1. In each work of literature, through the external form (text, speech level), an internal form of a literary work is created - existing in the minds of the author and reader art world, reflecting the reality through the prism of the creative idea (but not identical to it). The most important parameters of the inner world of a work are artistic space and time. The fundamental ideas in the study of this problem of a literary work were developed by M. M. Bakhtin. He also coined the term "chronotope", denoting the relationship of artistic space and time, their "fusion", mutual conditioning in a literary work.
2. Chronotop performs a number of important artistic functions. So, it is through the image in the product of space and time that it becomes visually visually visible the era that the artist comprehends aesthetically, in which his characters live. At the same time, the chronotope is not focused on adequately capturing the physical image of the world, it is focused on a person: it surrounds a person, captures his connections with the world, often refracts the character’s spiritual movements in itself, becoming an indirect assessment of rightness or wrongness. the choice accepted by the hero, the solubility or insolubility of his litigation with reality, the achievability or unattainability of harmony between the personality and the world. Therefore, individual space-time images and the chronotope of the work as a whole always carry valuable meaning.
Each culture has its own understanding of time and space. The nature of artistic time and space reflects those ideas about time and space that have developed in everyday life, in religion, in philosophy, in science of a certain era. M. Bakhtin studied typological spatio-temporal models (annalistic, adventurous, biographical chronotope). In the nature of the chronotope, he saw the embodiment of types of artistic thinking. Thus, traditionalist (normative) cultures are dominated by epic chronotope, which turned the image into a complete and distant tradition from modernity, and in the cultures of innovative and creative (non-normative) dominates novel chronotope, focused on living contact with the unfinished, becoming reality. (See the work of M. Bakhtin "Epic and Romance" about this.)
M. Bakhtin singled out and analyzed some of the most characteristic types chronotopes: chronotope of a meeting, road, provincial town, castle, square. Currently, the mythopoetic aspects of artistic space and time, the semantics and structural possibilities of archetypal models (“mirror”, “dream”, “game”, “path”, “territory”), the cultural meaning of the concepts of time (pulsating, cyclical, linear, entropy, semiotic, etc.).
3. In the arsenal of literature there are such art forms, which are specially designed to create a space-time image of the world. Each of these forms is capable of capturing the essential side of " human world»:
plot- the course of events,
character system - social connections human,
landscape - surrounding a person physical world,
portrait - appearance human,
opening episodes- events that are remembered in connection with current events.
At the same time, each of the spatio-temporal forms is not a copy of reality, but an image that carries the author's understanding and assessment. For example, in the plot, behind the seemingly spontaneous course of events, there is such a chain of actions and deeds that “unravels the inner logic of being, connections, finds causes and effects” (A. V. Chicherin).
The above forms capture a visually visible picture artistic world, but do not always exhaust its entirety. Such forms as subtext and supertext often participate in the creation of a holistic image of the world.
There are several definitions subtext that complement each other. “Subtext is the hidden meaning of the statement that does not coincide with the direct meaning of the text” (LES), subtext is the “hidden semantics” (V.V. Vinogradov) of the text. " subtext - this is an implicit dialogue between the author and the reader, which manifests itself in the work in the form of reticences, impliations, distant echoes of episodes, images, replicas of characters, details ”(A. V. Kubasov. Stories by A. P. Chekhov: poetics of the genre. Sverdlovsk, 1990. C 56). In most cases, the subtext is "created through a dispersed, remote repeat, all the links of which enter into complex relationships with each other, from which their new and more deep meaning"(T. I. Silman. Subtext is the depth of the text // Questions of Literature. 1969. No. 1. P. 94). These distant repetitions of images, motifs, turns of speech, etc. are established not only by the principle of similarity, but also by contrast or adjacency. The subtext establishes hidden connections between the phenomena captured in the inner world of the work, causing its multi-layeredness and enriching its semantic capacity.
Supertext - it is also an implicit dialogue between the author and the reader, but it consists of such figurative “signals” (epigraphs, explicit and hidden quotations, reminiscences, titles, etc.) that evoke various historical and cultural associations in the reader, connecting them “from outside” to the artistic reality directly depicted in the work. Thus, the supertext expands the horizons of the artistic world, also contributing to the enrichment of its semantic capacity. (It is logical to consider one of the varieties "intertextuality”, perceived as explicit or implicit signals that orient the reader of this work to associations with previously created literary texts. For example, when analyzing Pushkin's poem "Monument", it is necessary to take into account the semantic halo that arises due to the intertextual links established by the author with works of the same name Horace and Derzhavin.)
