecture is not ruled out, especially if we take into account the number of domes, which coincides with the number of Novgorod "tops".

The second St. Sophia of Novgorod was erected on the site of the first wooden one, destroyed by fire in 1045. Novgorod St. Sophia is more strict and less luxurious than Kyiv, but beautiful in its own way. Its proportions are completely different, the apses are elongated, and although the main volume of the temple is rectangular, it is not square. The cathedral has six domes.

According to A.I. Nekrasov, some of the architectural features of this temple belong to the Romanesque style. During the twelfth century, with the growth of local cultural centers, most of the capitals of the principal principalities were decorated with churches, each of which, if smaller than the Kiev Sophia Cathedral, had its own special style.

It is significant that in the artistic style of the churches of both western Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia) and Eastern Rus'(Suzdal and Ryazan) Romanesque and Transcaucasian (Georgian and Armenian) stylistic influences intertwine. As recent archaeological research shows, the Ryazan church of the early twelfth century had the shape of the so-called "Armenian cross".

The second half of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century were the heyday of Suzdal architecture.

/> As we know, at this time the Vladimir-Suzdal principality came to the fore, led by such gifted rulers as Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod III. Both were keen builders. It is known from chronicles that Andrey invited architects from different countries to Suzdal. Historian V.N. Tatishchev claims that once Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sent Andrei master builders from Germany. Tatishchev does not indicate the source of this message, but his information is usually reliable. We know that the Suzdal princes maintained friendly relations with both Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. Perhaps Andrei Bogolyubsky hired some Georgian and Armenian architects, as well as builders from Western Rus' (Galicia).

The presence of such a large number foreign architects in the fifties and sixties of the twelfth century, apparently, stimulated the artistic activity of local Suzdal masters, and in 1194 the chronicler notes that Vsevolod invited only Russian masters to renovate the cathedrals of Suzdal and Vladimir.

Two prominent architectural monuments during the reign of Andrei - the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (built in 1158-1161, restored in 1185-1189, rebuilt in 1194) and the amazing miniature Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the banks of the Nerl River near Bogolyubov (1165). During the reign of Vsevolod, the Demetrius Cathedral (1194 - 1197) was erected in Vladimir, famous for the decorative decoration of the outer walls. No less remarkable is St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, built by the son of Vsevolod Svyatoslav (1230 - 1234). Its facades are also decorated with carvings, even more spectacular than those on Dimitrievsky.

Although each of these churches has its own personality, they all belong to the same architectural style, "Suzdal", which is characterized by a harmonious composition and elegance of lines and finishes. Striking parallels can be traced in architectural and decorative details between Suzdal, Armenian and Georgian churches, Suzdal and Western Romanesque. However, it would hardly be correct to call the Suzdal style and churches Romanesque without reservations, as is often done. According to the fair remark of N.P. Kondakov, Romanesque art itself developed under the influence of Byzantium, and many "Romanesque" elements can be found in the Byzantine art of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The art of some Eastern European countries, such as Western Ukraine, Serbia and Hungary, belongs to this Romano-Byzantine type and, from the point of view of Kondakov, we should turn to Western Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia) in an attempt to discover the sources of Suzdal art.

In any case, if there are Romanesque elements in the Suzdal churches, they themselves look completely different from the Romanesque churches of Bohemia, Germany and France. In general, it is difficult to deny that by combining various elements of Byzantine, Transcaucasian and Romanesque art, architects - both foreign and Russian, invited by the Suzdal princes, created a new and perfect style in Russian art. K.Conant calls it "truly classical" and "worthy of the Hellenistic spirit, along with a sense of purity and peace, which are always present in the greatest works of art." Subsequently, the Suzdal churches, in turn, served as a model for fifteenth-century Moscow churches built by Italian masters.

In addition to churches, both Andrei and Vsevolod built luxurious palaces for themselves. According to the chronicler, both foreigners and Russians came to Bogolyubovo to admire Andrei's chambers. Nothing remains of this palace on earth, but its foundations, recently uncovered by archaeologists, give some idea of ​​this grandiose architectural ensemble, which included chambers, several towers and a cathedral, all connected by galleries.

