Hello dear readers and subscribers of my blog. Ivan Nekrasov is with you and in today's article we will talk about how to effectively systematize the existing knowledge from the course of national history in order to productively solve USE tests on high scores.

I personally recommend starting the course of history by studying its periodization. It helps to understand the chronology of national history and not only :), to understand the causal investigative links the discipline we are studying. This post will help get rid of the very "porridge" in the head, which necessarily manifests itself if events, historical figures, and the reforms they carry out are not tied to a particular period in the history of Russia. For example, we begin to study ancient Rus' with theories of the formation of statehood. period of the Empire from the reign of Peter the Great. Soviet period, since the civil war.

Let's figure out how we can sort through so many dates, events, names in our heads historical figures? I suggest you the simplest technique of how we should work through the material! Read more about her...

All National history is divided school course for five main periods:

The first is considered the time of the Ancient or Kievan Rus. If you look chronological framework, then this is from the 9th century, or to be more precise, from 862 - the year of Rurik's calling, according to Norman theory, before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in the XIII century.

The second period includes the time from the 13th to the 16th centuries - the period of the formation of a single centralized state, in addition, during this period there was a process of struggle against the Golden Horde.

Next already underway the period from the 16th to the 17th century, the development of the Moscow state was going on (the reign of Ivan IV, the Time of Troubles, the Rebellious Age and the reign of Sophia Alekseevna)

The period of the Empire is from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century, that is, from the reign of Peter the Great, ending with the collapse of the monarchy in 1917.

The next period is Soviet, from October 1917 to December 1991.

AND last period can be called Newest period from December 1991 to the present day.

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Main periods of Russian history February 13th, 2015

The history of any country can be divided into periods with significantly different quality of the state. There are six such major periods in the history of Russia.
1. Ancient Rus',IX - XIIIcenturies



Period Ancient Rus' often called the period of Kievan Rus. However, this is not entirely true. Kyiv was the political center of Rus' only until the last thirdXXIIV. In 1169 the great reign was transferred to Vladimir. In turn, in 1325 the residence of the metropolitan was moved to Moscow and Moscow became the political center. Accordingly, in the history of Ancient Rus', one can single out: the period of Kievan Rus - fromIX century to 1169, the period of Vladimir Rus' - from 1169 to 1325 and the period of Moscow Rus' from 1325 - to the middle of the 16th century.

2. Tatar-Mongol yoke,XIII - XVcenturies


This period is characterized by the collapse and subsequent assembly of the Russian state. Historically, there have been several rival assembly centers, of which the main- Grand Duchy of Moscow,Grand Duchy of Tver and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Moscow won.

3. Moscow kingdom,XVI - XVIcenturies


The end of the period of Muscovite Rus' can be considered 1547, when IvanIV- Terrible was married to the kingdom. From this date began the period of Muscovy. The adoption of the royal regalia marked a fundamental change political system Rus' - from the system of great and specific principalities to autocracy.

4. Russian Empire,XVIII- StartXXcenturies

The next major stage in the history of Russia was the period Russian Empire. It began in 1721 after the victory in northern war when Peter I took the title of emperor. Ended - as a result of the February bourgeois revolution1917and renunciations last emperor Nicholas II from the throne.

5. USSR, beginning - endXXV.

From 1917 to 1991, the period of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics when, in my opinion, historical Russia reached its peak of prosperity and power. Usually, the beginning Soviet period considered the Great October Socialist Revolution, i.e. October 1917 However, from a formal point of view, the formation of the USSR took place on December 30, 1922, whenRSFSR , Ukrainian SSR , Byelorussian SSR AndTranscaucasian SFSR united in single state. The end of the Soviet period is December 8, 1991, when the degenerates Yeltsin, Kravchuk and Shushkevich, as the heads of the RSFSR, the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine, signed the Belovezhskaya agreements on the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the CIS.

6. Since 1991, the period began Russian Federation in which we now live.

It is clear that this structuring is rough. It is also clear that within each period it is possible and necessary to single out sub-periods, and within sub-periods, sub-sub-periods, etc. That is, the given structuring has the property of self-similarity, when a part is similar to the whole. It is quite possible that it also has a fractal dimension)).

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. He connects a person with a social group: with the immediate environment - family or friend, and with a wider social group - clan, tribe, nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. On the stage " literary language"It becomes an instrument of education, science, literature.