The location and correlation of spatio-temporal images in the work is internally motivated - there are also "life" motivations in their genre conditionality, there are also conceptual motivations. Spatiotemporal organization is systemic character, eventually forming the “inner world of a literary work” (D. S. Likhachev) as a visually visible embodiment of a certain aesthetic concept of reality. In the chronotope, the truth of the aesthetic concept is, as it were, being tested by the organicity and internal logic of artistic reality.
When analyzing space and time in a work of art, one should take into account all the structural elements present in it and pay attention to the originality of each of them: in the system of characters (contrast, specularity, etc.), in the structure of the plot (linear, unidirectional or with returns, overruns forward, spiral, etc.), match specific gravity individual elements of the plot; as well as to reveal the nature of the landscape and portrait; the presence and role of subtext and supertext. It is equally important to analyze the placement of all constructive elements, look for motivations for their articulation and, ultimately, try to comprehend the ideological and aesthetic semantics of the spatio-temporal image that arises in the work.
Literature
Bakhtin M. M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel // Bakhtin M. M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. - M., 1975. S. 234-236, 391-408.
Likhachev D.S. The inner world of a literary work // Questions of Literature. 1968. No. 8.
Rodnyanskaya I. B. Artistic Time and Artistic Space // KLE. T. 9. S. 772-779.
Silman T.I. Subtext - the depth of the text // Questions of Literature. 1969. No. 1.
additional literature
Barkovskaya N.V. Analysis of a literary work at school. - Yekaterinburg, 2004. S. 5-38.
Beletsky A.I. Image live and dead nature// Beletsky AI Selected works on the theory of literature. - M., 1964.
Galanov B. Painting with a word. (Portrait. Landscape. Thing.) - M., 1974.
Dobin E. Plot and reality. - L., 1981. (Plot and idea. The art of detail). pp. 168-199, 300-311.
Levitan L. S., Tsilevich L. M. The basics of storytelling. – Riga, 1990.
Kozhinov B.V. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of Literature. The main problems in historical coverage. - M., 1964. S. 408-434.
Samples of studying the text of a work of art in the works of domestic literary critics / Comp. B. O. Korman. Issue. I. Ed. 2nd, add. - Izhevsk. 1995. Section IV. Time and space in epic work. pp. 170-221.
Stepanov Yu. S. Constants: Dictionary of Russian Culture. Ed. 2nd. - M., 2001. S. 248-268 ("Time").
Tyupa V.I. Analytics of the Artistic (Introduction to Literary Analysis). - M., 2001. S. 42-56.
Toporov V. N. The Thing in Anthropological Perspective // Toporov VN Mif. Ritual. Symbol. Image. - M., 1995. S. 7-30.
Theory of Literature: in 2 vols. Vol. 1 / Ed. N. D. Tamarchenko. - M., 2004. S. 185-205.
Farino E. Introduction to Literary Studies. - SPb., 2004. S. 279-300.
The writer "reflects real space-time connections in the work he creates, building his own, perceptual, parallel to the real series, and creates a new - conceptual - space, which becomes a form of realization of the author's idea" .
art space- one of the forms of aesthetic reality created by the author. This is the dialectical unity of contradictions: based on the objective connection of spatial characteristics (real or possible), it is subjective, it is infinite and at the same time finite.
In the text, displayed, transformed and have a special character, general properties real space: extension, continuity-discontinuity, three-dimensionality - and its particular properties: shape, location, distance, boundaries between different systems. In a particular work, one of the properties of space can come to the fore and be specially played up, see, for example, the geometrization of urban space in A. Bely's novel "Petersburg" and the use in it of images associated with the designation of discrete geometric objects (cube, square, parallelepiped , line, etc.): There, the houses merged into cubes into a systematic, multi-storey row ...
Inspiration took possession of the soul of the senator when the Nevsky line was cut by a lacquered cube: house numbering was visible there ...
The spatial characteristics of the events recreated in the text are refracted through the prism of the perception of the author (narrator, character).
In a literary text, the space of the narrator (narrator) and the space of characters are distinguished accordingly. Their interaction makes the artistic space of the entire work multidimensional, voluminous and devoid of homogeneity, while at the same time, the space of the narrator remains dominant in terms of creating the integrity of the text and its internal unity, the mobility of the point of view of which allows uniting different angles descriptions and images.
The image of the artistic space can be different character depending on what model of the world (time and space) the writer or poet has.
Artistic space is inextricably linked with artistic time.