While both the church and the princes financed the development of architecture, the church opposed sculpture, considering it to be pagan art. The prejudice against sculpture in ancient Rus' was so great that not only in the church, but also in secular art there was no room for her. As a result, sculpture in Kievan Rus did not develop independently, and even bas-reliefs were used mainly for decorative purposes. Among the few examples of Russian sculpture of this period, we can mention marble sarcophagi in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of them - the sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise - is richly decorated. Of the stone bas-reliefs of saints, one can name the bas-reliefs of St. George and St. Michael on the wall of the monastery of St. Michael, dating from the twelfth century, although they are rough work, they are not without a certain expressiveness. Stone carving and decorative ornaments on the walls of the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir and the St. George Church in Yuryev-Polsky are exceptionally diverse and decorative. In addition to various images of Christ and saints, they contain figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, including centaurs and griffins.

Painting, like architecture, enjoyed the support of the Church, and its development was not artificially limited, as was the case with sculpture. On the other hand, there are not as many works of Russian painting of the Kyiv period as examples of architecture have survived, so our knowledge about it inevitably suffers from incompleteness.

The first painters who worked in Rus' were the "Greeks", that is, the Byzantines. Most of them probably came from Anatolia. Fortunately, at least part of the wall paintings of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev have been preserved. These frescoes illustrate the life of the Mother of God, Christ, St. George - the patron saint of Yaroslav the Wise.

On the walls of the stairs leading to the choirs, scenes from the life of Constantinople are depicted. Of these, images of drivers and chariots on hippodrome races have come down to us. Circus scenes with acrobats, hunters, musicians and jugglers have also been preserved. In the work on frescoes of the twelfth century (such as murals in the churches of two Kyiv monasteries - St. Michael and St. Cyril, as well as in the so-called church on Nereditsa near Novgorod), Russian painters, along with the Greeks, certainly took part. It is possible that Armenian artists also worked on Nereditsa. The Church on Nereditsa became one of the most painful losses suffered during the German invasion.

The history of icon painting is similar to the history of fresco painting. At first, icons were either brought ready-made from Byzantium, or painted in Rus' by Greek masters. Later, their own artists were trained. The first to become famous among his contemporaries was a certain Alympius, mentioned in the "Paterik" of the Caves Monastery. Byzantine icons exceptional beauty was brought in from time to time throughout the twelfth century. Apparently, it was Yuri Dolgoruky who brought from Constantinople the famous icon of the Mother of God, which his son Andrei placed in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir and which, under the name of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, became one of the sacred symbols of Ancient Rus'.

Mosaics were used in the decoration of St. Sophia Cathedral and some other churches in Kyiv and Chernigov+48a. The art of enamel became extremely popular - Russian artists of the Kyiv period reached the highest technical level in the manufacture of cloisonné enamel. Hoards such as those found in Ryazan in 1822 and Kyiv in 1889 contain some remarkable gold and enamel jewelry dating back to the twelfth century. The rise of this species applied arts testifies to the artistic maturity of Kievan civilization.

There is no doubt that the art of embroidery of Kievan Rus was also highly developed, although very few samples of it have come down to us. Skillful embroiderers were trained both in monasteries and in princely palaces, and the princesses especially patronized this art, the spread of which, however, was by no means limited to the princely chambers. Almost every housewife, both in cities and in villages, was obviously familiar with at least the basics of embroidery, which, therefore, can be considered a type of folk art in the broadest sense of the word. The roots of the art of embroidery go back centuries. It is noteworthy that the main motifs of Russian peasant embroidery date back to the Scythian and Sarmatian periods.

In this regard, a few words must be said about the role of ornament in Russian art. Both "plant" and "animal" styles were popular. The first, apparently, came to Rus' from Byzantium. The latter, as we know, was characteristic of Scythian and Sarmatian art. AT early middle ages it spread throughout Europe. Apparently, the spread of animal ornamentation in medieval Russian art was the result of both the traditions of the Sarmatian period and the influence of Western designs, which in fact were a variant of the same traditions. Apparently, one should also recognize the significant influence on Russian art of the decorative art of the Islamic Middle East. A variety of ornamental forms is characteristic of all manifestations of the Russian artistic spirit, especially in applied arts. It is manifested in the decoration of manuscripts, embroidery, enamels, wood carvings and so on. It influences not only the art of the upper classes, but also folk art; the same traditions are preserved in Russian peasant art of more modern periods.