Before reaching this final cultural stage, language undergoes a long process internal development as a means of self-expression individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition preserved mainly in the peasant environment, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" has become almost synonymous with the concept of " folk literature", denoting literary works the lower classes. IN ancient period the situation was different, since the development creativity in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kiev period, after the introduction of Christianity in Rus' and the appearance of written texts, in literary art a kind of dualism emerged. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

"For many centuries Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the ancient Russian literary heritage consists almost entirely of the biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and annals in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was completely foreign to the Russian tradition, and means of expression of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition" Rybakov B.A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From Ancient Times to the Present Day. M., 2006, v. 1, pp. 575.

Home integral part Russian folklore is a song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: "You can't throw out a word from a song." It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and entertainment, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great events. historical events.

Russian folklore accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and only at the very Lately the sources of folklore began to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still held in high esteem.

Not counting the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator who belonged to the class of the aristocracy, the first written text of the Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known Russian manuscript folk ballads, apparently created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as a chaplain for English merchants in Russia. The Englishman, therefore, has the honor of a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of us famous works Russian folklore, including folk prose, such as fairy tales, are recorded in writing or, more recently, in audio form during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. Thus, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, to try to choose from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period, is really in the highest degree difficult task. We can be sure that one or the other folk song very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove it in each case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much further than the Kievan period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Footprints pagan beliefs, worship of the Sun and the Earth, are seen in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Christianity in Rus', the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, evidence ancient origin songs, apart from its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, still performed in the peasant environment. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to glorious deeds mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the opponent of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the discrepancies of the surviving texts is the Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly warriors of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a large mighty man peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble and generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes - Churilo Plenkovich, before whom not a single girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with byzantine empire. famous poem"Sadko", an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Other Novgorod epic- about Vasily Buslaev - a completely different kind. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free-thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream or in a choh."

Returning to the "steppe epics", it should be emphasized that in some of them there are parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. So, for example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in individual Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor ("prince of the holy mountains"). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. The fairy tale has been extremely popular among the Russian people throughout the history of the country. How component Russian folklore is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, etc., may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with the political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kiev period.

Art of Kievan Rus

Folklore of Kievan Rus

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. He connects a person with a social group: with the immediate environment - family or friend, and with a wider social group - clan, tribe, nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. At the stage of "literary language" it becomes an instrument of education, science, and literature.

Prior to reaching this final cultural stage, language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression of individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition were preserved mainly among the peasantry, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" became almost synonymous with the concept of "folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In the ancient period, the situation was different, since the development of creative abilities in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kiev period, after the introduction of Christianity in Rus' and the appearance of written texts, a kind of dualism was formed in literary art. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

“For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the Old Russian literary heritage almost all consists of biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and annals in the monastic style. However the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its distribution was oral presentation.The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition "Rybakov B .A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From ancient times to the present day. M., 2006, vol. 1, p. 575 .

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: "You can't throw out a word from a song." It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore has accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and it is only very recently that the sources of folklore have begun to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still held in high esteem.

Apart from the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator belonging to the aristocracy class, the first written text of a Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known manuscript of Russian folk ballads appears to have been written in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as chaplain to English merchants in Russia. The Englishman, therefore, has the honor of a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of the works of Russian folklore known to us, including folk prose such as fairy tales, were recorded in writing or, more recently, in sound form during the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. Thus, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, trying to select from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is indeed an extremely difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much further than the Kievan period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Traces of pagan beliefs, the worship of the Sun and the Earth, are visible in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Christianity in Rus', the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, the evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the opponent of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the discrepancies of the surviving texts is the Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly warriors of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big, powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble and generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes is Churilo Plenkovich, whom no girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with the Byzantine Empire. The famous poem "Sadko", an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different kind. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free-thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream or in a choh."

Returning to the "steppe epics", it should be emphasized that in some of them there are parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. So, for example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in individual Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor ("prince of the holy mountains"). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. The fairy tale has been extremely popular among the Russian people throughout the history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy-tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.

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The handwritten book of Kievan Rus has certain peculiarities inherent only to it. Already the masters of the first books known to us were characterized by a high level artistic culture perfect taste. The first thing to note...

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