The relationship of time and space in a literary text is expressed in the following main aspects:
two simultaneous situations are depicted in the work as spaced apart, juxtaposed (see, for example, Hadji Murad by L.N. Tolstoy, The White Guard by M. Bulgakov);
the spatial point of view of the observer (character or narrator) is at the same time his temporal point of view, while the optical point of view can be both static and mobile (dynamic): ... So they completely got out, crossed the bridge, climbed to the barrier-and looked into the eyes of a stone, deserted road, vaguely whitening and running away and endless distance ...(I.A. Bunin. Sukhodol);
temporal displacement usually corresponds to a spatial displacement (for example, the transition to the present narrator in "The Life of Arseniev" by I.A. Bunin is accompanied by a sharp displacement of the spatial position: Whole life passed since then. Russia, Eagle, spring... And now, France, the South, Mediterranean winter days. We… have been in a foreign country for a long time)",
the acceleration of time is accompanied by the compression of space (see, for example, the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky);
on the contrary, time dilation can be accompanied by the expansion of space, hence, for example, detailed descriptions of spatial coordinates, scenes, interiors, etc.; the passage of time is transmitted through a change in spatial characteristics: “The signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. So, in the story A.M. Gorky's "Childhood", in the text of which there are almost no specific temporal indicators (dates, an accurate count of time, signs of historical time), the movement of time is reflected in the spatial movement of the hero, his milestones are moving from Astrakhan to Nizhny, and then moving from one house to another , compare: By spring, the uncles were separated ... and the grandfather bought himself a large, interesting house on Polevaya; Grandfather unexpectedly sold the house to the tavern keeper, buying another, along Kanatnaya Street;
7) the same speech means can express both temporary and spatial characteristics see for example:… they promised to write, they never wrote, everything was cut off forever, Russia began, exiles, water froze in the morning in a bucket, the children grew up healthy, the steamer ran along the Yenisei on a bright June day, and then there was St. Petersburg, an apartment on Ligovka, crowds of people in the Tauride yard, then the front was three years old, wagons, rallies, bread rations, Moscow, Alpine Goat, then Gnezdnikovsky, famine, theaters, work on a book expedition ...(Yu. Trifonov. It was a summer afternoon).
To embody the motif of the movement of time, metaphors and comparisons containing spatial images are regularly used, see, for example: A long staircase descending grew out of days about which it is impossible to say: “Lived”. They passed close, slightly touching the shoulders, and at night ... it was clearly visible: all the same, flat steps zigzag(S.N. Sergeev-Tsensky. Babaev)
Awareness of the relationship of space-time made it possible to single out the category of the chronotope, reflecting their unity. “The essential interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature,” wrote M.M. Bakhtin, - we will call the chronotope (which means in literal translation "time - space")" . From the point of view of M.M. Bakhtin, the chronotope is a formal-content category that has "an essential genre significance ... The chronotope as a formal-content category determines (to a large extent) the image of a person in literature" . The chronotope has a certain structure: plot-forming motifs are singled out on its basis - meeting, separation, etc. Appeal to the category of chronotope allows us to build a certain typology of spatio-temporal characteristics inherent in thematic genres: they differ, for example, in the idyllic chronotope, which is characterized by the unity of the place, the rhythmic cyclicity of time, the attachment of life to the place - home etc., and an adventurous chronotope, which is characterized by a wide spatial background and the time of the "case". Artistic space, like artistic time, is historically changeable, which is reflected in the change of chronotopes and is associated with a change in the concept of space-time.
For example, in the XX century. a relatively stable object-spatial concept is replaced by an unstable one (see, for example, the impressionistic fluidity of space in time). Bold experimentation with time is complemented by equally bold experimentation with space. Thus, "one day" novels often correspond to "enclosed space" novels. The text can simultaneously combine a spatial point of view "from a bird's eye view" and an image of a locus from a specific position. The interaction of time plans is combined with deliberate spatial uncertainty. Writers often turn to the deformation of space, which is reflected in the special nature of speech means. So, for example, in the novel by K. Simon "Roads of Flanders" the elimination of precise temporal and spatial characteristics is associated with the rejection of personal forms of the verb and replacing them with forms of present participles. The complication of the narrative structure causes a plurality of spatial points of view in one work and their interaction (see, for example, the works of M. Bulgakov, Yu. Dombrovsky, and others).
At the same time in the literature of the XX century. interest in mythopoetic images and the mythopoetic model of space-time is growing (see, for example, the poetry of A. Blok, the poetry and prose of A. Bely, the works of V. Khlebnikov). Thus, "changes in the concept of time-space in science and in the worldview of a person are inextricably linked with the nature of the space-time continuum in works of literature and the types of images that embody time and space" .