Literature of ancient Rus'

Fiction, especially fiction, had not yet emerged as an independent genus in the Middle Ages. The medieval reader was attracted to books not so much for their artistic merit, if they mattered at all, as for the opportunity to extract moral instruction and education from the narrative. The Church, in turn, encouraged the moralistic tendency to use it to spread the Christian worldview, and therefore supported all kinds of didactic poetry and prose of the corresponding direction.

art ancient Rus'

In connection with these circumstances, speaking of Russian literature of the Kievan period, we must consider not only fiction directly, but also transitional types, such as didactic literature, and even religious works, if they are of artistic value.

The Bible in Kievan Rus, as in medieval Europe, was the main source of both religious and aesthetic inspiration. The influence of the Bible in Russia was even more significant than in the West, since Russians could read it in a language close to their native language.

From the point of view of the development of literature, the impact of the Old Testament proved to be stronger than the New. The Russians of that time read the Old Testament, mainly in an abbreviated version (Palea), the compiler of which did not separate the canonical texts from the apocrypha. This, however, made the book even more attractive to the reader. In addition to the Bible, readers had at their disposal translations of various works of religious literature and Byzantine literature in general. From the point of view of the history of literature, church hymns, the lives of saints and didactic legends of various kinds were the most important among the samples of Byzantine religious and semi-religious literature that became available to Russians.

It should be noted that not a single work of Greek literature, either classical or Byzantine, with the exception of the only Byzantine epic poem written in "vulgar" Greek, was translated into Russian in the Middle Ages. Apparently, this is the result of the leading role of the Church, if not directly its censorship.

Could the average Russian of the Kyiv period appreciate Sophocles and Euripides is another question. But he most likely would have enjoyed Homer, as, no doubt, Metropolitan Clement, who read Homer in Greek. An erotic novella of the late Hellenistic and early Byzantine periods would perhaps have resonated, at least with the fate of Russian readers, and we can well imagine the author of Daniil the Sharpener reading Daphnis and Chloe with pleasure, although he stigmatized "devilish women."

Turning now to the apocrypha, it should be pointed out that some of them were born in the East - in Syria, Egypt and even India. Byzantium served as their repository, from where they were subsequently borrowed by Russia and Western Europe. Only with reservations can Christian and pseudo-Christian legends of the apocryphal type be called Byzantine, with the exception of very few. Of the Christian apocrypha, the most popular in Russia, as I said, was the “Walking of the Virgin through Torment”.

An example of non-Christian apocrypha is the "Legend of Solomon Kitovras". This is one of the legends about the construction of Solomon's tower. The stones for the tower had to be hewn without the help of iron tools, and in order to do this work, Solomon tamed a magician named Kitovras (centaur) by cunning. The latter is portrayed as a soothsayer of the future and interpreter of dreams. In the West, the same theme appears in the legend of Merlin and the legend of Solomon and Morolf.

Of the didactic biographical legends, The Tale of Barlaamey Josaph met with the warmest response from some Russian readers. Born in India, she represents a variant of the life of the Buddha. In the eighth century, this legend was reinterpreted in Christian tradition and transcribed in Greek by John of Damascus, according to the generally accepted opinion, which, however, is not reliably substantiated. Its central theme is the futility of earthly life, the hero is a prince who leaves his throne to become a hermit.

The Tale of Akira the Wise, also beloved by Russians, belongs to the same genre of didactic literature. Apparently, her homeland is Babylon of the seventh century BC, the legend was remade to the Byzantine taste at about the same time as the Tale of Barlaam and Josaph. The hero, Akir, is portrayed as a nobleman who was accused of theft by a slanderer - his own nephew. The king orders the execution of Akira, an old friend saves him from this terrible fate. Subsequently, the kingdom is threatened by enemies, and it is Akir who saves everyone with his wisdom; he does not hold a grudge against the king, but punishes his nephew. Moral: Don't dig a hole for someone else, you'll fall into it yourself. Completely different nature of the fictitious biography of Alexander the Great, one of the most popular stories of the late Hellenistic and early medieval periods. The Russian translation of "Alexandria" appears to have appeared in the eleventh or twelfth century; the complete manuscript did not reach us, but parts of the story were included in the ancient Russian compilation of world history, known as the Greco-Roman Chronicles.

Quite apart from the literary Byzantine tradition stands the Greek folk poem Digenis Akritas, an epic about a Byzantine warrior from Anatolia defending Christianity from Islam. The poem was created in the tenth century, in the Russian translation it appeared in the twelfth under the title "Deed of Devgen." .

As the Slavic translations show, the original Russian literature largely followed the Byzantine model. However, it would be a mistake to conclude from this that Russian authors did not show their own creative power. On the contrary, some of them reached the very heights of literary art.

Bishop Cyril of Turovsky was one of the most popular authors in the genre of didactic church literature and hymnography. In both his hymns and his teachings, he showed remarkable literary skill, despite his disdain for traditional rhetoric. In the genre of life story unknown author about the suffering of St. Boris and Gleb, perhaps the best in terms of literary technique.

But Metropolitan Hilarion rises above everyone not only in the content of his works, but also in their form. In his Discourse on Law and Grace, he showed himself to be one of the truly great masters of the art of rhetoric. The "Word" is magnificent in composition, and every detail in it - gem high dignity. Hilarion uses a wide variety of means of artistic expression: symbolic parallelism, metaphors, antitheses, rhetorical questions, etc., all with an excellent sense of proportion. In secular literature, Russians have shown a tendency to historical genre. "The Tale of Bygone Years" is both a historical scientific work and a collection of historical stories. Each of these stories is intended to be a detailed account of the event described, and many of them, of course, are so. But at the same time, many stories have a high artistic value, and in some, fiction, no doubt, prevails over fact. Among the historical and pseudo-historical messages included in the "Tale", we find, for example: narratives of Oleg's campaign in Byzantium; about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband; the so-called "Korsun legend" about the baptism of Vladimir; the story of the blinding of Prince Vasilko; the story of the disastrous campaign of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky against the Polovtsy and many others.

Some of these stories, apparently, are based on various epic poems that were created among princely combatants; others are true statements of fact, such as the story of Vasilko - it is obviously written by a priest who consoled the unfortunate prince after inflicting severe mutilation. Some of the stories, apparently, were recorded by the chronicler from the words of eyewitnesses, other interpretations of the same event could be distributed independently of first. This happened in the case of the campaign of Prince Igor: two entries were included in different versions of the annals and at the same time it was written heroic poem, the famous "Word"

The Word is very dynamic; it is based on the glorification of military prowess. However, there are also lyrical episodes in the poem, such as, for example, the passionate infatuation of a captive Russian youth with a Polovtsian princess, which is only hinted at, or the weeping of Igor's wife.

Behind the personal drama of the defeated Igor rises the national tragedy of Russia, which at that time was suffering from princely strife and constant raids by steppe nomads. The portraits of Russian princes mentioned in history are full of life and convincing. The steppe through which the Russians march to their defeat, the life of animals around the moving army, weapons, armor (both Russian and Polovtsian) - everything is described not only with the true spirit of poetry, but also with a wonderful knowledge of details.

The "Word" is imbued with a pagan worldview. It is difficult to say whether the names of the Slavic deities that he mentions mean anything to the author, or whether he calls them only according to poetic tradition. In any case, the spirit of the poem is non-Christian, in a religious sense, and if the author was a member of the Church, then obviously bad. He probably belonged to the squad of the prince of Chernigov, was well acquainted with Russian folklore and well-read in historical and epic literature, including Flavius' History of the Jewish War and Devgen's Deed.

In the introductory stanzas, the author refers, as an ideal, to the ancient singer Bayan, although he will not follow Bayan's style, but asserts the freedom to write in his own way. This Bayan, apparently, was a contemporary of Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky, also mentioned in the "Word"; None of his works have survived to this day. The only known manuscript of The Tale of Igor's Campaign was a copy made in Pskov in the 15th century. It was discovered by Musin-Pushkin in 1795, at the same time a copy was made for Empress Catherine II. The Lay was published in 1800, and in 1812 Musin-Pushkin's manuscript perished in the Moscow fire of the Napoleonic invasion. Catherine's copy and the first edition (for which Musin-Pushkin's manuscript was used) are all that have survived from documentary evidence. Since both are full of scribal errors and typographical errors, interpreting the Lay is an extremely difficult task.