The reproduction of space in the text is also determined by the literary direction to which the author belongs: naturalism, for example, seeking to create the impression of genuine activity, is characterized by detailed descriptions of various localities: streets, squares, houses, etc.
Let us now dwell on the method of describing spatial relations in a literary text.
A.F. Tapina suggests taking into account that the analysis of spatial relationships in a work of art implies:
revealing the nature of these positions (dynamic - static; top-bottom, bird's eye view, etc.) in their connection with a temporal point of view;
determination of the main spatial characteristics of the work (the scene and its change, the movement of the character, the type of space, etc.);
consideration of the main spatial images of the work;
characteristics of speech means expressing spatial relationships. The latter, of course, corresponds to all the possible stages of analysis noted above, and forms their basis.
The concept of space-time continuum is essential for the philological analysis of a literary text, since both time and space serve as constructive principles for organizing a literary work. Artistic time is a form of being of aesthetic reality, special way knowledge of the world.
Features of modeling time in literature are determined by the specifics of this type of art: literature is traditionally regarded as an art temporary; unlike painting, it recreates the concreteness of the passage of time. This feature of a literary work is determined by the properties language tools, forming its figurative structure: “grammar determines for each language the order that distributes ... space in time”, transforms spatial characteristics into temporal ones.
The problem of artistic time has long occupied literary theorists, art critics, and linguists. So, A.A. Potebnya, emphasizing that the art of the word is dynamic, showed the limitless possibilities of organizing artistic time in the text. The text was considered by him as a dialectical unity of two compositional speech forms: descriptions (“image of features, simultaneously existing in space”) and narrative (“Narrative turns a series of simultaneous signs into a series of successive perceptions, into an image of the movement of the gaze and thought from object to object”). A.A. Potebnya distinguished between real time and artistic time; having considered the correlation of these categories in the works of folklore, he noted the historical variability of artistic time. Ideas A.A. Potebni received further development in the works of philologists of the late XIX - early - la XX century. However, interest in the problems of artistic time was especially revived in the last decades of the 20th century, which was associated with the rapid development of science, the evolution of views on space and time, with the acceleration of the pace of social life, with the aggravated attention to the problems of memory, origins, traditions. , one side; and the future, on the other hand; finally, with the emergence of new forms in art.
“The work,” P.A. Florensky - aesthetically forcibly develops ... in a certain sequence. Time in a work of art is the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their causal, linear or associative relationship.
Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries (events, for example, can cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may or, on the contrary, not be indicated in the work in relation to the historical time or time set conditionally by the author (see, for example, E. Zamyatin's novel "We").
Artistic time wears systemic character. This is a way of organizing the aesthetic reality of a work, its inner world, and at the same time an image associated with the embodiment of the author's concept, with a reflection of precisely his picture of the world (recall, for example, M. Bulgakov's novel “ white guard"). From time as an immanent property of a work, it is advisable to distinguish the time of the flow of the text, which can be considered as the time of the reader; Thus, considering a literary text, we are dealing with the antinomy "the time of the work - the time of the reader." This antinomy in the process of perception of the work can be resolved different ways. At the same time, the time of the work is not uniform: for example, as a result of temporary, displacements, “omissions”, selection close-up In the case of central events, the depicted time is compressed and shortened, but when juxtaposing and describing simultaneous events, it, on the contrary, is stretched.
A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macrocosm are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. This is due to the very nature of a literary work, which has, firstly, an author and presupposes the presence of a reader, and secondly, boundaries: a beginning and an end. Two temporal axes appear in the text - "the axis of narration" and "the axis of the events described": "the axis of narration is one-dimensional, while the axis of the events described is multidimensional." Their correlation creates the multidimensionality of artistic time, makes temporal shifts possible, and determines the multiplicity of temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Yes, in prose work usually the conditional present tense of the narrator is set, which correlates with the narrative about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The action of the work can unfold in different time planes (“Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Russian Nights” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, etc.).
Irreversibility (unidirectionality) is not characteristic of artistic time either: the real sequence of events is often violated in the text. According to the law of irreversibility, only folklore time moves. In the literature of modern times big role temporal shifts, violation of the temporal sequence, switching of temporal registers play. Retrospection as a manifestation of the reversibility of artistic time is the principle of organizing a number of thematic genres (memoirs and autobiographical works, a detective novel). A retrospective in a literary text can also act as a means of revealing its implicit content - subtext.