However, despite the fact that only one manuscript has survived to 1812 - or at least only one has been discovered - we know that the "Word" was read and admired in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A passage from it was quoted at the beginning of the thirteenth century in the version of the “Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener”, and at the end of the fourteenth century the “Word” served as a model for the “Zadonshchina”, historical poem celebrating the victory of the Russians over the Mongols in 1380.

"The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" is another wonderful work ancient Russian literature. As in the case of the Lay, the authors are unknown. Judging by the content of the work, he, apparently, was a poor nobleman - perhaps a former slave - of one of the Suzdal princes. A sharpener in Old Russian means a prisoner, and therefore it has been suggested that the "Prayer" was written by a disgraced servant whom the prince imprisoned. Such an explanation of the circumstances in which the work was written is very vulnerable. "Supplication" is not a biographical document, but a satire. In a pretentious rhetorical style, the author implores the prince to use his (the author's) talents. He presents himself as a persecuted poor man and admits his distaste for military service, but boasts of his mind and education, and offers himself to the post of princely adviser. As evidence of his own wisdom, he includes in his prayer a huge number of quotations from the "Bible", "Physiologist", "Bees", "The Tale of Akira the Wise" and so on. His tone is sometimes humble to the point of servility, sometimes arrogant or even revolutionary. At times he craves wealth, then ridicules those who are seduced by beautiful clothes and rich food. He hates the possibility of a princely proposal to marry a rich girl, and, on this occasion, excels in insulting speeches against women. But presenting himself as a misogynist, he also refuses to become a monk and finds words expressive enough to explain his disgust with monasticism; Indeed, in one of the versions of the Prayer, the author's ardent statements against the "black clergy" and the boyars acquire political significance.

In a certain sense, "Supplication" is a document protesting against human stupidity and social inequality, a vivid apology for wisdom. The author was certainly good an educated person sharp mind.

No less remarkable secular document, although absolutely different in content and tone, is the autobiography of Vladimir Monomakh, which constitutes the main part of his Teachings. Whereas the author of "Daniel's Prayer" is one of the few scribes of that time, Vladimir Monomakh is a soldier statesman, which simply describes its affairs. But he does this with an undoubted literary talent, which he apparently developed by intensive reading. His autobiography is not only imbued with high ideas, but also reveals his taste healthy life with its simple pleasures, as well as admiration for the beauty of nature.

In concluding this section, it should be said that our knowledge of Russian literature of the Kievan period is only fragmentary. So many manuscripts of that time perished (both during the Mongol invasion and afterwards) that we will probably never know what we lost with them. In addition, most of what has come down to us was found in church archives, and the clergy were little concerned about the preservation of works of secular literature - especially with pagan "deviations", such as in the "Word". Perhaps this explains the fact that only a copy of this work has survived.

Apparently, not only the number of works, but also the variety of styles in the literature of the Kievan period was much greater than we are usually ready to admit.

Determining the main content and direction of the historical and cultural process of medieval Russia, one can with good reason to say that this culture was rooted in folk art and had in it the main nutrient medium of its development. Under the conditions of feudal society, serfdom, and the centuries-old struggle against the devastating invasions of external enemies, the culture of Russia revealed remarkable wealth of the creative forces of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the ruling classes, who used it in a modified form for their own class purposes. The culture of the people is imbued with a bright sense of optimism, it is life-affirming in its spirit. A.M. Gorky noted that "the most profound and vivid, artistic types of heroes were created by folklore, the oral art of the working people" and the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard and painfully - their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal life was powerless and defenseless. earth, the beauty of labor and military feat, high moral nobility, firm faith in the victory of good over evil, justice over untruth and deceit, and at the same time deep poetry, inexhaustible humor, apt selection of typical life phenomena, soundness and accuracy of their assessments - all this is characteristic of the works folk art of the feudal era. different forms these remarkable qualities of folk art made their way not only in the literature of medieval Russia, but also in architecture and painting.

The development of Russian culture in the Middle Ages reflected the peculiarities and contradictions inherent in this era. They were determined, ultimately, by the socio-political and economic processes that took place in Rus'. The feudal mode of production, with its inherent conservatism in the development of productive forces, the dominance of a closed subsistence economy, underdeveloped exchange, traditions to preserve the political system of feudal fragmentation, slowed down the pace of cultural development, the formation of local traditions and characteristics. The development of Russian medieval material and spiritual culture was unquestionably influenced by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. needs to the point of having to start all over again.”

Undoubtedly, the development of Russian culture was greatly influenced by the dominance of the religious worldview. The church, especially in the early Middle Ages, played a certain role both in the spread of literacy and in the development of architecture and painting. But at the same time, the church jealously guarded its dogmas and was hostile, treated new phenomena in culture, was a brake on the development of sciences, technical knowledge, literature, and art. The church directed all the enormous power of its material power and spiritual influence on the complete and unconditional adherence of the entire culture to the narrow framework of religious-scholastic thinking, and fettered the desire of the human mind to free creativity. From this it becomes clear why the spiritual life at that time proceeded mainly within the framework of a religious and theological shell, why the struggle of class tendencies of different content was, as a rule, clothed in the form of religious disagreements and disputes. The binding influence of the church and in the interaction of Russian culture with the cultures of the West and East. Nevertheless, Russian culture did not develop in isolation from world culture, being enriched by its achievements and contributing to its development.

Having withstood so many difficult historical trials in the Middle Ages, the people created an excellent spiritual and material culture, which embodied the high qualities of the richest people in their creative forces.

1. Barskaya N.A. Plots and images of ancient Russian painting, - M .: "Enlightenment", 2003. - 325s.

2. Grabar A.N. Secular fine art of pre-Mongolian Rus' and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - TODRL, M.; L., 2004 - 351s.

3. Lazarev V.N. The art of medieval Rus' and the West (XI-XV centuries). M., 2005 - 278s.

4. Lebedeva Yu.L. Ancient Russian art of the 10th - 17th centuries. - M.: Felix, 2005s. - 320s.

5. Muravyov A.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture, - M .: UNITI, 2004. - 198s.

6. Rybakov B.A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From ancient times to the present day. M., 2006, v.1, p.573-639

Fig. 1 Birch bark letter (Zhiznemir's letter to Mikula). 11th c.

Fig. 2 Plans of St. Sophia Cathedrals: 1 - in Kyiv (1037), 2 - in Novgorod (1045-50), 3 - in Polotsk (1044-66).

Fig. 3 "Hercules (?) fighting a lion." Relief from the Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Kiev-Pechersk Historical and Art Museum-Reserve.

Fig. 4 "Evangelist Mark". Miniature of the Ostromir Gospel. 1056-57. Public library them. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Leningrad.

Fig. 5 “St. Nestor and Dmitry. Relief from the facade of the Cathedral of the Mikhailovsky Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Fig. 6 "Mary" from the "Annunciation" (fragment of a fresco from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig.7 Kievan Rus. "Job's Wife" (fragment of a fresco). Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 8 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig. 9 "The Prophet Solomon" (fragment of a fresco). 1st half of the 12th century. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 10 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment). Mid-11th century. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig. 11 "Archideacon Lavrenty" (fragment of a fresco). Mid 11th century Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig.12 Church of the Savior on Berestove in Kyiv. Between 1113 and 1125. South facade.

Fig.13 Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod. Laid down in 1113. East facade.

Fig.14 St. Michael's Church in Ostra.1098. Apse.

Fig.15 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Interior. Started before 1036.

Fig.16 Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.1045-50. East facade.

Fig.17 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Western façade. Started before 1036.

Fig. 18 "Daughters of Yaroslav the Wise." Fresco in the central nave of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Rice. 19 Old Russian coins of the 11th-12th centuries.

Fig. 20 Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv (circa 1108; not preserved). East facade.

Fig. 21 Gold colt with cloisonne enamel. 11-12 centuries. Historical Museum of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv.

Fig. 22 "Musicians and buffoons." Fresco in the southern tower of the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Fig. 23 Archdeacon Stefan. Mosaic from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv. Early 12th century Sofia Museum-Reserve. Kyiv

Fig. 24 Our Lady of Oranta