The multidirectionality, reversibility of artistic time is especially clearly manifested in the literature of the 20th century. If Stern, according to E.M. Forster, “turned the clock upside down”, then “Marcel Proust, even more inventive, reversed the hands ... Gertrude Stein, who tried to banish time from the novel, smashed her watch to smithereens and scattered their fragments around the world..." It was in the 20th century. there is a “stream of consciousness” novel, a “one day” novel, a sequential time series in which time is destroyed, and time acts only as a component of a person’s psychological existence.
Artistic time is characterized as continuity, so discreteness."Remaining essentially continuous in the successive change of temporal and spatial facts, the continuum in text reproduction is simultaneously broken up into separate episodes." The selection of these episodes is determined by the aesthetic intentions of the author, hence the possibility of temporary gaps, "compression" or, on the contrary, expansion of plot time. - nor, see, for example, T. Mann's remark: "In the beautiful celebration of storytelling and reproduction, omissions play an important and indispensable role."
The ability to expand or compress time is widely used by writers. So, for example, in the story of I.S. Turgenev's "Spring Waters" close-up highlights the story of Sanin's love for Gemma - the most striking event in the life of the hero, her emotional peak; At the same time, artistic time slows down, “stretches out”, while the course of the subsequent life of the hero is transmitted in a generalized, total way: And there - living in Paris and all the humiliations, all the vile torments of a slave ... Then- homecoming, a poisoned, devastated life, petty fuss, petty chores...
Artistic time in the text acts as a dialectical unity final and endless. In an endless stream of time, one event or their chain is singled out, their beginning and end are usually fixed. The finale of the work is a signal that the time period presented to the reader has ended, but time continues beyond it. Transformed in a literary text is such a property of works of real time as orderliness. This may be due to the subjective definition of a reference point or a measure of time: for example, in S. Bobrov’s autobiographical story “The Boy”, a holiday serves as a measure of time for the hero:
For a long time I tried to imagine what a year is ... and suddenly I saw in front of me a rather long ribbon of a grayish-pearl fog, lying horizontally in front of me, like a towel thrown on the floor.<...>Was this towel divided into months? .. No, it was imperceptible. For seasons?.. Also somehow not very clear... It was clearer otherwise. These were patterns of holidays that colored the year.
Artistic time represents unity private and general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; time stream." As a unity of the discrete and the continuous, the finite and the infinite, and can act. a separate temporal situation of a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence eternal harmony, completely achieved ... As if you suddenly feel the whole of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true. The plan of the timeless in a literary text is created through the use of - the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, all sorts of reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. Artistic time in this respect can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr's principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be synchronously combined, two “experiences” separated in time are needed to obtain a holistic view). The antinomy "finite - infinite" is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugated, but separated in time and therefore multi-valued means, such as symbols.
Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity depicted event, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its fullness / emptyness,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain temporary blocks, can be contrasted.
Artistic time is based on a certain language system. First of all, this is a system of aspectual tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a specific time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent the plan of the present in the text), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations historical events.
Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms, the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or deceleration of time depends on their correlation, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin's story "Mamai": Mamai wandered lost in the unfamiliar Zagorodny. Penguin wings got in the way; his head hung like a crane by a broken samovar...
And suddenly the head tossed up, the legs began to dance like a twenty-five-year-old...
The forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:
Gleb lay on the sand, with his head in his hands, it was quiet, sunny morning. Today he did not work in his mezzanine. Everything is over. Tomorrow are leaving Ellie fit, everything has been overdone. Helsingfors again...
(B. Zaitsev. Gleb's Journey )
The functions of the types of temporal forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative ("event") time is determined primarily by the ratio of the dynamic forms of the past tense perfect look and forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are accordingly assigned to descriptions.
The time of the text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal "axes":
1) calendar time, displayed mainly by lexical units with the seme "time" and dates;
2) event-driven time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verb forms);
3) perceptual time expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).
Artistic and grammatical time are closely related, but they should not be equated. "Grammatical tense and tense verbal work may differ significantly. The time of action and the time of the author and the reader are created by a combination of many factors: among them, grammatical time is only partly...”.
Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. We confine ourselves to one example: for example, the change of constructions C; movement predicates (left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in the Lower Settlement, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) "On the cart", on the one hand, determines the temporal sequence of situations and forms story time text, on the other hand, reflects the movement of the character in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time in literary texts, spatial metaphors are regularly used.
The oldest works are characterized mythological time, a sign of which is the idea of cyclic reincarnations, "world periods". Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of its characteristics such as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronism. The present and the future in mythological time act only as various temporal incarnations of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclic structure of mythological time turned out to be essential for the development of art in different eras. "The exceptionally powerful focus of mythological thinking on the establishment of homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other hand, caused its periodic revival in various historical epochs." The idea of time as a change of cycles, "eternal repetition", is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, who "deeply felt the ways of science of his time."
In medieval culture, time was seen primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the concept of it was predominantly eschatological in nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming”. The main direction of time is the orientation towards the future - the coming exodus from time to eternity, while the very metrization of time changes and the role of the present increases significantly, the measurement of which is associated with the spiritual life of a person: “... for the present of past objects, we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a glance, an outlook, a contemplation; for the present, future objects, we have aspiration, hope, hope, ”wrote Augustine. So, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. Likhachev, is not as egocentric as in the literature of the New Age. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict observance of the real sequence of events, constant appeal to the eternal: "Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in depicting the highest manifestations of being - the divine establishment of the universe." Achievements ancient Russian literature in the reconstruction of events "from the point of view of eternity" in a transformed form were used by writers of subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom "the temporal was ... a form of the realization of the eternal." We confine ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel "Demons":
There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.
Do you hope to reach such a moment?
This is hardly possible in our time, - Nikolai Vsevolodovich also responded without any irony, slowly and, as it were, thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, an angel swears that there will be no more time.
I know. This is very true there; clearly and precisely. When the whole person reaches happiness, then there will be no more time, because there is no need.
Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been established in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, therefore, is already understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every momentary situation. This is reflected in the literature of the New Age, which boldly violates the principle of the irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. Sartre: "... most of the largest contemporary writers- Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wulff - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce the moment from pure intuition ... Proust and Faulkner simply "decapitated" him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.
Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility → irreversibility → reversibility) is a progressive movement in which each higher level denies, removes its lower (previous!), contains its wealth and again removes itself in the next , third, steps.
The features of the modeling of artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive features of the genus, genre, and direction in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics – praesens,"epos - perfectum"; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a real constant; reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs, autobiographical works. The literary direction is also associated with a definite "concept of mastering time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of the adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the realization of the idea of eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the" triad with the Soul of the world - the rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - the defeat of Chaos).
At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, it is a feature of the artist's idiostyle (for example, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).
Accounting for the features of the embodiment of time in a literary text, consideration of the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the work of the writer is a necessary component analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of a literary text, make the analysis incomplete, schematic.
The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:
1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:
One-dimensionality or multidimensionality;
Reversibility or irreversibility;
Linearity or violation of the time sequence;
2) selection in the temporal structure of the text of temporary plans (planes) presented in the work, and consideration of their interaction;
4) identification of signals that highlight these forms of time;
5) consideration of the entire system of temporal indicators in the text, identification of not only their direct, but also figurative values;
6) determination of the ratio of time historical and everyday, biographical and historical;
7) establishing the connection between artistic time and space.
Let us turn to the consideration of certain aspects of the artistic time of the text on the material specific works(“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story by I. A. Bunin “Cold Autumn”).
"The Past and Thoughts" by A. I. Herzen: features of the temporary organization
In a literary text, a mobile, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises, the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, then expands, then “condenses” time, then slows it down; it speeds up.
In a work of art, different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the time span of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author's time and subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (household historical time, personal time and social time). The focus of the writer or poet may be himself time image, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transient and the eternal.
Special interest presents an analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are sequentially correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and you embody a certain philosophy of history. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic "The Past and Thoughts" (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I. Herzen, but also a work of a “new form” (as defined by L.N. Tolstoy) It combines elements of different genres (autobiographies, confessions, notes, historical chronicle), combines different forms of presentation and compositional-semantic types of speech, “a tombstone and confession, past and thoughts, biography, speculation, events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and ... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). "The best... of the review books own life"(Yu.K. Olesha), "The Past and Thoughts" - the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought in the 30-60s of the XIX century. "There is hardly any other memoir so imbued with conscious historicism."
This is a work that is characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “a story about which, about which captured memories from the past gathered here and there, thoughts stopped here and there and m "(highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N. N.). In this author's description, opening the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an installation on the subjective segmentation of one's past, the free comparison of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; "thoughts" of the author are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of a strict chronological sequence - - The features of the story about the events of the past include the characteristics of persons, events and facts of different historical eras. The narrative of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the "past" is interrupted by text fragments that reflect the narrator's immediate position at the moment of speech or a recreated period of time.
In this construction of the work, "the methodological principle of "The Past and Thoughts" clearly affected: the incessant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from direct author's reflections to their subject illustration and vice versa."
Artistic time in the "Past..." reversible(the author resurrects the events of the past), multidimensionally(the action unfolds in different time planes) and non-linear(the story about the events of the past is violated by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point, which determines the change of temporary plans in the text, is mobile and constantly moving.
The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical,"the past", recreated inconsistently, reflects the main stages of the formation of the author's personality.
At the heart of biographical time lies a through image of the path (road), symbolically embodying life path a narrator seeking true knowledge and undergoing a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of detailed metaphors and comparisons that are regularly repeated in the text and form a through motive of movement, overcoming oneself, passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I have reached ... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...June coming of age, with his painful work, with his rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise .; Like lost heroes in fairy tales, we were waiting at the crossroads. You will go to the right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be whole; if you go to the left, the horse will be safe, but you will die yourself; go ahead - everyone will leave you; if you go back - this is no longer possible, the road there for us is overgrown with grass.
These tropeic series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.
Reproducing the events of the past, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet ... Not everything can be corrected. It remainsas cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand. and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes the most of the expressive possibilities of aspect tense forms of the verb.
The situations and facts depicted in the past are evaluated by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in emotionally aesthetic or ideologically), on the contrary, stand out in a “close-up”, while time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, the forms of the past tense of the imperfective form or the present tense form are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form do not convey the dynamics of the event, the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “pictorially painting”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “The Past and Thoughts”, they are used as a means of highlighting “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Sparrow Hill, the death of his father, a date with Natalie, departure from Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a definite copyright to the depicted performs in this case an emotionally expressive function. Wed, for example: Nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, this funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- around the endless steppe snow.
This function of the past imperfective forms is typical of artistic speech; she is associated with special significance imperfect form, suggesting the obligatory presence of an observation moment, a retrospective reference point. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of a repeated or habitually repetitive action: they serve to typify, generalize empirical details and situations. So, to characterize life in his father's house, Herzen uses the method of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of forms of an imperfect form. Thus, “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of lengthy processes, periodically repeating phenomena. In this regard, the portrait of Chaadaev is interesting, built on the transition from specific personal observations of the author to a typical description:
I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, windy senators, gray-haired rake and honorable nonentity. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a brow like a naked skull” ... For ten years he stood with folded hands , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club, and - embodied by veto, looked at the whirlwind of faces senselessly circling around him in protest ...
The forms of the present against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, however, they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the "pictorial" function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author's experience associated with the moment of the lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:
Oaky peace and oaky noise, the incessant buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... that herbal-forest smell... never found. Sometimes it seems to smell like it, after mowed hay, at wide open, before a thunderstorm ... and I remember a small place in front of the house ... on the grass a three-year-old boy, wallowing in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all kinds of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, and youth, and friends! The sun has set, it is still very warm, I don’t feel like going home, we are sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is it like a bell? to us, right? Today is Saturday - maybe ... The troika is rolling through the village, knocking on the bridge.
The forms of the present tense in "The Past..." are associated primarily with the subjective psychological time the author, his emotional sphere, their use complicates the image of time. Recreation of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of past perfect forms in the perfect sense. The chain of forms of the present historical and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time, recreates its rhythm:
My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, native streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years ... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard ... here is Ogarev's house, some huge coat of arms was slapped on him, he is a stranger really ... here is Povarskaya - the spirit is busy: in the meso- - Nina, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she thinks of me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me lit.
Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep, but mobile perspective; the recreation of real biographical facts is combined with the transfer of various aspects of subjective awareness and measurement of time by the author.
Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, "grammar appears - like a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a literary work." Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.
Lyrical expression, attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a socio-analytical approach to the depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary for us than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly disintegrating with what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “universal without personality is an empty distraction; but the individual only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.
Portraits of contemporaries in "The Past and Thoughts" are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. So, in chapter III of the first volume, a portrait of Nicholas I is presented, it is static and emphatically evaluated, the speech means involved in its creation contain a common semantic feature "cold": shorn and vlyzistaya jellyfish with a mustache; his beauty was cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.
Otherwise built portrait characteristic Ogarev in chapter IV of the same volume. The description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; prospective elements related to the future of the hero. “If a pictorial portrait is always, as it were, a moment stopped in time, then verbal portrait characterizes a person in "actions and deeds" related to different "moments" of his biography. Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the features of the hero in maturity: Early on he saw in him that anointing that few get,- whether for misfortune or for good fortune ... but probably for not being in the crowd ... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through from the gray big eyes, alluding to the future growth of the great spirit; that's how he grew up.
The combination of different temporal points of view in the portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving temporal perspective of the work.
The multiplicity of temporal points of view presented in the structure of the text increases due to the inclusion of diary fragments, letters from other heroes, excerpts from literary works, in particular from N. Ogarev's poems. These elements of the text correlate with the author's narrative or author's descriptions and are often opposed to them as authentic, objective versus subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective given by the distance, without being cooled by time, without corrected illumination by rays passing through the series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.
The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad went by magnificently and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower ... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare boughs shivered bonyly, but the majestic growth, bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a watch, which embodies the inexorable power of time, is repeatedly used in the "Past...": The big English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the sponday of the English clock continued to measure days, hours, minutes... and finally measured it to the fateful second.
The image of fleeting time in "The Past and Thoughts", as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often common language type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeating in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context, as a result, the stability of tropeic characteristics is combined with their constant update.
Thus, the biographical time in "The Past and Thoughts" is made up of plot time based on the sequence of events of the author's past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the recreated facts is constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.
Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, suggesting the subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles ... Let the Past and Thoughts “make an account with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in a wide stream of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. In this way, closed biographical time opposed open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the peculiarities of the composition of "The Past and the Thoughts": "in the sixth-seventh parts there is no lyrical hero; in general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the limits of what is depicted”, “thoughts” appearing in a monologue or dialogic form become the dominant element of the author’s speech. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of "Past and Thoughts" is characterized by the use of the present actual ("actual author's ... the result of moving the "observation point" to one of the moments of the past, the plot action") or the present historical, then for "thoughts" and author's digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, the present is characteristic in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of the author's direct speech: Nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary halo when the people are fighting for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...
“The Past and Thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, by chance got in her way."
The life of a person in "Bydrm and Dumy" is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, gaining perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of peculiar figures, sharp portraits taken from nature ... There is nothing herd-like in them ... one common connection connects- em them or, better, one general misfortune; peering into the dark gray background, one can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods ... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudging there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans ... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia .. They want to run off the canvas and they can't.
If the biographical time of the work is characterized by a spatial image of the road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean), elements are regularly used:
Conveniently impressionable, sincerely young, we were easily picked up by a powerful wave ... and early crossed that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their hands, go back or look around for a ford - across the sea!
In history, it is easier for him [man] to be carried away by the flow of events ... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man ... grows by understanding his position, into a helmsman who proudly cuts the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve as a way of communication.
Describing the role of personality in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman”, while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions”. The aspirations of a person “are clothed in a word, embodied in an image, remain in tradition and are transmitted from century to century.” Such an understanding of the place of man in the historical process led the author to turn to the universal language of culture, the search for certain "formulas" to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, being, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “The Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, paraphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These "point quotes" appear in the text as metonymic substitutions for integral situations and plots. The paths they are a part of serve to characterize the figurative phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical epochs. See for example: young students- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, clean, merciless ...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt received within its walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without remorse, this Lucrezia Borgia without Italian blood...
The phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths are compared, real faces and literary images, as a result, the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular, the general appears, through the individual - the recurring, through the transient - the eternal.
The correlation in the structure of the work of two temporal layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to the complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates with we, which in different contexts takes on a different meaning: it either points to the author, then to persons close to him, then, with the strengthening of the role of historical time, it serves as a means of indicating the entire generation, the national collective, or even, more broadly, the human race as a whole:
Our historical vocation, our deed lies in the fact that by our disappointment, by our suffering we reach humility and humility before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...
In the connection of generations, the unity of the human race is affirmed, the history of which appears to the author as a relentless striving forward, a path that has no end, but which, however, involves the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:
Yes, in life there is a predilection for a returning rhythm, for the repetition of a motive; who does not know how close elderhood is to childhood? Look closely, and you will see that on both sides of the full swing of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, epochs are often repeated, similar in main features.
It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the era is reflected in the formation of the hero of "The Past and Thoughts", biographical time is not only opposed to historical, but also acts as one of its manifestations.
Dominant images that characterize in the text both biographical time (image of the path) and historical time (image of the sea, elements) interact, their connection generates the movement of private through images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I am not coming from London. There is nowhere and there is no need ... It was washed up and thrown here by the waves, so ruthlessly breaking, twisting me and everything close to me.
Interaction in the text of different time plans, correlation in the product of biographical time and historical time, "reflection of history in a person" - distinctive features memoir-autobiographical epic by A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporary organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.
